语言学 第四章

→:it can be read as ‘consists of’ or ‘branched into’ ( ): mean that the element in them can be omitted …: indicate that other complement options are available. head=phrase
1. ____ is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker. A. a complete list of words and phrases B. a rule system of grammatical knowledge about his language C. the combinational rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentence. D. the phrase structure rules that can generate an infinite number of sentences 2. Many linguists nowadays believe that sentence, like other phrases also have their own heads. They take _______ as their heads. Which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.
Syntax
Examples
book boy love run read play happy tall clear about over on
Examples the a this those quite very more often always seldom must should can might and but or
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Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which
fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language Syntactic categories: words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively number of class. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the world-level categories. categories= parts of speech
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Syntax
Phrase Elements Specifier: 1)help make more precise the meaning of
the head and mark a phrase boundary 2)occur at the left of the phrase 3) the syntactic category of the specifier depend on the category of the head
Constraints on transformations
1) Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but only to a more distant C position 2) No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.
Head: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads Complement: the words on the right side of the heads
↓ Deep Structure (D-structure) ↓
Transformations
↓ Surface structure (S-structure)
When transformation are not necessary, the representations of these two levels look the same.
Complement: 1) provide information about entities and
locations 2) occur at the right of the head 3) a certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.
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Move a and constraints on transformations Move a: a general rule for all the movement rules.
The a is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.
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To determine a word’s category ↙ ↓ ↘
naming meaning inflection distribution
A word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category( part of speech).
Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.
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Transformation: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to anther. Auxiliary movement: Inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C
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Syntax
Phrase structure rule: the special type of
grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP)… AP→(Deg) A (PP)… VP→(Qual) V (NP)… PP→(Deg) P (NP)…
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Chapter 4
Syntax
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax: it studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Categories: Word categories Phrase categories and phrase structure rule Sentences and the S rule
Chapter 4
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Wh Movement: a transformation that will move the
wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. Wh movement Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence Wh movement (revised) Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP
element comes from the head position within S
Head movement: the movement of a word from the
head position in one phrase into the head position in another
complementizer
Complenement phrase ( CP) Matrix clause: the construction in which the
complement phrase is embedded
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Syntax
The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) ↓ X Theory: XP→(specifier) X X → X (complement) Coordination rule: X → X ＊Con X ↓ The XP Rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement ＊) (revised) The XP Rule: (Spec) (Mod) X (complement ＊) (Mod) (expanded) back
Chapter 4
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Phrase categories and phrase structure rule Phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain
word category, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. NP= noun phrase AP= Adjective phrase VP= verb phrase PP= Preposition phrase
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Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into any empty Infl position
and the auxiliary word can be moved into the C position. the XP Rule
Modifier: 1) specify optionally expressible properties of
heads 2)occur at the left or the right of the head.
back
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Syntax
Sometimes a sentence-like construction functions as a complement . Complementizer (C): word which introduce the sentence complement Complement clause: the sentence introduced by the
Chapter 4
Major lexical categories Noun (N.) Verb ( V.) Adjective (A.) Preposition (P.) Minor lexical categories Determiner (Det.) Degree word (Deg.) Qualifier (Qual.) Auxiliary (Aux.) Conjunction (Con.)
Chapter 4
Syntax
Sentences and the S rule S→NP VP InflP→ NP VP S InflP(=S) NP VP NP Infl VP
Infl=inflection: taken as the head of the sentence and
indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement
A clause can be introduced by either a complentizer or an inverted auxiliary, but not by two at the same time.
e (called a trace): records the fact that the moved