语言学教程》第章语音学与音位学
《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1(课堂PPT)
7
Phonetics studies speech sounds,
made,
how speech sounds transmitted are actually
that
and received,
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
8
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递 语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词 连续性语音
的描写 和分类。
9
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
的规则。
以及 音节的形式 音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
13
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
第 1 学期 第6 讲 第 2 章 语音学与音位学（1）
语音学和音系学优秀课件
的标音符号来标定语音或音位，如 [θ] -ness：happiness、sadness
┌─┴─┐ 也就是说，音位是抽象的基本音系单位，代表的是与其对应的具体语音或一类语音 (在有变音的情况下)，在话语产生的过程中，音位 便兑现成具体的语音。
音时，要把舌尖顶在口腔上部的硬腭和上齿之间，
故可用 [齿龈音] 或 [ALVEOLAR] 定义。发 [k]、 [g] 等音时，舌头的最高部位或聚焦点应处在口 腔的后部即在口腔上部软腭的下端，故可用 [软 腭音] 或 [VELAR] 特征来定义，也有用 [舌背音] 或 [DORSAL] 来标定的。
另一种是用发音方式 (manner of articulation) 来 描述语音，即在发音器已经定位的前提下发音者 所采纳的不同送气方式。如发 [p]、[b]、[t]、 [d]、[k]、[g] 等音时，发音者先让空气在口腔 内稍作停留，然后让气流突然冲出，故这些语音 可以用 [阻塞音]、[爆破音] 或 [STOP] 来定义。 而发 [s]、[z]、[f]、[v] 等音时，口腔虽未完全 阻塞，但气流必须从口腔的有关发音部位中挤出， 从而产生一定程度上的摩擦而形成摩擦音，故可 用 [摩擦音] 或 [FRICATIVE] 来定义。
征 (phonetic feature) 来描述或刻画各 1 同一分布位置 (similar position)
如给 [b] 音定位，可先给出 1 依附形位加上自由形位 (如 dislike)、
种语音。
语音特征设计
用发音位置 (place of articulation) 来描述语音，
考虑的是语用者在发音时的嘴唇状态、牙齿的部
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享[1]
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胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1
语音学研究的是语音， 发出、
语音如何 即 以及对 传递 和感知
语音
词 连续性语音 的描写 和分类。
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Articulatory phonetics / 发音语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.
①SPEECH ORGANS, also knows as VOCAL ORGANS， are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. ②It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
3 and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss some of the basic ideas of articulatory phonetics and phonological analysis.
的规则。
音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
(完整)《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第1章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
《简明英语语言学教程》章期末复习
Chapter one Introduction1.1什么是语言学语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.必考P2普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.（2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.（3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4）Langue and parole 语言和言语必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.（5）Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
语言学导论论文
浅谈《语言学教程》中语音学和音系学的音位及音位变体姓名:韩胜林学号：20114033075 班级：英师三班【摘要】语言学是每个英语专业学生的一门必修课，该课程设置的目的是向学生介绍语言学的基本知识。
语音学和音系学是语言中比较基础和重要的知识点在《语言学导论》中。
语音学研究的对象是人类所有语言的语音，它主要对语音进行描述和分类；而音系学研究的基本单位是音位，一个音在不同的环境中实现具体的音。
但是由于其知识本身的抽象性，学生在学习过程中带来各种疑虑，也不太懂语音的音位变化规则，因此；语音学和音系学的学习不太受学生的欢迎。
本文主要对语音学和音系学的音位变化带来的语言的改变做了解，并且深层次的探讨语音学和音系学在学习过程中的音位变化带来语意的改变性。
【关键词】英语专业生；语音学；音系学；音位变化一、引言语言学是每个英语专业生的一门必修课，该课程开设的目的是向学生介绍语言的基本知识，使其对语言学的各个分支及其研究领域有所了解，为进一步研究打好基础。
语音学和音系学是语言学中重要的一点，因为研究任何一门语言都要从语音，词汇和句法等方面入手。
但是，语音学和音系学本身比较抽象，学生们不好去把握和理解，不太懂发音时音体的变化规则和部位。
在这种学习模式下，专门研究这两个的相似性显得尤为重要。
二、语言学和音系学的重要性及音位语音学和音系学的研究对象是语音。
语音就是对人们所能够发出的语音进行研究，而音系学只是对这其中能够所能组成语音和发音媒介的语音进行研究。
我们所说的语音主要是发音语音学，主要是介绍发音器官，辅音和元音的分类与描述方法。
发音器官使学生孟知道哪些器官参与了发音及这些器官所处的位置。
辅音和元音的描述是去描述一个音，这使学生对这个语音有了具体的了解，这有助于提高学生的语音，而音系学介绍的是一些基本概念，如音位，音位变体，音系规则，区别特征，使学生对音系学的概念有一些了解。
语音学和音系学是围绕音的变化而展开，学号一门语言，我们必须的掌握语言其中的语音，其语音的变化规则，发音部位，并且你发出这个音的时候，要不断去摸索是否发到位，如果你很了解，你就可以很明确的断定自己的音位变化。
(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程第一章ppt
语言学教程第一章ppt语言学教程胡壮麟主编Contents ?Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(Phonetics) Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase (Morphology)Chapter 4 From Word to Text(Syntax) Chapter 5 Meaning(Semantics)Chapter 6 Language and Cognition ?Chapter 8 Language in Use(Pragmatics)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics ?1.1 Why study linguistics?1.2 What is language?1.3 Features of language1.4. Origin of language1.5. Functions of language1.6. What is linguistics1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.8. Macrolinguistics1.9 Important distinctions in linguisticsLead-inQestion1: Other animals can beat us in many different ways, but what makes us superior to all of them?Qestion2: Why are children easy to undrstand their mother's tongue??Qestion3: Why do people in different social classes speak in different ways??Qestion4: Why is it "I love you" in English, but "私はあなたを愛して" in Japanese?1.2 What is language ?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.__ by （英）沃德霍(Wardhaugh,R.)1.3 Design Features of languageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacement1.3.1 Arbitrariness ?Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning –Saussure.Eg: name,book,pen(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.Eg: Hi, Aha,Hush, Hem, Hey.(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: according to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words.Eg: He came in and sat down.(3) Idiom is not arbitrary.Eg: apple-polisher, black sheep, a yellow dog.1.3.2 DualityDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless Eg: Consonants and Vowels)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning Eg: word)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent.A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a1.3.3 CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Eg: 说曹操曹操到（not refer to Cao Cao himself）1.3.4 Displacement----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters, in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.Eg: 911 events , New York1.4. Origin of language语言的起源是语言学的基本理论问题之一。
现代语言学-音位学070319
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4. 音位变体allophone (3)
自由变体free variant（随意变体）
在相同语音环境中的音位变体， 可随个人习惯、爱好、风尚而随意选择。
汉语例：长江中下游地区 [n] / [l] 可互换：河南 / 荷兰； 合肥多为 [l]: 南京、奶奶； 武汉、贵州多为 [n]：旅n游路n线； 英语例： girl
自由分布free distribution:
/a/: 搭[da],他[ta],那[na],拉[la],萨[sa]……
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6. 音位对立 phonological opposition： 音位以其区别性特征与其他音位发生关系，组成音位对立 体 二项对立binary opposition：以某个或某些区别特征为 差别依据的两个音位的对立： 汉语：送气/不送气；英语等：清/浊 多项对立multiple opposition:
现代语言学
音 位 学
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1. 关于语音学和音位学
（1）
语音学 phonetics:
以语言的语音方面为对象，其任务为从生理发音、 物理音响和社会功能（音义关系）等方面考察研究 语音。
音位学phonology
（又称功能语音学 functional phonetics）： 按社会功能把语音成素作为信息载体进行研究。
舌尖前 ápicodental (z, c, s)
舌尖中 ápicoalveolar /s,n,l, r,rr/ (d, t, n, l) 舌尖后ápicopalatal (retroflejo) (zh, ch, sh, r) 舌叶 corona (palato-alveolar) 英 shape 舌面前 predorso-alveolar (j, q, x) 舌面中 dorso-palatal /y, ch, ñ, ll/ 舌根 linguo-velar /k, g, x/ (g, k, h) 小舌 uvular 法 咽头 ftinctive feature （2）
简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。
语音学与音位学的定义
语音学(Phonetics)是对人类语言发音进行的研究，它包括建立一套描述语音的方法和体系，也包括与之相关的理论建构，还可以包括由此带来的应用前景。
语音学phonetics语音学是语言学的一个分支。
研究人类语言声音的学科。
主要研究语言的发音机制，语音特性和在言谈中的变化规律。
由于它的研究内容关系到发音动作(生理现象)，语声特性（物理现象）以及听感（心理作用），而人类的不同语言集体各有自己的语音特点，因此现代语音学的研究需同时具备自然科学和社会科学的知识作为基础。
语音学(phonetics)一词在西方来源于希腊文嗞ων嬜τ忕κσs,意为声音。
早期研究范围比较广泛, 除研究语音特性外还包括语言的读音或拼音学、语音系统学等。
在中国传统音韵学研究中有关语音的描写和分类, 也都属于语音学的范畴。
但自近代科学的语音学发展以后,分类越来越细，定义也趋于严密，语音学就专指语音本身特点的研究了。
编辑本段研究范围和对象早期的语音学研究多只为了语言教学的需要以及语言研究的兴趣。
近年来由于医疗器械的完善，人们能观测发音器官的动作和功能，就发展了生理语音学。
由于声学仪器的发展，从前许多只能耳听的语言现象现在不但可以目测，而且可以用人工来合成，于是有了声学语音学。
由于心理测验方法的改善，思维和听觉神经生理的研究日趋进步，言语控制、听觉反馈中的语音规律分析得越来越深入，又产生了感知语音学(或心理语音学)，并发展为神经语音学。
这是从研究手段来看的 3大分支。
最近，由于信息时代的前进和人机对话的需要，孤立研究语音已不能满足要求。
因为人类的语言不是一个个孤立的音的缀合，而是一系列相互依存制约而且多变的音的串连,同时语言又离不开社会环境和个人语言习惯,研究语音不能离开特定语言的规律（包括语法、修词、音变等），于是又提出了语言学的语音学。
语音学的研究对象，传统上一般只限于元音、辅音、声调、重音以及节奏、音变等,这些都属于定性研究。
近来由于分析手段的进步和语音信息处理的迫切需要，又加强了语音韵律特征的综合研究和定量研究。
语音学与音位学的区别
语音学与音位学的区别在语音学(phonetics)里，偏重于发音部位，发音方式，语音特征的研究。
在音位学(phonemics)里，偏重于各个独立的基本音在语音系统的重要性，语音结构及语音组合规律等。
换言之，语音学里的工作较近于语言的具体面，音位学的工作较近于语音的抽象面。
在音位学里，我们会去注意各种语音发音差异，在整个语音系统里是否有意义，在语音学里，说话者 ( 我们 ) 只注意它 ( 语音 ) 的实质不同，不去管它 ( 语音 ) 在整个语音系统里有无意义，我们听到别人怎么说，我们就跟着说。
( 参考余光雄《英语语言学概论》)•Phones : the sounds made by humans. [ 人类发出的语音]•Phonetics:the study of phones; the study of human speech sounds;phonemics is the study of phones as they act in a particular language.[ 研究语音的学问；研究人类语音的学问； phonemics 是研究某一特定语言的语音的学问 ]•Phonemes : the smallest sound that contrasts meaning (they carry no meaning themselves); the smallest unit of sound in speech; the basic unit of spoken language; a member of the set of the smallest units of speech that serve to distinguish one utterance from another in a language or dialect. [ 区别意义的最小语音单位 ( 本身不具意义 ) ；语言中最小的语音单位 ; 口语中的最基本单位 ; 一个语言或方言中用来区别语词的最小语音单位 ]•Phonemics : the study of phonemes; studies only the significant sound contrasts of a given language. [研究音位的学问；专门研究某一语言中语音对比的学问 ]语音学主要处理语音的物理性质描述，而音位学主要处理一个语言系统中语音的功能。
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回顾：1.7.2 音位(系)学 (Phonology) （P16）
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllable. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
发 音 区 声源区
动 力 区
发音器官的文字讲解
鼻腔
咽腔
喉腔
[声门位于内部]
气管
口腔
食
肺
道
发音器官及其活动决定语音的产生和区别。
发音器官分为三大部分：动力区、声源区、发音区
1. 动力区：肺 、气管
来自肺部的气流是语音的动力。由肺部呼出的气流携 带着语音，通过细支气管、支气管和气管，到达喉腔。
3. 发音区：咽腔、口腔、鼻腔、
咽腔：位于口腔后部，是上通口腔和鼻腔，下接 喉腔的管形腔体；咽腔，是消化道与呼吸道即声 道的共同通道。
口腔和鼻腔靠软腭和小舌分开。
①SPEECH ORGANS, also knows as VOCAL ORGANS， are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. ②It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
第 1 学期 第6 讲
第 2 章 语音学与音位学（1）
（Speech Sounds / Phonetics & Phonology）
2.0 序言 2.1 语音的发出
语言中的层次化（Stratification）
第1层切分
Text
语篇
第2层切分 Sentence / Clause complex 句子 / 小句复合体
以及 音节的形式 音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
2 Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,
① 语音器官，也叫发 音器官，是指人体中 参与发音的那些器官 组织。② 人体中参与 发音的器官有：肺、 气管、咽喉、鼻和口。
①The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the VOCAL TRACT. ②Speech sounds are produced with an AIRSTREAM as their sources of energy. ③In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. ④It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a
音位学研究的是那些支配语音的结构、语音的分 布和语音的排列，以及音节的形式的规则。音位 学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
structure,
distribution, of speech
Phonology studies
the
and
sounds
the rules governing
sequencing
① 咽、口和鼻构成声 道的三个腔体。 ②人 们发音时会有气流； 气流是发音的能量来 源。③在大多数情况 下，气流来自于肺部。 ④气流从肺部压出来， 然后经过一组被称为 细支气管和支气管的 分叉式管道进入气管。 【见下页】
series of branching tubes, into the trachea. ⑤ Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the ORAL CAVITY and the NASAL CAVITY.
第3层切分
Clause
小句/分句/子句
第4层切分
Word group / phrase
词组 / 短语
第5层切分
Word
词
第6层切分
Morpheme
语素
第7层切分
Syllable
音节
第8层切分
Segmental phoneme
单个音段音位
2.0 导 论
为什么要研究语音
以及与之相关的各方面 ？
语言的定义：语言是用于人类交流的具有任意性特 征的口头符号系统。[Language is a system of
2. 声源区：声带
声带位于喉腔的中间，是两片富有弹性的带状薄膜。 两片声带之间的空隙叫声门。声带放松或收紧，使声 门打开或关闭。从肺部出来的气流通过声门时发生不 同强度的振动，从而发出不同的声音。通过控制声带 松紧的变化，可以发出高低不同的声音。
喉腔上通咽腔，下接气管，是呼吸和发音的重要 器官。它位于颈前正中部，在成人相当于第3~6颈 椎部，是由一组软骨、韧带、喉肌及粘膜构成的 锥形管状器官。
3 and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss some of the basic ideas of articulatory phonetics and phonological analysis.
音位学研究的是语言的语音模式和语音系统，致 力于发现支配语言中的语音组织的规律，并解释 音位变异现象。
sound patterns
Phonology
and
is the study of
the
sound systems
of languages.
It aims
to discover the principles that
and
the shape of syllable.
It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
语音的结构、
语音的分布
音位学研究的 是那些支配 和
语音的排列，
的规则。
①在本章，我们将 介绍和讨论有关发音 语音学和音位分析的 若干基本概念。
2.1 语音的发出 How Speech Sounds Are Made ?
2.1.1 发音器官
发音器官的定义 Speech organs, also known as Vocal Organs, are those parts of the human body in the production of speech.
arbitrary vocal signs used for human communication.]
所有的语言都具有三个主要部分：
语音、词汇语法和语义。
这是语言学习、语言教学和语言传播的需要。、
语言学的若干原则(为什么研究语音)
1. 语音是语言最早的，也是主要的，使用范围最广 的媒介。
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递 语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词 连续性语音
的描写 和分类。
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
【接上页】 ⑤然后气 流在喉腔、口腔和鼻 腔的不同位置以不同 的方式得到调整；口 和鼻通常被称作是口 腔和鼻腔。
Mouth 口
Pharynx(咽)
Nose鼻
Larynx（喉）
Bronchioles（细 支气管）