克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版_课后习题答案
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domesticand international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presentedthroughout the text.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点】lass=txt>第12章国民收入核算和国际收支1、如问题所述，gnp仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从gnp中减去，出口的中间品价值加到gnp中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的gnp中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的gnp，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的gnp中减去，并加入美国的gnp。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成ca?(sp?i)?(t?g)。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题标准答案要点
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：23 《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案
C h a p t e r3 1． Homehas 1200 units of labor available.It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, whilein banana production it is 2.a ．Graph out the production possibilities frontier:b．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas?c．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms ofbananas be?In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of productionand supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals tomaximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only whenP a /P b a La /a Lb will both goods be produced. So P a /P b2． Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreign’ s unit labor requirementin apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1.a ．Graph Foreign’ s production possibilities frontier:Foreign's PPFQ* bananab． Construct the world relative supply curve.10008003． Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for600400apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples.200a ．Graph the relative80demand160240320curve400 along with the relative Q*applesupply curve:∵When the market achieves its equilibrium,we haveD a Q a Q D b Q b Q a(Pa ) 1b P b∴ RD is a hyperbola1 yxb．What is the equilibrium relative price of apples?The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by theintersection of the RD and RS curves.RD:x1yx[0,0.5)yRS:x y[1.5,5]x(0.5,]y5∴ x y2∴ P e a / P e b2c． Describe the pattern of trade.∵ P a / P b P e a / P e b P a / P b∴In this two-country world, Home will specialize in the appleproduction, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples.d． Show that both Home and Foreign gain from trade.International trade allows Homeand Foreign to consume anywhere within the colored lines, which lie outside the countries’ productionpossibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing inproducing only one production then trade with other country, is a moreefficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade,Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign couldgain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to tradetwo bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas byforegoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoingonly two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade.4． Suppose that instead of1200 workers, Homehad 2400.Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of world productionand the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in thiscase?RD: x1yx[0,1)yRS:x1y [1.5,5]x(1,]y5∴ x2y3∴ P e a / P e bIn this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, exportbananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples atthe same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of applesfor Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreigngains from trade.5． Suppose that Homehas 2400 workers, but they are only half as productionin both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relativesupply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price.How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4?In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor ishalved, so the＂effective labor＂remains the same. So the answer issimilar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. ButForeign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4.6．〞 Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to exportas much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced downto the same level.You can’ t import a $5 shirt without importingwage that goes with it.〞Discuss.In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivityand the relative demand for goods. Korea’s low wage reflects the factthat Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries.Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise thewelfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity,such as United States. So this pauper labor argument is wrong.7． Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the UnitedStates in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower inothers), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts haveargued that this poses a problem for the United States, because ourcomparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets.What is wrong with this argument?The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relativeproductivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reachconclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S.,not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on thereasonable logic.8． Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts,the purchasing power of their incomes is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation.(Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.)The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lowerservice costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international priceof services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.9． How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade?Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-tradedgoods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goodsdecrease.10． We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries.Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods,and that each country has only one factor of production, labor.What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Tryconstructing the world relative supply curve.)Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demandand relative supply curves export the good in which they have acomparative advantage relative to any country to the right of theintersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion thenthe country with that price ratio produces both goods.Chapter 41． In the United States where land is cheap, the ratio of land to in cattle rising is higher than that of land used in wheat growing. Butin more crowded countries, where land is expensive and labor is cheap, it is commonto raise cows by using less land and more labor thanlaborused Americansuse to grow wheat. Can we still say that raising cattle is land intensive compared with farming wheat? Why or why not?The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratioof land to labor used in production, not on the ratio of land or laborto output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the UnitedStates. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio ofland to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. The comparison between another country and the UnitedStates is less relevant for answering the question.2． Suppose that at current factor prices cloth is produced using 20 hours of labor for each acre of land, and food is produced using only 5 hoursof labor per acre of land.a.Suppose that the economy ’ s total resources are 600 hours of laborand 60 acres of land. Using a diagram determine the allocation ofresources.We can solve this algebraically since L=LC+LF=600 and T=TC+TF=60.The solution is LC=400, TC=20, LF=200 and TF=40.LF FoodLandTC TFCloth Labor LCb.Now suppose that the labor supply increase first to 800, then 1000,then 1200 hours. Using a diagram like Figure4-6, trace out thechanging allocation of resources.FoodLandCloth01200010000800ll lLaborc. What would happen if the labor supply were to increase even further?At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factorprices would have to change, or there would be unemployment.3.“The world’ s poorest countries cannot find anything to export. Thereis no resource that is abundant—certainly not capital or land, andin small poor nations not even labor is abundant.〞Discuss.The gains from trade depend on comparative rather than absolute advantage.As to poor countries, what matters is not the absolute abundance offactors,but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. The U.S. labor movement—which mostly represents blue-collar workersrather than professionals and highly educated workers—hastraditionally favored limits on imports form less-affluent countries.Is this a shortsighted policy of a rational one in view of the interests of union members? How does the answer depend on the model of trade?In the Ricardo’ s model, labor gains from trade through an increase inits purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demandsfor limits on imports from less affluent countries.In the Immobile Factors model labor may gain or lose from trade.Purchasing power in terms of one good will rise, but in terms of theother good it will decline.The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly discusses distribution byconsidering the effects of trade on the owners of factors In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor losesof production. from trade sincethis group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country.The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demandsfor import limits.5.There is substantial inequality of wage levels between regions withinthe United States. For example, wages of manufacturing workers inequivalent jobs are about 20 percent lower in the Southeast than theyare in the Far West. Which of the explanations of failure of factor price equalization might account for this? How is this case different from the divergence of wages between the United States and Mexico (which isgeographically closer to both the U.S. Southeast and the Far West thanthe Southeast and Far West are to each other)?When we employ factor price equalization, we should pay attention toits conditions: both countries/regions produce both goods; bothcountries have the same technology of production, and the absence ofbarriers to trade. Inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States may caused by some or all of these reasons.Actually, the barriers to trade always exist in the real world due totransportation costs. And the trade between U.S. and Mexico, by contrast, is subject to legal limits; together with cultural differences thatinhibit the flow of technology, this may explain why the difference inwage rates is so much larger.6.Explain why the Leontief paradox and the more recent Bowen, Leamer, andSveikauskas results reported in the text contradict thefactor-proportions theory.The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goodswhose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which has a highcapital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to exportcapital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontieffound that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. Bowen,Leamer and Sveikauskas found that the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns is weak for the world as a whole. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries' exportsand imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7.In the discussion of empirical results on the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we noted thatrecent work suggests that the efficiency of factors ofproduction seems to differ internationally. Explain how this wouldaffect the concept of factor price equalization.If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally,the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to“effective factors〞which adjust for the differences in technology orworker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model hasbeen found to be more successful than the unadjusted model at explainingthe pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalizationconcepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equalto two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled worker could earntwice what lower skilled workers do and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.chapter 81.The import demand equation,MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD= 80 - 40x P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is2.2. a. Foreign's export supply curve,XS, is XS= -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b.When trade occurs export supply is equalusing the equations from problems 1 and 2a, of trade is 20.to import demand, XS= MD. Thus, P = 1.50, and the volume3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful aboutwhether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff,the MD equation would be expressed as MD=80-40 x(1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving,we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at homeis $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). Thetotal demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using thecombined numerical and graphical solutions presented below in Figure8-1.where the areas in the figure are:a:b:c:d:e:Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change:a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d areexceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a,b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuringthe area of a triangle,which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]ing the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when thehome country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on theterms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much morelikely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition isshown in this problem.The free trade equilibrium is now at theand the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of0.5 by Home, the new world price is$1.045, the internal home price is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supplyis 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small,the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Homeis relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by homelowered world price by 25 percent,whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer tothe free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In thiscase, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumersurplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. Thedistortionary losses associated with the tariff(areas b+d)sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain(e) is 0.819.Clearly,in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains.The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses froma tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5.The effective rate of protection takes into consideration thecosts of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost ofan aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Withoutthe subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value addedto the aircraft is $30 million.The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate ofprotection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6.Wefirst use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price.The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS = -40 + 40(1+0.5)x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves areused to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide- 1.2) x units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by theamount of units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by 7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign dueto the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumersand producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70x .3 + .5 (6x .3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44x .3 + .5(6x.3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 unitsof output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts,Acirema imports200 bags of peanuts.A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b.The quota rents are ($20 - $10)x 50 = $500.c.The consumption distortion loss is.5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d.The production distortion loss is.5 x 50 bags x $10 per bag = $250.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收入核算与国际收支平衡）【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。
GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。
为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。
⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。
单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。
③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。
(完整word版)《国际经济学》课后思考题(纯文字答案题目)
《国际经济学》课后思考题(纯文字答案题目)第二章一：名词解释1、机会成本：机会成本是指当把一定的经济资源用于生产某种产品时放弃的另一些产品生产上最大的收益。
2、比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本低于在其他国家生产该产品的机会成本的话，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就拥有比较优势。
3、提供曲线：提供曲线反映的是一国为了进口其某一数量的商品而愿意出口的商品数量。
二：简答简述对绝对优势理论的评价。
答：（1）意义：①主张自由经济，为自由贸易奠定了基础；②解释了贸易产生的部分原因；③首次论证了贸易双方都有益。
（2）缺陷：不具有普遍性。
（比如：一国在两种产品上都具有绝对优势或者劣势）4、对比较优势理论有哪些误解？答：①劳动生产率和竞争优势。
只有当一个国家的劳动生产率达到足以在国际竞争中立足的水平时，它才能从自由贸易中获利；②贫民劳动论。
如果来自外国的竞争是建立在低工资的基础上，那么这种竞争是不公平的，而且会损害其他参与竞争的国家；③剥削。
如果一个国家的工人比其他国家工人工资低，那么贸易就会使得这个国家受到剥削，使其福利恶化；6、专业化分工会进行的那么彻底吗？为什么？答：不会。
原因：①多种要素存在会减弱分工的趋势；②国家保护民族产业；③运输费用的存在（会导致非贸易品）。
7、试述李嘉图比较优势理论的局限性。
答：①预测了极端的专业化分工，而现实中不存在；②忽略了国际贸易对国内分工的影响，并据此认为一个国家始终能从国际贸易中获利；③忽略了各国资源不同也是产生国际贸易的重要原因；（仅认为技术不同导致劳动生产率不同，从而导致比较优势不同）④忽略了规模经济也可能是产生国际贸易的原因。
8、简述穆勒的相互需求原理。
答：商品的价格是由供求双方的力量共同决定的，市场行情也会自行调整，以使供求相等。
因此，商品的国际交换比率就是由两国相互的需求来决定的，并且将确定在双方各自对对方产品需求相等的水平上，这就是相互需求原理。
国际经济学课后答案
国际经济学课后答案这个概念。
第三世界包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家，占世界陆地面积和总人口的70%以上。
第三世界国家绝大多数过去都是帝国主义的殖民地或附属国，它们取得政治独立后，还面临这肃清殖民主义残余势力、发展民族经济、巩固民族独立的历史任务。
它们是维护世界和平的重要力量。
相对来说，第三世界国家都是不怎么发达且较贫困的国家。
5. 国内生产总值(gross domestic product)答:国内生产总值是指在一定时期内(通常为一年)，一个国家或地区的经济中所生产出的全部最终产品和服务的价值，常被公认为衡量国家经济状况的最佳指标。
它不但可反映一个国家的经济表现，更可以反映一国的国力与财富。
一般来说，国内生产总值共有四个不同的组成部分，即消费、私人投资、政府支出和净出口额。
6. 贸易协定(trade agreement)答:贸易协定是指两个或两个以上的国家之间调整它们相互贸易关系的一种书面协议。
其特点是对缔约国之间的贸易关系规定得比较具体，有效期一般较短，签订的程序也比较简单，一般只须经过签字国的行政首脑或其代表签署即可生效。
贸易协定的内容通常包括:贸易额、双方出口货单、作价办法、使用的货币、支付方式、关税优惠等。
二、习题1.GDP不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。
考虑到距离，澳大利亚的进出口运输成本相对更高，因此减少了贸易的吸引力。
因为加拿大与美国相邻，而澳大利亚不与任何一个大经济体相邻，这使得加拿大更加开放，而澳大利亚更加自给自足。
2.墨西哥与美国毗邻，但是距离欧盟很远，因此它与美国的贸易量很大。
巴西离美国和欧盟都很远，因此巴西与美国和欧盟的贸易量大致相当。
墨西哥贸易量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨西哥离大经济体(美国)近，另一方面由于它是北美贸易协定的成员国之一。
巴西远离任何一个大经济体，与它签订自由贸易协定的国家经济规模都比较小。
3.如果这每个国家的GDP都增加一倍，并不意味着贸易会增加四倍，可以用教材表2-2中的例子说明。
国际经济学第九版答案.doc
国际经济学第九版答案【篇一：国际经济学第九版英文课后答案第13 单元】> balance of paymentsoutline13.1 introduction13.2 balance of payments accounting principles 13.2a debitsand credits 13.2b double-entry bookkeeping13.3 the international transactions of the united states casestudy 13-1: the major goods exports and imports of the unitedstates13.4 accounting balances and disequilibrium in internationaltransactions13.5 the postwar balance of payments of the united statescase study 13-2: the major trade partners of the united statescase study 13-3: the u.s. trade deficit with japancase study 13-4:the exploding u.s. trade deficit with china13.6 the international investment position of the unitedstatescase study 13-5: the united states as a debtor nationappendix: a13.1 the imf method of reporting internationaltransactionsa13.2 the case of the missing surplusbalance of paymentscapital account credittransactionsautonomous transactions debit transactionsaccommodating transactions capitalinflow officialreserve account capital outflowofficial settlements balancedouble-entry bookkeeping deficit in the balance ofpaymentsunilateral transferssurplus in the balance ofpayments statistical discrepancy international investmentposition current account1. in the first lecture, i would cover sections 1 and 2a. theaverage student usually finds the meaning of capital inflowsand outflows particularly difficult to understand. therefore, iwould pay special care in presenting the material in section 2a.i would also assign problems 1 to 8. 2.in the second lecture, iwould cover section 2b and go over problems 1-8.i wouldpresent sections 3 and 4 in the third lecture, and stress themeaning and measurement of balance of payments deficitsand surpluses.sections 5 and 6 (which are mostly descriptiveand not difficult) could be left for studentsto do on their own so that the chapter could still be covered in three lectures. 1. a.the u.s. debits its current account by $500 (for the merchandise imports) and credits capital by the same amount (for the increase in foreign assets in the u.s.).the u.s. credits capital by $500 (the drawing down of its bank balances in london, a capital inflow) and debits capital by an equal amount (to balance the capital credit that the u.s. importer received when the u.k. exporter accepted to be paid in three months).the u.s. is left with a $500 debit in its current account and a net credit balance of $500 in its capital account.2. a).the u.s. debits unilateral transfers by $100 and credits capital by the same amount.b).the u.s. credits its current account by $100 and debits capital by the same amount.c).the debit of $100 in unilateral transfers and the credit of $100 in current account.3. a).the same as 2a.the net result is the same, but the transaction in part a of this problem refers to tied aid while transactions a and b in problem 2 do not.4. the u.s. debits capital account by $1,000 (for the purchase of the foreign stock by the u.s. resident) and also credits the capital account (for the drawing down of the u.s. resident bank balances abroad) by the same amount.5. the u.s. credits its current account by $100 and debits its capital account by the same amount.6. the u.s. credits its capital account by $400 (for the purchase of the u.s. treasury bills by the foreign resident) and debits its capital account (for the drawing down of the foreign residents bank balances in the united states) for the by the same amount.7. the u.s. debits its current account by $40 for the interest paid, debits its capital account by $400 (for the capital outflow for the repayment of the repayment of the principal to the foreign investors by the u.s. borrower), and then credits its capital account by $440 (the increase in foreign holdings of u.s. assets, a credit).8. a). the u.s. credits its capital account by $800 and debits its official reserves account by the same amount.b). the official settlements balance of the u.s. will improve (i.e., the u.s. deficit will fall or its surplus will rise) by $800.where values are in billions of dollars and a negative balance represents a deficit while apositive balance a surplus in the balance of payments. b. because until 1972, we had a fixed exchange rate system, but from 1973 we had a managed floating exchange rate system. under the latter, the balance of payments only measures the amount of official intervention in foreign exchange markets. 9.see the july issue of the survey of current business for the most recent year.10.see the july issue of the survey of current business for the most recent year.11.see the july issue of the survey of current business for the most recent year.12. see the july and november issues of the survey of current business for the most recent year.13.see the balance of payments statistics yearbook for the most recent year. app. 1. the major difference between the way the united states keeps its balance of payments and the international monetary fund method is in the way they deal with international capital movements. the united states records international capital movements as increases in u.s.-owned assets abroad and foreign-owned assets in the united states, subdivided into government and private. the international monetary fund includes international capital flows into a financial account, which is subdivided into direct investments, portfolio investments assets and liabilities, and other investment assets and liabilities.2. see the table in april and october issue of the imfs world economic outlook for the most recent year.1. which of the following is false?a. a credit transaction leads to a payment from foreignersb.a debit transaction leads to a payment to foreigners *c. a credit transaction is entered with a negative signd. double-entry bookkeeping refers to each transaction entered twice.2. which of the following is a debit?a. the export of goodsb. the export of services*c. unilateral transfers given to foreigners d. capital inflows 3. capital inflows:a. refer to an increase in foreign assets in the nationb. referto a reduction in the nations assets abroad c. lead to apayment from foreigners *d. all of the above4. when a u.s. firm imports goods to be paid in three monthsthe u.s. credits:a. the current accountb. unilateral transfers *c. capitald. official reserves5. the receipt of an interest payment on a loan made by a u.s.commercial bank to a foreign resident is entered in the u.s.balance of payments as a:a. credit in the capital account *b. credit in the currentaccount c. credit in official reserves d. debit in unilateraltransfers6. the payment of a dividend by an american company to aforeign stockholder represents:a. a debit in the u.s. capital accountb. a credit in the u.s.capital accountc. a credit in the u.s. official reserve account *d. a debit in theu.s. current account7. when a u.s. firm imports a good from england a pays for itby drawing on its pound sterling balances in a london bank,the u.s. debits its current account and credits its:a. official reserve accountb. unilateral transfers accountc.services in its current account *d. capital account8. when the u.s. ships food aid to a developing nation, the u.s.debits:*a. unilateral transfers b. services c. capitald. official reserves9. when the resident of a foreign nation (1) sells a u.s. stockand (2) deposits the proceeds in a u.s. bank, the u.s.:a. credits capital for (1) and debits capital for (2)b. creditsthe current account and debits capital c. debits capital andcredits official reserves*d. debits capital for (1) and credits capital for (2)10. when a u.s. resident (1) purchases foreign treasury billsand pays by (2) drawing down his bank balances abroad, theu.s.:【篇二：国际经济学第九版英文课后答案第9 单元】>(core chapter)nontariff trade barriers and the new protectionism outline9.1 introduction9.2 import quotas9.2a effects of an import quota9.2b comparison of an import quota to an import tariff9.3 other nontariff barriers and the new protectionism 9.3a voluntary export restraintsstates9.3b technical, administrative, and other regulations9.3c international cartels9.3d dumping9.3e export subsidies9.4 the political economy of protectionism9.4a fallacious and questionable arguments for protection 9.4b infant-industry and other qualified arguments for protection9.4c who gets protected?welfare effects on the u.s. economy of removing all import restraintsrestraints9.5 strategic trade and industrial policies9.5a strategic trade policy9.5b strategic trade and industrial policies with game theory 9.5c the u.s. response to foreign industrial targeting and strategic trade policy9.6 history of u.s. commercial policy9.6a the trade agreements act of 19349.6b the general agreements on tariffs and trade (gatt)9.6c the 1962 trade agreements act and the kennedy round 9.6d the trade reform act of 1974 and the tokyo round9.6e the 1984 and 1988 trade acts9.7 the uruguay round and outstanding trade problems 9.7a the uruguay round9.7b outstanding trade problemsbenefits from a “likely ”doha scenario appendix: a9.1 centralized cartels a9.2 international price discriminationa9.3 tariffs, subsidies and domestic goalsquota smoot-hawley tariff act of 1930 nontariff trade barrier (ntbs)trade agreements act of 1934new protectionism most-favored-nation principle voluntary export restraints (vers) bilateral trade technical, administrative, and general agreement on tariff and other regulations trade (gatt)international cartel multilateral trade negotiationsdumpinginternational trade organization (ito) persistent dumping peril-point provisionspredatory dumping escape clausesporadic dumping national security clausetrigger-price mechanismtrade expansion act of 1962export subsidies trade adjustment assistance (taa) export- import bank kennedy roundforeign sales corporationstrade reform act of 1974countervailing duties (cvds) tokyo roundscientific tariff trade and tariff act of 1984infant-industry argumentomnibus trade and competitiveness act of 1988strategic trade policy uruguay roundindustrial policy world trade organization (wto)game theoryglobalization anti-globalization movement1. this is an important core chapter examining some of the most recentdevelopments in international trade policy.2. i would cover sections 1 and 2 in lecture 1. i would pay particular attention tofigure 9-1, which examines the partial equilibrium effects of an import quota.3. i would cover section 3 in lecture 2. here i would clearly explain the differencebetween a regular import quota and a voluntary export restraint. i would alsoclearly explain dumping and figure 9-2 (which deals with export subsidies). the five case studies serve to highlight the theory and show the relevance of thetheory in todays world.4. i would cover section 4 in lecture 3. here i would give special attention to the。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版 课后习题答案
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版课后习题答案第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。
国际经济学 (克鲁格曼) 教材答案
Chapter 31．Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. a ．Graph out the production possibilities frontier:b ．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas?5.1=LbLa a a c ．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be?In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions aredetermined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only when Lb La b a /a a /P P =will both goods be produced. So 1.5 /P P b a =2．Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with alabor force of 800. Foreign ’s unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1.a ．Graph Foreign ’s production possibilities frontier:b ．Construct the world relative supply curve.Home's PPF 0200400600800200400600800Q apple Q banana Foreign's PPF0200400600800100080160240320400Q*apple Q*banana3．Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples.a ．Graph the relative demand curve along with the relative supply curve:a b b a /P P /D D =∵When the market achieves its equilibrium, we have 1b a )(D D -**=++=ba b b a a P P Q Q Q Q ∴RD is a hyperbola xy 1=b ．What is the equilibrium relative price of apples?The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RScurves.RD: yx 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5.1],5.0(5.0)5.0,0[=∈=⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧+∞∈=∈y y y x x x∴25.0==y x∴2/=b P a P e e c ．Describe the pattern of trade.∵b a b e a e b a P P P P P P ///>>**∴In this two-country world, Home will specialize in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples.d ．Show that both Home and Foreign gain from trade.International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere within the coloredlines, which lie outside the countries ’ production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade.4．Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of world production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case?RD: yx 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5.1],1(1)1,0[=∈=⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧+∞∈=∈y y y x x x ∴5.132==y x ∴5.1/=b P a P e eIn this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreign gains from trade.5．Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as production in both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price. How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4?In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved, so the ＂effective labor＂remains the same. So the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. But Foreign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4.6．”Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced down to the same level. Y ou can’t import a $5 shirt without importing the $2.50 wage that goes with it.” Discuss.In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Korea’s low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise the welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. Sothis pauper labor argument is wrong.7．Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United States, because our comparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument?The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries. So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the reasonable logic. 8．Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts, the purchasing power of their incomes is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation. (Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lower service costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.9．How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade?Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goods decrease.10．We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries. Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try constructing the world relative supply curve.)Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.Chapter 41． In the United States where land is cheap, the ratio of land to labor used in cattle rising ishigher than that of land used in wheat growing. But in more crowded countries, where land is expensive and labor is cheap, it is common to raise cows by using less land and more labor than Americans use to grow wheat. Can we still say that raising cattle is land intensive compared with farming wheat? Why or why not?The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. The comparison between another country and the United States is less relevant for answering the question.2． Suppose that at current factor prices cloth is produced using 20 hours of labor for eachacre of land, and food is produced using only 5 hours of labor per acre of land.a. Suppose that the economy ’s total resources are 600 hours of labor and 60 acres ofland. Using a diagram determine the allocation of resources.5TF LF /TF LF /QF)(TF / /QF)(LF aTF / aLF 20TC LC /TC LC /QC)(TC / /QC)(LC aTC / aLC =⇒===⇒==We can solve this algebraically since L=LC+LF=600 and T=TC+TF=60. The solution is LC=400, TC=20, LF=200 and TF=40.b. Now suppose that the labor supply increase first to 800, then 1000, then 1200 hours.Using a diagram like Figure4-6, trace out the changing allocation of resources. Labor Land Cloth FoodLC LF TCTFtion).specializa (complete 0.LF 0,TF 1200,LC 60,TC :1200L 66.67LF 13.33,TF 933.33,LC 46.67,TC :1000L 133.33LF 26.67,TF 666.67,LC 33.33,TC :800L ===============c. What would happen if the labor supply were to increase even further?At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, or there would be unemployment.3. “The world ’s poorest countries cannot find anything to export. There is no resource thatis abundant — certainly not capital or land, and in small poor nations not even labor is abundant.” Discuss.The gains from trade depend on comparative rather than absolute advantage. As to poor countries, what matters is not the absolute abundance of factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. The U.S. labor movement — which mostly represents blue-collar workers rather thanprofessionals and highly educated workers — has traditionally favored limits on imports form less-affluent countries. Is this a shortsighted policy of a rational one in view of the interests of union members? How does the answer depend on the model of trade?In the Ricardo ’s model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries.In the Immobile Factors model labor may gain or lose from trade. Purchasing power in terms of one good will rise, but in terms of the other good it will decline.The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly discusses distribution by considering the effects of trade on the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits.5. There is substantial inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States. Labor Land Cloth Food0l 800 0l 1000 0l 1200For example, wages of manufacturing workers in equivalent jobs are about 20 percent lower in the Southeast than they are in the Far West. Which of the explanations of failure of factor price equalization might account for this? How is this case different from the divergence of wages between the United States and Mexico (which is geographically closer to both the U.S. Southeast and the Far West than the Southeast and Far West are to each other)?When we employ factor price equalization, we should pay attention to its conditions: both countries/regions produce both goods; both countries have the same technology of production, and the absence of barriers to trade. Inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States may caused by some or all of these reasons.Actually, the barriers to trade always exist in the real world due to transportation costs. And the trade between U.S. and Mexico, by contrast, is subject to legal limits; together with cultural differences that inhibit the flow of technology, this may explain why the difference in wage rates is so much larger.6.Explain why the Leontief paradox and the more recent Bowen, Leamer, andSveikauskas results reported in the text contradict the factor-proportions theory.The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which has a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found that the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns is weak for the world as a whole.The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries' exports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7.In the discussion of empirical results on the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we noted thatrecent work suggests that the efficiency of factors of production seems to differ internationally. Explain how this would affect the concept of factor price equalization.If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be more successful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled worker could earn twice what lower skilled workers do and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.chapter 81. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is2.2. a. Foreign's export supply curve, XS, is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD. Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1. Home SupplyHome Demanda b c d e P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal home price is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price byabout 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS= -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。
(完整版)克鲁格曼国际经济学答案
Chapter 61.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internaleconomies of scale:a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than adozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,Ohio.c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled inToulouse, France.d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possiblewhen there are internal economies of scale?Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict betweencountries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country.The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4.Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and theprice per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=⇒==−−→−+=+==nS Fb S n bn X F AC P However, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5.Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage incausing the following:a.Most of the world’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.b.Half of the world’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.c.Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.d.Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.e.Much of the world’s best wine comes from France.a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6.There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the UnitedStates at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.7.Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that canproduce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.a.What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?What would determine who produces the good?QP,CD AC AC External Economics and SpecializationSuppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world.b.What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to thecountry that gets the industry?Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8.It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move tolocations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving—when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Explain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies.External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.chapter 81.The import demand equation, MD , is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic pricesand quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2.a.Foreign's export supply curve, XS , is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b.When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD . Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3.a.The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b.andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1.P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal homeprice is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS= -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6 x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a.The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。
国际经济学克鲁格曼_教材答案解析
Problems and Answers to Chapter 2Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canada’s is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australia’s. Why should this be the case?加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相当（加拿大多60%），但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume oftrade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Consideringthe distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than that ofCanada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to theUSA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy,making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky.GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。
国际经济学第九版课后答案
FIGURE 4.1
10. See Figure 4.3. In Figure 4.3, Nation 2 is the small
nation, and we magnified the portion of the offer curve of Nation 1 (the large nation) near the origin (where Nation 1’s offer curve coincides with PA = 1/4, Nation 1’s pretrade-relative commodity price with trade). This means that Nation 2 can import a sufficiently small quantity
some import restrictions. These topics are discussed in detail in Chapter 9.
Chapter 2
2. In case A, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdom in cloth. In case B, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdom in cloth. In case C, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdom in cloth. In case D, the United States and the United Kingdom have a comparative advantage in neither commodity.