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平衡计分卡战略地图

平衡计分卡战略地图

平衡计分卡需求评价
【答题须知】认真阅读每个题目,然后决定你对该题的认同程度。你认同的程度越 高,那么你对该题的打分也就越高。例如,如果你完全赞同,就对该题打5分。
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1.我们组织已经投资于全面质量管理(TQM)和其他改进行动, 但我们并没有看到相应的顾客满意度增加。
政府机构
经济发展管理司(美国商务部) 皇家加拿大骑警 瑞士皇家工兵部队 美国教育 英国国防部 美国陆军
平衡计分卡在中国
• 平衡计分卡
《哈佛商业评论》 1992、1993、1996三篇论文 (中国人民大学出版社《公司绩效测评》)
《平衡计分卡》哈佛商学院出版社、1996 (广东经济出版社、2004)
• 战略中心型组织
•每个客户的净利润 •每月投诉次数 •每个客户区域的净利润 •假货渠道数量 •每个区域新客户的数量 •新客户销售的百分比 •无盈利客户的百分比 •相对于竞争对手的价格 •产品 / 服务的取消率 •成功销售给客户的产品数量 / 范围 •现有客户的推荐率 •要求完成时间 •每个销售渠道的销售额 •现有客户的销售增长 •合资企业的销售增长 •地区性客户的销售增长 •产品类别的销售增长率 •每个客户的销售额 •目标客户的参与度
描述战略

衡量战略
管理战略



战略地图
平衡计分卡
战略中心型组织
要素1
要素2
要素3
•如果你不能衡量(要素2),那么你就不能管理(要素3) •如果你不能描述(要素1),那么你就不能衡量(要素2)
平衡计分卡战略地图是战略执行工具

战略 整合(哈佛商学院) (1)

战略 整合(哈佛商学院) (1)

Strategy: Synthesis 战略:整合Ramon Casadesus-MasanellHarvard Business School哈佛商学院What Is Competitive Strategy?A strategy is an integrated set of choiceswhich positions a firm in an industryso as to generate superior financial returnsover the long run什么是竞争战略?战略是一套决策的整合,使一个公司在某个行业中的定位能够为其获得长期、优异的财务回报A strategy is an integrated set of choices which positions a firm in an industry so as to generate superior financial returnsover the long runWhat Is Competitive Strategy?ExternalenvironmentInternal activitiesCompetitive dynamics战略是一套决策的整合,使一个公司在某个行业中的定位能够为其获得长期、优异的财务回报什么是竞争战略?外部环境内部活动竞争势态Industry Structure 行业结构Industry Structure:The influence of industry over strategy“When an industry with a reputation for tough economics meets amanager with a reputation for excellent performance, it’s usually the industry that keeps its reputation intact”Warren Buffett 行业结构:行业对战略的影响“当一位以优秀业绩而著称的经理遇到一个以经济环境恶劣而闻名的行业,通常,依然可以保有名声的是那个行业。

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合练习试卷A卷附答案

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合练习试卷A卷附答案

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合练习试卷A卷附答案单选题(共100题)1、西康酒店是一家位于中国西部某著名旅游景区的五星级酒店,为了提升管理水平,西康酒店定期派人去东部旅游景区的五星级酒店学习,从而逐步提升了服务质量和财务业绩。

西康酒店进行基准分析的基准类型是()。

A.内部基准B.过程或活动基准C.一般基准D.竞争性基准【答案】 C2、阳春公司是一家化妆品生产企业,公司具有多条生产不同产品的产品线,企业以所有产品为基础进行分类,并设置不同的部门负责这些产品的生产,阳春公司采用的组织结构类型为()。

A.产品事业部制组织结构B.职能制组织结构C.战略业务单位组织结构D.H型组织结构【答案】 A3、丁公司是一家豆制品加工企业,公司原材料大豆来源是市场农产品收购,丁公司打算3个月后从市场买入500吨大豆,为了防止大豆价格的波动,丁公司决定在期货市场上做与现货市场商品相同或相近但交易部位相反的买卖行为,以便将现货市场价格波动的风险在期货市场上抵销。

根据以上信息判断,甲公司的这一做法属于()。

A.应急资本B.风险资本C.专业自保D.套期保值【答案】 D4、华宇公司是一家汽车制造企业,甲汽车玻璃制造公司为华宇公司控股股东的私人企业。

华宇公司多年来以高于市场公允价格的30%从甲公司采购汽车玻璃。

华宇公司隧道挖掘问题的主要表现是()。

A.滥用公司资源B.关联性交易C.直接占用资源D.内幕交易【答案】 B5、甲公司是一家学生运动服制造商,虽然其规模不大,但一直在学生市场占据一定的市场份额,甲公司能够采用这种竞争战略的实施条件不包括()。

A.学生市场的容量大B.学生市场的需求特殊,与成人市场需求不一样C.有企业在学生市场证明过曾经取得成功D.甲公司能力有限【答案】 C6、甲公司是一家白酒生产商,所处地理位置接近白酒原料产地且具备优质白酒生产的成本优势和研发优势。

经过市场调研,甲公司发现高端定制白酒有较好的市场需求。

战略咨询--战略之战略(Your Strategy Need a Strategy)

战略咨询--战略之战略(Your Strategy Need a Strategy)

战略咨询--战略之战略(Your Strategy Need a Strategy)随着技术进步、客户行为变化、监管变化和全球化带来的一系列挑战,战略这个词正在变得更加敏感。

在我看来,现在在中国讲战略是再恰当不过了,因为中国正在经历一系列重大的变化:- 第一,中国经济在面临十三五的变化,这可能意味着我们过去行之有效的方式在今天已经变得不可持续了。

- 第二,经济改革的进一步深化,在经济增速进一步下调的情况下,市场的成功者和失败者的分界线将变得更加明显。

- 第三,过去以投资为导向的单一经济模式,将要被一个更加多元化、结构更健康的经济模式所取代,这样一个模式转变对将中国经济载体中各项要素产生很大的影响。

面向未来,我们必须要与过去做战略的方法告别。

像过去,我们要么不需要战略,要么是经过详细的规划做战略,或者就是做单纯的增长战略,再或者就是跟随领先者的战略,但是面对新的变化和更加动荡的市场,这些传统的战略制定方式终将被抛弃,面对未来,我们必须想出构建战略的全新方法。

战略之战略“战略之战略(Your Strategy Need a Strategy)”所讲的战略并不是一个单纯分析出来的结果,也不是一套行之有效的工具,更不是一个自上而下或自下而上的流程。

这里的战略指的是:如何在合理资源配置下,使企业获得竞争优势并最终获胜。

在今天多变的市场环境下,采取什么行动才能达到致胜的目标呢?战略之父,哈佛商学院的教授迈克尔波特认为,“战略应涵盖至少十年的长远视角,而非以每个规划周期为单位制定”。

战略不是一个方针或者策略,而是企业在一段相对长的时间内的一套具有持续性的致胜原则。

在现在的市场情况下,我们要反思经典的战略是否还站得住脚。

在过去,我们先分析市场情况和宏观经济,再进行一系列的规划,最后形成一个在战略定位和规模上的基本思维,这是过去制定战略的一套行之有效的方法。

“战略”这个词虽然存在了很多时间,但过去更多的时候用在军事上。

企业战略管理3cukm

企业战略管理3cukm
• 利用企业优势的活动改变竞争基础。重构价值链可能 依据企业的偏好而改变重要的成本驱动因素。以一种 不同的方式进行一项活动能改变该活动对于规模经济、 相互关系、地理位置效果和实际上所有其它成本驱动 因素的敏感性。
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例3-3 依阿华牛肉包装公司
• 依阿华牛肉包装公司(Lowa Beef Packers)奉行革新战 略,在供牛地点附近建起了大型自动化的工厂,就地 加工,把牛切成更小的“盒装”块状。这一战略大幅 度降低了作为一项主要成本的运输费用,而且避免了 活牛在运输过程中掉膘,从而提高了产量。依阿华牛 肉包装公司还通过使用其新厂所在农村地区现成的没 有工会组织的廉价劳动力,降低了价值链里生产经营 的成本。
机楼
候机楼 度大
是工会成员 行李空间
经济实惠 无 售 票 柜 台 先 到 先 进 行 飞 行 员 不 是 不 仅供小吃或不 托运 行李
航空公司 (或 仅 办 理 登 座位服务 是工会成员 供餐
收费
记手续)
机上购票或售 登 机 口 不 售 机 组 人 员 较 餐食和饮料一 中转 不 售 中 转 机
票机售票 票
第三章 战略选择
孙子曰:昔之善战者,先为不可胜,以待敌 之可胜。不可胜在己,可胜在敌。故善战者, 能为不可胜,不能使敌必可胜。故曰:胜可 知,而不可为也。不可胜者,守也;可胜者, 攻也。守则不足,攻则有余。善守者,藏于 九地之下;善攻者,动于九天之上;故能自 保而全胜也。
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3.1 一般竞争战略
战略优势
• 控制成本驱动因素。成本驱动因素是企业总成本中 占有较大比例的价值活动,对这些价值活动的成本 进行有效的控制将可能获得成本优势;
• 重构价值链。企业可以采用与业内传统所不同的、 效率更高的方式来设计、生产、销售产品以及售后 服务,从而全面系统地降低成本。

迈克尔 波特在哈佛商业评论上发表的一篇关于战略的经典文章

迈克尔 波特在哈佛商业评论上发表的一篇关于战略的经典文章

What Is Strategy?ContentsOperationalEffectiveness:Necessary butNot SufficientII. StrategyRests onUniqueActivitiesIII. ASustainableStrategicPositionRequiresTrade-offsIV. Fit DrivesBothCompetitiveAdvantage andSustainabilityV.RediscoveringStrategyJapaneseCompaniesRarely HaveStrategiesFinding NewPositions: TheEntrepreneurialEdgeThe Connectionwith GenericStrategiesAlternativeI. Operational Effectivene ss Is Not Strategy For almost two decades, managers have been learning to play by a new set of rules. Companies must be flexible to respond rapidlyto competitive and market changes. They must benchmarkcontinuously to achieve best practice. They must outsourceaggressively to gain efficiencies. And they must nutture a few corecompetencies in the race to stay ahead of rivals.Positioning-once the heart of strategy-is rejected as too static fortoday's dynamic markets and changing technologies. According tothe new dogma, rivals can quickly copy any market position, andcompetitive advantage is, at best, temporary.But those beliefs are dangerous half-truths, and they are leadingmore and more companies down the path of mutually destructivecompetition. True, some barriers to competition are falling asregulation eases and markets become global. True, companieshave properly invested energy in becoming leaner and morenimble. In many industries, however, what some callhypercompetition is a self-inflicted wound, not the inevitableoutcome of a changing paradigm of competition.The root of the problem is the failure to distinguish betweenoperational effectiveness and strat egy. The quest for productivity,quality, and speed has spawned a remarkable number ofmanagement tools and techniques: total quality management,`benchmarking, time-based competition, outsourcing, partnering,reengineering, change management. Although the resultingoperational improvements have often been dramatic, manycompanies have been frustrated by their inability to translate those gains into sustainable profitability. And bit by bit, almost imperceptibly, management tools have taken the place of strategy. As managers push to improve on all fronts, they move farther away from viable competitive positions. Operational Effectiveness: Necessary but Not Sufficient Operational effectiveness and strategy are both essential to superior performance, which, after all, is the primary goal of any enterprise. But they work in very different ways.A company can outperform rivals only if it can establish a difference that it can preserve. It must deliver greater value to customers or create comparable value at a lower cost, or do both. The arithmetic of superior profitability then follows: delivering greater,value allows a company to charge higher average unit prices; greater efficiency results in lower average unit costs. Views of StrategyThe Origins Strategic P ositions Types of Fit Fit and Sustainability The Failure to Choose The Grow th Trap P rofitable Growth The Role of Leadership The Implicit Strategy Model of the P ast Decade Sustainable Competitive AdvantageUltimately, all differences between companies in cost or price derive from the hundreds of activities required to create, produce, sell, and deliver their products or services, such as calling on customers, assembling final products, and training employees. Cost is generated by performing activities, and cost advantage arises from performing particular activities more efficiently than competitors. Similarly, differentiation arises from both the choice of activities and how they are performed. Activities, then, are the basic units of competitive advantage. Overall advantage or disadvantage results from all a company's activities, not only a few.'Operational effectiveness fOE) means performing similar activities better than rivals perform them. Operational effectiveness includes but is not limited to efficiency. It refers to any number of practices that allow a company to better utilize its inputs by, for example, reducing defects in products or developing better products faster. In contrast, strategic positioning means performing different activities from rivals' or performing similar activities in different ways.GRAPH: Operational Effectiveness Versus Strategic PositioningDifferences in operational effectiveness among companies are pervasive. Some companies are able to get more out of their inputs than others because they eliminate wasted effort, employ more advanced technology, motivate employees better, or have greater insight into managing particular activities or sets of activities. Such differences in operational effectiveness are an important source of differences in profitability among competitors because they directly affect relative cost positions and levels of differentiation.Differences in operational effectiveness were at the heart of the Japanese challenge to Western companies in the 1980s. The Japanese were so far ahead of rivals in operational effectiveness that they could offer lower cost and superior quality at the same time. It is worth dwelling on this point, because so much recent thinking about competition depends on it. Imagine for a moment a productivity frontier that constitutes the sum of all existing best practices at any given time. Think of it as the maximum value that a company delivering a particular product or service can create at a given cost, using the best available technologies, skills, management techniques, and purchased inputs. The productivity frontier can apply to individual activities, to groups of linked activities such as order processing and manufacturing, and to an entire company's activities. When a company improves its operational effectiveness, it moves toward the frontier. Doing so may require capital investment, different personnel, or simply new ways of managing.The productivity frontier is constantly shifting outward as new technologies and management approaches are developed and as new inputs become available. Laptop computers, mobile communications, the Internet, and software such as Lotus Notes, for example, have redefined the productivity frontier for sales-force operations and created rich possibilities for linking sales with such activities as order processing and after-salessupport. Similarly, lean production, which involves a family of activities, has allowed substantial improvements in manufacturing productivity and asset utilization.For at least the past decade, managers have been preoccupied with improving operational effectiveness. Through programs such as TQM, time-based competition, and benchmarking, they have changed how they perform activities in order to eliminate inefficiencies, improve customer satisfaction, and achieve, best practice. Hoping to keep up with shifts in the productivity 'frontier, managers have embraced continuous improvement, empowerment, change management, and the so-called learning organization. The popularity of outsourcing and the virtual corporation reflect the growing recognition that it is difficult to perform all activities as productively as specialists.As companies move to the frontier, they can often improve on multiple dimensions of performance at the same time. For example, manufacturers that adopted the Japanese practice of rapid changeovers in the 1980s were able to lower cost and improve differentiation simultaneously. What were once believed to be real trade-offs- between defects and costs, for example- turned out to be illusions created by poor operational effectiveness. Managers have learned to reject such false trade-offs.Constant improvement in operational effectiveness is necessary to achieve superior profitability. However, it is not usually sufficient. Few companies have competed successfully on the basis of operational effectiveness over an extended period, and staying ahead of rivals gets harder every day. The most obvious reason for that is the rapid diffusion of best practices. Competitors can quickly imitate management techniques, new technologies, input improvements, and superior ways of meeting customers' needs. The most generic solutions- those that can be used in multiple settings- diffuse the fastest. Witness the proliferation of OE techniques accelerated by support from consultants.OE competition shifts the productivity frontier outward, effectively raising the bar for everyone. But although such competition produces absolute improvement in operational effectiveness, it leads to relative improvement for no one. Consider the $5 billion-plus U.S. commercial-printing industry. The major players- R.R. Donnelley & Sons Company, Quebecor, World Color Press, and Big Flower Press-are competing head to head, serving all types of customers, offering the same array of printing technologies (gravure and web offset), investing heavily in the same new equipment, running their presses faster, and reducing crew sizes. But the resulting major productivity gains are being captured by customers and equipment suppliers, not retained in superior profitability. Evenindustry-leader Donnelley's profit margin, consistently higher than 7% in the 1980s, fell to less than 4.6% in 1995. This pattern is playing itself out in industry after industry. Even the Japanese, pioneers of the new competition, suffer from persistently low profits. (See the insert "Japanese Companies Rarely Have Strategies.")The second reason that improved operational effectiveness is insufficient- competitiveconvergence- is more subtle and insidious. The more benchmarking companies do, the more they look alike. The more that rivals outsource activities to efficient third parties, often the same ones, the more generic those activities become. As rivals imitate one another's improvements in quality, cycle times, or supplier partnerships, strategies converge and competition becomes a series of races down identical paths that no one can win. Competition based on operational effectiveness alone is mutually destructive, leading to wars of attrition that can be arrested only by limiting competition.The recent wave of industry consolidation through mergers makes sense in the context of OE competition. Driven by performance pressures but lacking strategic vision, company after company has had no better idea than to buy up its rivals. The competitors left standing are often those that outlasted others, not companies with real advantage.After a decade of impressive gains in operational effectiveness, many companies are facing diminishing returns. Continuous improvement has been etched on managers' brains. But its tools unwittingly draw companies toward imitation and homogeneity. Gradually, managers have let operational effectiveness supplant strategy. The result is zerosum competition, static or declining prices, and pressures on costs that compromise companies' ability to invest in the business for the long term.II. Strategy Rests on Unique ActivitiesCompetitive strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value.Southwest Airlines Company, for example, offers short-haul, low-cost, point-to-point service between midsize cities and secondary airports in large cities. Southwest avoids large airports and does not fly great distances. Its customers include business travelers, families, and students. Southwest's frequent departures and low fares attract pricesensitive customers who otherwise would travel by bus or car, andconvenience-oriented travelers who would choose a full-service airline on other routes.Most managers describe strategic positioning in terms of their customers:"Southwest Airlines serves price- and convenience-sensitive travelers," for example. But the essence of strategy is in the activities-choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than rivals. Otherwise, a strategy is nothing more than a marketing slogan that will not withstand competition.A full-service airline is configured to get passengers from almost any point A to any pointB. To reach a large number of destinations and serve passengers with connecting flights, full-service airlines employ a hub-and-spoke system centered on major airports. To attract passengers who desire more comfort, they offer first-class or businessclass service. To accommodate passengers who must change planes, they coordinate schedules and check and transfer baggage. Because some passengers will be traveling for many hours, full-service airlines serve meals.Southwest, in contrast, tailors all its activities to deliver low-cost, convenient service on its particular type of route. Through fast turnarounds at the gate of only 15 minutes, Southwest is able to keep planes flying longer hours than rivals and provide frequent departures with fewer aircraft. Southwest does not offer meals, assigned seats, interline baggage checking, or premium classes of service. Automated ticketing at the gate encourages customers to bypass travel agents, allowing Southwest to avoid their commissions. A standardized fleet of 737 aircraft boosts the efficiency of maintenance.Southwest has staked out a unique and valuable strategic position based on a tailored set of activities. On the routes served by Southwest, a full-service airline could never be as convenient or as low cost.Ikea, the global furniture retailer based in Sweden, also has a clear strategic positioning. Ikea targets young furniture buyers who want style at low cost. What turns this marketing concept into a strategic positioning is the tailored set of activities that make it work. Like Southwest, Ikea has chosen to perform activities differently from its rivals.Consider the typical furniture store. Showrooms display samples of the merchandise. One area might contain 25 sofas; another will display five dining tables. But those items represent only a fraction of the choices available to customers. Dozens of books displaying fabric swatches or wood samples or alternate styles offer customers thousands of product varieties to choose from. Salespeople often escort customers through the store, answering questions and helping them navigate this maze of choices. Once a customer makes a selection, the order is relayed to a third-party manufacturer. With luck, the furniture will be delivered to the customer's home within six to eight weeks. This is a value chain that maximizes customization and service but does' so at high cost.In contrast, Ikea serves customers who are happy to trade off service for cost. Instead of having a sales associate trail customers around the stor e, Ikea uses a self-service model based on clear, instore displays. Rather than rely solely on thirdparty manufacturers, Ikea designs its own low-cost, modular, ready-to-assemble furniture to fit its positioning. In huge stores, Ikea displays every product . it sells in room-like settings, so customers don't need a decorator to help them imagine how to put the pieces together. Adjacent to the furnished showrooms is a warehouse section with the products in boxes on pallets. Customers are expected to do their own pickup and delivery, and Ikea will even sell you a roof rack for your car that you can return for a refund on your next visit.DIAGRAM: Mapping Activity SystemsAlthough much of its low-cost position comes from having customers "do it themselves," Ikea offers a number of extra services that its competitors do not. In-store child care is one. Extended hours are another. Those services are uniquely aligned with the needs of its customers, who are young, not wealthy, likely to have children (but no nanny), and, because they work for a living, have a need to shop at odd hours.The Origins Strategic PositionsStrategic positions emerge from three distinct sources, which are not mutually exclusive and often overlap. First, positioning can be based on producing a subset of an industry's products or services. I call this variety-based positioning because it is based on the choice of product or service varieties rather than customer segments. Variety-based positioning makes economic sense when a company. can best produce particular products or services using distinctive sets of activities.Jiffy Lube International, for instance, specializes in automotive lubricants and does not offer other car repair or maintenance services. Its value chain produces faster servic e at a lower cost than broader line repair shops, a combination so attractive that many customers subdivide their purchases, buying oil changes from the focused competitor, Jiffy Lube, and going to rivals for other services.The Vanguard Group, a leader in the mutual fund industry, is another example ofvariety-based positioning. Vanguard provides an array of common stock, bond, and money market funds that offer predictable performance and rock-bottom expenses. The company's investment approach deliberately sacrifices the possibility of extraordinary performance in any one year for good relative performance in every year. Vanguard is known, for example, for its index funds. It avoids making bets on interest rates and steers clear of narrow stock groups. Fund managers keep trading levels low, which holds expenses down; in addition, the company discourages customers from rapid buying and selling because doing so drives up costs and can force a fund manager to trade in order to deploy new capital and raise cash for redemptions. Vanguard also takes a consistent low-cost approach to managing distribution, customer service, and marketing. Many investors include one or more Vanguard funds in their portfolio, while buying aggressively managed or specialized funds from competitors.The people who use Vanguard or Jiffy Lube are responding to a superior value chain for a particular type of service. A variety-based positioning can serve a wide array of customers, but for most it will meet only a subset of their needs.A second basis for positioning is that of serving most or all the needs of a particular group of customers. I call this needs-based positioning, which comes closer to traditional thinking about targeting a segment of customers. It arises when there are groups of customers with differing needs, and when a tailored set of activities can serve those needs best. Some groups of customers are more price sensitive than others, demand different product features, and need varying amounts of information, support, and services. Ikea's customers are a good example of such a group. Ikea seeks to meet all the home furnishing needs of its target customers, not just a subset of them.A variant of needs-based positioning arises when the same customer has different needs on different occasions or for different types of transactions. The same person, for example, may have different needs when traveling on business than when traveling forpleasure with the family. Buyers of cans-beverage companies, for example-will likely have different needs from their primary supplier than from their secondary source.It is intuitive for most managers to conceive of their business in terms of the customers' needs they are meeting.. But a critical element of needs-based positioning is not at all intuitive and is often overlooked. Differences in needs will not translate into meaningful positions unless the best set of activities to satisfy them also differs. If that were not the case, every competitor could meet those same needs, and there would be nothing unique or valuable about the positioning.In private banking, for example, Bessemer Trust Company targets families with a minimum of $5 million in investable assets who want capital preservation combined with wealth accumulation. By assigning one sophisticated account officer for every 14 families, Bessemer has configured its activities for personalized service. Meetings, for example, are more likely to be held at a client's ranch or yacht than in the office. Bessemer offers a wide array of customized services, including investment management and estate administration, .oversight of oil and gas investments, and accounting for racehorses and aircraft. Loans, a staple of most private banks, are rarely needed by Bessemer's clients and make up a tiny fraction of its client balances and income. Despite the most generous compensation of account officers and the highest personnel cost as a percentage of operating expenses, Bessemer's differentiation with its target families produces a return on equity estimated to be the highest of any private banking competitor.Citibank's private bank, on the other hand, serves clients with minimum assets of about $250,000 who, in contrast to Bessemer's clients, want convenient access to loans-from jumbo mortgages to deal financing. Citibank's account managers are primarily lenders. When clients need other services, their account manager refers them to other Citibank specialists, each of whom handles prepackaged products. Citibank's system is less customized than Bessemer's and allows it to have a lower manager-to-client ratio of1:125. Biannual office meetings are offered only for the largest clients. Both Bessemer and Citibank have tailored their activities to meet the needs of a different group of private banking customers. The same value chain cannot profitably meet the needs of both groups.The third basis for positioning is that of segmenting customers who are accessible in different ways. Although their needs are similar to those of other customers, the best configuration of activities to reach them is different. I call this access-based positioning. Access can be a function of cus, tomer geography or customer scale-or of anything that requires a different set of activities to reach customers in the best way.Segmenting by access is less common and less well understood than the other two bases. Carmike Cinemas, for example, operates movie theaters exclusively in cities and towns with populations un-der 200,000. How does Carmike make money in markets that are not only small but also won't support big-city ticket prices? It does so through a set ofactivities that result in a lean cost structure. Carmike,s small-town customers can be served through standardized, low-cost theater complexes requiring fewer screens and less sophisticated projection technology than big-city theaters. The company's proprietary information system and management process eliminate the need for local administrative staff beyond a single theater manager. Carmike also reaps advantages from centralized purchasing, lower rent and payroll costs (because of its locations), and rock-bottom corporate overhead of 2% (the industry average is 5%). Operating in small communities also allows Carmike to practice a highly personal form of marketing in which the theater manager knows patrons and promotes attendance through personal contacts. By being the dominant if not the only theater in its markets-the main competition is often the high school football team-Carmike is also able to get its pick of films and negotiate b etter terms with distributors.Rural versus urban-based customers are one example of access driving differences in activities. 'Serving small rather than large customers or densely rather than sparsely situated customers are other examples in which the best way to configure marketing, order processing, logistics, and after-sale service activities to meet the similar needs of distinct groups will often differ.Positioning is not only about carving out a niche. A position emerging from any of the sources can be broad.or narrow. A focused competitor, such as Ikea, targets the special needs of a subset of customers and designs its activities accordingly. Focused competitors thrive on groups of customers who are over-served (and hence overpriced) by more broadly targeted competitors, or underserved (and hence underpriced). A broadly targeted competitor,for example, Vanguard or Delta Air Lines- serves a wide array of customers, performing a set of activities designed to meet their common needs. It ignores or meets only partially the more idiosyncratic needs of particular customer groups.Whatever the basis- variety, needs, access, or some combination of the three- positioning requires a tailored set of activities because it is always a function of differences on the supply side; that is, of differences in activities. However, positioning is not always a function of differences on the demand, or customer, side. Variety and access positionings, in particular, do not rely on any customer differences. In practice, howeve r, variety or access differences often accompany needs differences. The tastes-that is, the needs-of Carmike's small-town customers, for instance, run more toward comedies, Westerns, action films, and family entertainment. Carmike does not run any films rated NC- 17.Having defined positioning, we can now begin to answer the question, "What is strategy?" Strategy is the creation of a unique and valuable position, involving a different set of activities. If there were only one ideal position, there would be no need for strategy. Companies would face a simple imperative-win the race to discover and preempt it. The essence of strategic positioning is to choose activities that are different from rivals'. If thesame set of activities were best to produce all varieties, meet all needs, and access all customers, companies could easily shift among them and operational effectiveness would determine performance.III. A Sustainable Strategic Position Requires Trade-offsChoosing a unique position, however, is not enough to guarantee a sustainable advantage. A valuable position will attract imitation by incum bents, who are likely to copy it in one of two ways.First, a competitor can reposition itself to.match the superior performer. J.C. Penney, for instance, has been repositioning itself from a Sears clone to a more upscale,fashion-oriented, soft-goods retailer. A second and far more common type of imitation is straddling. The straddler seeks to match the benefits of a successful position while maintaining its existing position. It grafts new features, services, or technologies onto the activities it already performs.For those who argue that competitors can copy any market position, the airline industry is a perfect test case. It would seem that nearly any competitor could imitate any other airline's activities. Any airline can buy the same planes, lease the gates, and match the menus and ticketing and baggage handling services offered by other airlines.Continental Airlines saw how well Southwest was doing and decided to straddle. While maintaining its position as a full-service airline, Continental also set out to match Southwest on a number of point-to-point routes. The airline dubbed the new service Continental Lite. It eliminated meals and first-class service, increased departure frequency, lowered fares, and shortened turnaround time at the gate. Because Continental remained a full-service airline on other routes, it continued to use travel agents and its mixed fleet of planes and to provide baggage checking and seat assignments.But a strategic position is not sustainable unless there are trade-offs with other positions. Trade-offs occur when activities are incompatible. Simply put, a trade-off means that more of one thing necessitates less of another. An airline can choose to serve meals- adding cost and slowing turnaround time at the gate-or it can choose not to, but it cannot do both without bearing major inefficiencies.Trade-offs create the need for choice and protect against repositioners and straddlers. Consider Neutrogena soap. Neutrogena Corporation's Variety-based positioning is built on a "kind to the skin," residue-free soap formulated for pH balance. With a large detail force calling on dermatologists, Neutrogena's marketing strategy looks more like a drug company's than a soap maker's. It advertises in medical journals, sends direct mail to doctors, attends medical conferences, and performs research at its own Skincare Institute. To reinforce its positioning, Neutrogena originally focused its distribution on drugstores and avoided price promotions. Neutrogena uses a slow, more expensive。

what is strategy(什么是战略)-迈克尔·波特

what is strategy(什么是战略)-迈克尔·波特

什么是战略迈克尔•波特《哈佛商业评论》中文版2004年1月号一、运营效益并不是战略近20年来,各种游戏规则与管理理念层出不穷,令管理者应接不暇。

比如,企业必须保持一定的弹性,才能对瞬息万变的市场和竞争变化做出及时的反应;企业必须不断地进行基准比较,才能实现最佳实践的运作;企业必须各级发展外包,才能不断提高自己的效率;必须培养自己的核心竞争力,才能在竞争中始终一马当先。

与这些新兴的管理理念相比,面对当今风云变幻的市场和日新月异的科技,曾被视为战略核心的定位(positioning)被斥为过于一成不变而遭到遗弃。

根据新的管理信条,竞争对手可以迅速复制任何市场定位,因此,任何竞争优势充其量只能是暂时的。

但是,以上这些信条有可能带来危害,因为它们只说对了一半。

而且在这些信条的指引下,越来越多的企业正在走上相互残杀、竞相毁灭的竞争之路。

我们看到,随着管制的放松和市场的日益全球化,一些横亘在公司间、阻挡它们开展竞争的障碍正在消除。

我们同时也看到,很多公司投入了相当大的精力,力图使自己的组织变得更加精干、更加敏捷,以便应对随时可能出现的竞争。

然而在许多行业,有些人津津乐道的超级竞争(hypercompetition)却完全是一种自残行为,而不是竞争模式发生根本变化的必然结果。

追根溯源,问题出在人们混淆了运营效益(operational effectiveness)和战略(strategy)这两个最基本的概念。

为了追求生产率、质量和速度,企业开发出大量的管理工具和技巧,如全面质量管理、基准比较法、时基竞争(time-based competition)、外包、合作伙伴、流程再造(reengineering)以及变革管理等。

这些管理工具和技巧虽然使企业的运营效益得到了极大的提高,但是许多企业往往会因为无法将所得转化为持久赢利而感到万分沮丧。

不知不觉中,管理工具逐渐取代了战略。

于是,当管理者全线出击、力图全面改进企业运营时,他们其实是南辕北辙――离自己原本具有竞争优势的定位越来越远了。

哈佛商学院MBA案例教程 战略管理

哈佛商学院MBA案例教程 战略管理
企业经营战略的制定是一个很复杂的过程,如果企业不能对战略制订的 所有工作进行科学的有序的管理,企业就难以及时有效地制订出正确的经营 战略。 [案例一]
米勒酿造公司的发展历程
一、并入菲利浦·莫里斯公司之前的历史 米勒酿造公司是由 31 岁的前德国酿酒技师 F·米勒于 1855 年创建的。 他先在美国旅行了将近 1 年,才选择密尔祆基城开始其酿造业,他买下了密 城西郊一家歇业的小啤酒厂。 这个厂名叫普兰克路啤酒厂,始建于 1850 年,成立 3 年即停产,直到 1855 年米勒用 8oo0 美元买下它以前没有开工。这个厂的年生产能力为 1200 桶啤酒,但在复工的第一年,米勒只生产了 300 桶。 F·米勒的经营哲学是使其产品具有第一流的、稳定不变的质量。他还努 力扩大产品在密城及附近 8 个州的市场。当时,在这一地区的酒店、饭馆里, 米勒的啤酒是随时可以买到的,于是他成了一位闻名的人物。米勒的战略是, 鼓励人们“聚在一起,边聊天,边品尝米勒啤酒浓郁的美味”。 由于米勒啤酒的声誉卓著,需求增长,米勒在 1870 年盖了一座新厂,扩 大生产能力,到 1880 年,该厂年产约 3 万桶。1883 年,米勒建立了第一座 瓶装酒厂,在 3 年内已能将年产量 8 万桶中的 5000 桶装瓶出售。米勒还在芝 加哥、密尔沃基、沃克夏等地建了 7 座冷库储存啤酒。 F·米勒 1888 年逝世后,他的长子 E·米勒和女婿 C·A 米勒接管了公司, 并卓有成效地继承了老米勒的经营哲学,使这家酒厂在规模、能力、产品线 和销售量方面都继续发展。 1903 年,举行了为米勒佳酿命名的竞赛,结果取名为“米勒高寿”,标 语为“瓶装啤酒香槟”,酒名保存至今,标语则已消逝。“米勒高寿”的声 誉还得助于它印有月宫仙女的标签。使用这标签的原因有许多猜测,但主要 原因似乎是让饮酒人觉得:“米勒高寿”可以同跨入新世纪的“高级时代” 同步前进。 在 1920 年开始禁酒前后,米勒的年产量已达 50 万桶。但由于 18 号修正 案的批准,停止了酒精饮料的生产,米勒面临它经营生涯一次大危机。米勒 家族作出决策,保持公司名称,生产一系列新产品,如谷物饮料、麦乳精、

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升练习试题附答案

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升练习试题附答案

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升练习试题附答案单选题(共20题)1. (2020年真题)越达公司是合成橡胶、合成树脂等石化类产业的龙头企业。

2017年,该公司启动新的战略变革,将公司在原产业领域积累的高分子技术应用到光化学和有机合成化学领域,使业务内容扩大到半导体制造材料、显示器材料等领域,同时进行了广泛的组织结构调整。

此次战略变革得到公司上下一致认同和支持。

该公司处理企业战略稳定性与文化适应性的关系时应()。

A.以企业使命为基础B.根据文化进行管理C.重新制定战略D.加强协同作用【答案】 A2. 凯悦是一家以送餐为主的餐饮连锁企业,该企业的营业点主要集中在商业区聚集点,并且已经有稳定的客户,随着企业的不断发展,公司管理层继续坚持原来的战略,只做送餐业务,不开门店接收店内顾客。

但是会在日常业务中根据顾客的反馈,将送餐送饮料变为送餐送水果。

根据资料判断该餐饮企业处于战略变革发展阶段的()。

A.连续阶段B.渐进阶段C.不断改变阶段D.全面阶段【答案】 A3. (2014年真题)甲公司评估战略备选方案时,主要考虑选择的战略是否发挥了企业优势,克服了劣势,是否利用了机会,将威胁削弱到最低程度,是否有助于企业实现目标。

甲公司评估战略备选方案使用的标准是()。

A.适宜性标准B.外部性标准C.可行性标准D.可接受性标准【答案】 A4. 甲公司签订合同承诺10 月份向客户出售20 吨白糖,并以5600 元人民币/吨的价格购入现货白糖20 吨,同时在期货交易所以5700 元/吨的价格卖出10 月份到期的白糖期货20 吨。

10 月份合同到期时,白糖现货和当月期货市场价格均为5500 元人民币/吨,甲公司以该价格向客户售出白糖20 吨,并买入当月期货20 吨。

甲公司的上述风险理财策略是()。

A.期货多头套期保值B.期货空头套期保值C.买方期权套期保值D.卖方期权套期保值【答案】 B5. (2019年真题)从事苹果种植与销售的秋实公司于2017年率先采取了一种新的经营方式,在种植区内增设了园林景观、运动场、游戏场等,到秋收季节,顾客可前来付费进行休闲娱乐等活动,同时能以市场最低的价格采摘和购买苹果。

“《哈佛商业评论》重要管理思想”之解读

“《哈佛商业评论》重要管理思想”之解读

“《哈佛商业评论》重要管理思想”之解读最近读了《哈佛商业评论》重要管理思想,从中学到了很多思想和理念,文章全面、生动而且条理清楚,让人印象深刻。

该文章分为五个部分,包括“战略篇”、“领导力篇”、“营销篇”、“人力资源篇”及“创新篇”。

涵盖了管理的各个领域,包含了目前最新的管理思想及各种经典管理理论。

以下将我个人读后的一些理解与体会简要总结如下,由于还处于学习阶段,想法可能不够全面且还存在一些问题,只代表个人目前的观点,我也会继续不断学习以能够取得更深入的理解。

一、战略篇战略主线按照波特的“定位、取舍、配称”展开。

恰在最近读过波特的《什么是战略》。

波特的战略理论主要包括:定位-战略就是创造一种独特的定位,涉及各种不同的运营活动。

其实质是存在于运营活动中─选择不同于竞争对手的运营活动,或者不同于竞争对手的活动实施方式;取舍-战略就是在竞争中做出取舍,其实质是选择不做哪些事情。

没有取舍就没有选择的必要,没有选择就没有制定战略的必要;配称-战略就是在企业的各项运营活动之间建立一种配称。

对于定位,其他战略理论也有类似的说法,都是讲企业努力让自己成为有特点的公司,让企业脱颖而出。

让企业更出众的方式主要有:总成本领先、产品差异化、亲近客户、产品领先、卓越运营及打造核心能力。

总成本领先、产品差异化来源于波特的《什么是战略》,认为降低成本及让顾客感到自己的产品比竞争对手更有价值是非常关键时的。

亲近客户、产品领先、卓越运营来源于特里西和维尔斯马的《亲近客户及其他价值原则》。

卓越运营指以具有竞争力的价格、最简便的方式为客户提供可靠的产品-这与波特的总成本领先是相似的;亲近客户指的是确保每位客户都得到真正想要的东西;产品领先指提供一流的产品和服务-这与波特的产品差异化是相似的。

打造核心能力来源于普拉哈拉德和哈梅尔的《公司的核心竞争力》,核心能力指组织中积累下来的学识,以及核心能力与时俱进的动态能力。

对于取舍,波特在《什么是战略》中阐明了取舍的重要性,而金灿和莫博涅在《价值创新:高增长的战略逻辑》中对如何取舍:确定哪些该淘汰,哪些该降低,哪些该提高,哪些该创造。

企业终极战略管理教材cwdx

企业终极战略管理教材cwdx
使用间谍进行侦察,“先知”对方的动态,然后根据情报制订出克敌制胜的方案,这是孙子兵法在最后一篇中提出的一个极为重要的作战思想。
“用间”侦察,其手段多种多样,最常见的是利用合法身份进行参观访问。1981年,几位日商要求参观安徽径县纸厂,当时这个厂生产的宣纸在世界上享有盛誉,我方当时毫无警惕,不但积极接访,还安排日商听情况介绍,参观生产全过程,还开了座谈会,对该厂生产过程进行全程录相,结果,日本厂商顺利窃得宣纸生产技术,成为国际市场上强劲的竞争对手。
八、“视卒如子”,使职工奋力回报
松下公司制定了“松下七精神”:
八、“视卒如子”,使职工奋力回报
这就是说,指挥作战,要谨慎地审察敌人的意图,集中兵力指向敌人的一点,即使长驱千里也可擒杀敌将,如此巧妙用兵而能成就大事。
九、“并敌一向”,集中力量办出特色
这就是说,指挥作战,要谨慎地审察敌人的意图,集中兵力指向敌人的一点,即使长驱千里也可擒杀敌将,如此巧妙用兵而能成就大事。
—什么是管理?
管理就是让人做事并取得成果。让:命令与启发。人:引/选/用/育/留。做、取得:措施手段。事:客观事物,主观选择。成果:需要兼顾多重伦理准则。领域:人、事、物,方针、方法、准则。特性:科学性-高效,艺术性-愉快,战略性-正确。
— 什么是战略管理?其意义何在?
战略管理涉及组织生存之“道”?管理核心:让人愉快高效地做正确的事。战略管理:方向正确+运作高效+心情舒畅。战略管理:伦理准则+事实规律+主观感受。战略管理:长短期兼顾——可持续发展 个人:忙要忙得有意义,忙要忙到点子上。防止“我工作太忙而没时间思考”,或者“我思考太多而没时间工作”,促进自我成长。组织:明确使命与目标,把握环境机会与威胁,认清自身优势与弱点,保持方向感与灵活性。保证个人自由与组织公平,真正实现“四满意”。社会:明确共同价值准则,建设良好制度环境,确保生态良性循环,维护社会商圈和谐进化,促使整个社会持学习(branch-marketing)做得越多,彼此之间就会越相像。结果变成大家都在同样的跑道上赛跑。 在1970和1980年代期间,日本公司快速起飞,但是只是互相模仿,从不做选择。

哈佛商业评论战略篇

哈佛商业评论战略篇

公司的核心竞争力哈佛经典——《公司的核心竞争力》普拉哈拉德(. Prahalad)加里哈梅尔(Gary Hamel)很多公司仍在苦苦寻觅在全世界竞争中克敌制胜的最有效方式。

从长期来看,竞争优势将取决于企业可否以比对手更低的本钱和更快的速度构建核心竞争力。

治理层有能力把整个公司的技术和生产技术整合成核心竞争力,使各项业务能够及时把握不断转变的机缘,这才是优势的真正所在。

多元化公司就比如一棵大树,树干和几个要紧枝杈是核心产品,较纤细的树枝那么是业务单元,叶、花与果实那么属于最终产品。

为大树提供养分和起支撑固定作用的根系确实是公司的核心竞争力。

核心竞争力是组织内的集体学习能力,尤其是如何和谐各类生产技术而且把多种技术整合在一路的能力。

同时它还意味着对工作进行组织和提供价值。

核心竞争力是沟通,是参与,是对跨越组织界限协同工作的深度许诺。

核心竞争力并非会随着利用的增多而减少。

可是,核心竞争力也需要培育和爱惜,因为知识不用就会消亡。

培育核心竞争力并非是说必需在研发投入上超过对手。

核心竞争力也不是指本钱分摊(shared costs),即让两个以上的战略事业部共用同一设施或销售队伍,或采纳一样的元件。

另外,成立核心竞争力也与纵向一体化不同,前者的目标加倍远大。

至少有三种查验方式能够用来确信公司的核心竞争力。

第一,核心竞争力能够为公司进入多个市场提供方便。

第二,核心竞争力应当对最终产品为客户带来的可感知价值有重大奉献。

最后一点,核心竞争力应当是竞争对手难以仿照的。

很多公司转向外部供给商以便削减内部投资的举动,事实上是把自己的核心竞争力拱手送给了他人。

另外,若是公司在现有业务中已经进展出了必要的能力,但以后却舍弃了成立核心竞争力的机遇,也会造成核心竞争力的流失。

为了保住核心竞争力的领先地位,公司都力图使核心产品——一种或多种核心竞争力的实物表现——活着界上的制造份额达到最大。

从事核心产品制造带来的销售收入和市场反馈至少部份地决定了核心竞争力改良和扩展的速度。

战略之战略(哈佛商业评论)

战略之战略(哈佛商业评论)

战略之战略石油行业很少会冒出令战略家们感到措手不及的状况。

当然,这只是相对而言。

其实石油行业也充满变化,甚至戏剧性的变化,但基本都是可预计的。

战略设计师们知道,随着地缘政治力量的变化以及新资源的发现及开采,全球能源供给会上下波动。

他们还知道,收入、国内生产总值(GDP)、天气状况等因素也会引起能源需求波动。

但是,这些因素并不受石油公司及其竞争对手的控制,而且石油业的进入门槛非常之高,因此没有人能真正改变游戏规则。

在这种稳定的市场环境中,一家公司会谨慎地整合其独有的能力和资源,确立并捍卫自己的竞争地位。

在石油业战略师的眼中,互联网软件行业简直就是个恶梦。

因为在互联网行业,创新活动和新公司如雨后春笋一般不断冒出来,公司占领(或失去)市场份额的速度令人眩晕。

微软(Microsoft)、谷歌(Google)或者Facebook这类大公司,会冷不丁推出一些新平台或者新标准,彻底改变市场竞争的基础。

在这样的环境下,要想获得竞争优势,企业需要在竞争对手之前解读市场信号并迅速作出反应、适应变化,或者借助领先的技术影响市场需求和竞争方式。

显然,在石油业如鱼得水的战略在互联网软件行业是行不通的,因为后者可预见性很低且不断变化。

此外,在石油和软件行业,战略家制定战略的技巧也截然不同—因为他们所处的时间期不同,所用的工具不同,并且与一线计划执行者的关系也不同。

面对如此截然不同的竞争环境,公司在战略规划、发展和部署方面似乎应该有显著区别才对,但我们的研究显示,很多时候公司所定的战略并没太大差别。

管理层并非无动于衷。

波士顿咨询公司(BCG)针对全球10大行业120家公司的一项调查显示,管理层很清楚,战略制定过程应该与竞争环境的具体需求相匹配。

然而调查发现,有些公司身处的环境波动性很高且复杂多变,但是其制定的战略却更适合可预见性强、稳定性高的竞争环境。

是什么因素妨碍了这些高管根据自身情况制定战略呢?我们认为,他们缺乏制定战略的系统性方法,也就是说:他们缺乏制定战略的战略。

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升模拟考试试卷含答案讲解

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升模拟考试试卷含答案讲解

2022-2023年注册会计师之注会公司战略与风险管理综合提升模拟考试试卷含答案讲解单选题(共20题)1. 作为空间智能时代的技术、影像和教育方案引领者,大河创新科技公司成立仅两年,产品需求量波动性较大。

同时,为了满足公司对创新产品的资金需求,大河公司主要通过引进大量风险投资者的方式来募集权益资金。

根据上述信息判断,大河公司财务风险与经营风险的搭配属于()。

A.高经营风险与高财务风险B.高经营风险与低财务风险C.低经营风险与高财务风险D.低经营风险与低财务风险【答案】 B2. 甲公司是国内的一家快递公司。

在国外自助快递站建设已有10 多年历史,移动互联网,大数据、云计算、本地生活 O2O 快速发展的大背景下,甲公司计划在各个高校、社区投放智能快递柜,以解决快递“最后一公里”的困境。

甲公司通过学习美国快递公司自助快递站的建设模式,顺利完成了智能快递柜的投放。

甲公司的基准分析类型是()。

A.内部基准B.一般基准C.竞争性基准D.过程或活动基准【答案】 B3. (2017年真题)环美公司原以家电产品的生产和销售为主业,近年来逐渐把业务范围扩展到新能源、房地产、生物制药等行业。

依据波士顿矩阵分析法,下列各项环美公司对其业务所做的定位的描述中,错误的是()。

A.新能源行业发展潜力巨大、前景广阔,公司在该领域竞争优势不足。

公司应当对新能源业务进行重点投资,以提高市场占有率B.房地产业进入“寒冬”期,公司的房地产业务始终没有获利。

公司应当果断地从该业务中撤出C.生物制药行业近年来发展迅猛,公司收购的一家生物制药企业由弱到强,竞争优势日益显现。

公司应当短期内优先供给其所需资源,支持该业务继续发展D.家电业务的多数产品进入成熟期,公司在家电行业竞争优势显著。

公司应当对该业务加大投资力度,以维持公司在行业中的优势地位【答案】 D4. 猎豹公司是一家为计算机组装主板系统的工厂,陷入经营危机。

目前该公司推行了新的业务单元架构方案。

哈佛经理的战略决策的能力

哈佛经理的战略决策的能力

哈佛经理的战略决策的能力哈佛管理技能培训教程:第三单元哈佛经理的能力第三章哈佛经理的战略决策的能力第三章哈佛经理的战略决策的能力企业经营战略的概念及其产生经营战略的概念战略一词来源于希腊字strategos,其含义是“将军”。

当时,这个词的意义是指挥军队的艺术与科学。

今天,在经营中运用这个词,是用来描述一个组织打算如何实现它的目标与使命。

大多数组织为实现自己的目标与使命,能够有若干种选择,战略就与决定选用何种方案有关。

战略包含对实现组织目标与使命的各类方案的拟定与评价,与最终选定将要实行的方案。

企业要在复杂多变的环境中求得生存与进展,务必对自己的行为进行统盘地谋划。

20世纪60年代往常,在某些企业中尽管也存在着类似于这种谋划的活动,但所使用的概念不是经营战略,而是长期计划、公司计划、企业政策或者企业家活动等。

直到20世纪60年代,经营战略才以一种具有科学性的概念,开始在企业管理学中使用。

关于经营战略的含义,安索夫认为要紧是关心企业外部胜于企业内部,特别是关系到企业生产的产品构成与销售市场,决定企业干什么事业,与是否要干。

美国的彼特·F·德鲁克认为经营战略回答两个问题:我们的企业是什么?它应该是什么。

总之,经营战略关系着企业未来的进展方向、进展道路、进展行动等。

还有人认为经营战略是用来指导企业行为的一系列规则。

并认为这种规则有四类:(1)企业现在与将来经营成效的测量标准,即战略要达到的目标。

(2)进展企业同其外部环境关系的规则。

包含企业将开发什么样的产品与技术,产品在何处销售、销售给谁,企业如何获得胜过竞争者的优势等。

(3)在企业内部建立内部关系与运转过程的规则。

(4)企业用于指导其日常经营活动的规则。

称之作业政策。

根据人们对经营战略的认识,我们把经营战略定义为:经营战略是企业面对猛烈变化、严峻挑战的环境,为求得长期生存与不断进展而进行的总体性谋划。

它是企业战略思想的集中表达,是企业经营范围的科学规定,同时又是制定规划(计划)的基础。

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战略之战略石油行业很少会冒出令战略家们感到措手不及的状况。

当然,这只是相对而言。

其实石油行业也充满变化,甚至戏剧性的变化,但基本都是可预计的。

战略设计师们知道,随着地缘政治力量的变化以及新资源的发现及开采,全球能源供给会上下波动。

他们还知道,收入、国内生产总值(GDP)、天气状况等因素也会引起能源需求波动。

但是,这些因素并不受石油公司及其竞争对手的控制,而且石油业的进入门槛非常之高,因此没有人能真正改变游戏规则。

在这种稳定的市场环境中,一家公司会谨慎地整合其独有的能力和资源,确立并捍卫自己的竞争地位。

在石油业战略师的眼中,互联网软件行业简直就是个恶梦。

因为在互联网行业,创新活动和新公司如雨后春笋一般不断冒出来,公司占领(或失去)市场份额的速度令人眩晕。

微软(Microsoft)、谷歌(Google)或者Facebook这类大公司,会冷不丁推出一些新平台或者新标准,彻底改变市场竞争的基础。

在这样的环境下,要想获得竞争优势,企业需要在竞争对手之前解读市场信号并迅速作出反应、适应变化,或者借助领先的技术影响市场需求和竞争方式。

显然,在石油业如鱼得水的战略在互联网软件行业是行不通的,因为后者可预见性很低且不断变化。

此外,在石油和软件行业,战略家制定战略的技巧也截然不同—因为他们所处的时间期不同,所用的工具不同,并且与一线计划执行者的关系也不同。

面对如此截然不同的竞争环境,公司在战略规划、发展和部署方面似乎应该有显著区别才对,但我们的研究显示,很多时候公司所定的战略并没太大差别。

管理层并非无动于衷。

波士顿咨询公司(BCG)针对全球10大行业120家公司的一项调查显示,管理层很清楚,战略制定过程应该与竞争环境的具体需求相匹配。

然而调查发现,有些公司身处的环境波动性很高且复杂多变,但是其制定的战略却更适合可预见性强、稳定性高的竞争环境。

是什么因素妨碍了这些高管根据自身情况制定战略呢?我们认为,他们缺乏制定战略的系统性方法,也就是说:他们缺乏制定战略的战略。

在下文中,我们设计了一个简单的框架,根据公司所处环境的可预见性及可塑性,将战略规划分成四种风格。

利用这一框架,公司高管们能够让其战略风格与行业的特殊性、业务特点或者地理位置相匹配。

制定战略的方式会限制战略风格。

如果能清晰了解目前可以使用的战略风格及其适用情况,将会有更多公司效仿那些成功公司的做法,利用自身优势和资源更好地抓住契机。

找到合适的战略风格制定战略通常是从评估你所在的行业开始。

战略风格的选择也应该从这里出发。

尽管实际制定的战略会受许多行业因素影响,但你可以只考虑两个关键因素:可预见性(能预测出多久之后的市场需求、公司业绩、竞争情况和市场预测的准确度有多高?)和可塑性(你或者你的竞争对手能在多大程度上影响这些因素?)将这两个变量放在一个矩阵里,就会得到四种战略风格—经典型(classical)、适应型(adaptive)、塑造型(shaping)和愿景型(visionary)(见图表“与商业环境匹配的战略风格”)。

每种战略风格都有其清晰的制定方法,并且最适合某一特定环境。

战略规划者经常将可预见性与可塑性混在一起,认为任何可塑的环境都不具可预见性,因此仅仅将战略的可能性分成两类:可预见但不可塑造;可塑造但不可预见。

实际上,他们应该把上述四种情况都考虑进来。

我们的结论并不意外,战略风格与市场环境相匹配的公司,表现远远好于其他公司。

经分析发现,采取最合适的战略风格的公司,其三年股东回报率比其他公司平均高4- 8个百分点。

让我们分别看一下这四种战略风格。

经典型战略经典型战略最适合具有可预见性但不可塑造的市场环境。

大多数经理人和商学院毕业生们对这个战略都不陌生—五力模型、蓝海战略、增长/份额矩阵都属于经典战略风格。

在这种战略风格下,公司首先会设定一个目标,然后根据其特有优势和资源瞄准一个最佳的市场定位,再之后,通过有序、持续的规划建立并巩固这一地位,同时利用量化预测手段更好地预测未来。

这类计划一旦形成,往往会存续数年。

经典型战略规划部门完全可以作为独立部门运转,因为它需要特殊的分析和量化研究技巧,此外,由于事态发展缓慢,各部门之间有充裕的时间进行信息交换。

包括石油行业在内的很多成熟产业都在有效地使用经典型战略。

在埃克森美孚或壳牌这类大型石油公司内部,战略规划部那些训练有素的分析师们,会花数天时间研究与需求有关的长期经济因素和与供给有关的技术性因素,然后得出一个详尽的看法。

经过这些分析,他们可能会制定出覆盖未来10年的上游石油开采计划以及覆盖未来5年的下游产能计划。

考虑到石油勘探和开采、修建生产设施并保证其以最优产能运转需要花费的时间,很难想象还有其他更合适的战略风格。

这些计划能给出未来数年的财务预期,进而决定了企业的年度目标应集中于提高效率上—提高效率是保持并巩固市场地位和业绩的条件。

只有出现异常情况,比如久拖不决的海湾战争、一系列大炼油厂停产等,他们才会频繁地修改计划,而不是一年一次。

适应型战略经典战略在石油公司中适用,这是因为它们的运营环境不会随时变化,最佳市场定位以及回报最高的产能今天存在明天还会存在。

但是,在另外一些行业,情况完全不同。

正如一些文章(《适应性:新的竞争优势》,《哈佛商业评论》2011年7-8月期,作者马丁·里夫斯(Martin Reeves)和迈克·戴姆勒(Mike Deimler))之前所谈到的,全球性竞争、技术创新、以及经济不确定性等因素,使得环境的不可预见性极高。

在这样的局面下,一份精心制定的经典型战略可能数月、甚至数周内就会过时。

因此,公司需要一种更灵活的战略,通过这种战略不断地优化目标、策略,平稳迅速地调整、收购或剥离资产。

在这种变化很快、互动关联的环境下,企业所做的预期可能是错的,而且长期计划基本没用,这时的目标不再是效率最优,而是灵活性。

因此,计划制定周期可能会缩短至一年以内,甚至是持续制定计划。

计划的形式也不再是一份精心描绘的蓝图,而是基于最有可能获得的数据做出一个大概的假设。

在检验计划时,计划必须与运营息息相关或者融入到运营当中去,从而最有效地捕捉市场变化的信号,将信息损失和传递时滞降到最低。

时装专卖店就是这方面一个很好的例子。

人们的品味变化很快,一个品牌一夜之间就可以走红(或者过气)。

没有什么数据或者计划,能让时尚界的管理者们提前很长时间就知道应该生产什么。

因此,他们所能采取的最好行动就是持续生产、推出新品,并在第一时间对各类产品进行测试,根据新形势不断调整生产。

西班牙服装零售商Zara就采取这种适应型战略。

Zara并不严重依赖一种正式的规划过程,而是将战略风格融入到灵活的供应链中。

它与1400个外部供应商保持着紧密的联系,这些供应商和设计师以及市场营销人员密切合作。

因此,Zara仅需两到三周就能完成一件服装的设计、生产和上架,而业内平均时间是4到6个月。

这就使得Zara能对大批不同样式的服饰进行测试,小规模投放一批可能受欢迎的服饰。

如果这批服饰获得成功,Zara能够迅速大规模生产。

如果不成功也不会进行太多库存价值的减记(Zara的平均库存价值减记幅度为15%,而竞争对手们的减记幅度高达50%),因此,Zara无需每月都对流行趋势进行预测。

而是对零售店反馈的信息快速做出反应,不断对各种服饰进行测试,并根据市场反应稳步调整。

Zara的战略风格使得它与制定计划者、设计师、生产商和分销商之间的关系,与埃克森美孚的截然不同。

不过,埃克森美孚的战略师与Zara的设计师之间有一个关键的共性:他们都将竞争环境看作是一个既定条件,并希望从中获得最佳的市场定位。

塑造型战略正如一些互联网软件供货商们深知的那样,有些市场环境不能视为是既定的。

例如,在一个新兴或者年轻的高增长行业中,市场进入门槛很低,创新率很高,市场需求很难预测,并且竞争对手的相对位置不固定,一家公司经常可以通过一些创新举措完全改变行业发展轨迹。

如果在一个成熟产业中也存在类似的分散性,并且不存在少数几家有实力的企业垄断这一行业,或者这一行业陷入停滞而且变革的时机已经成熟—这样的行业同样具有可塑性。

在这样的市场环境下,如果一家公司希望通过经典型战略或者适应型战略,来获得最佳市场定位的话,那么这家公司前景堪忧,它会被各种事件左右,失去控制自己命运的机会。

这家公司最好能采取一种战略,将不可预测的环境塑造成对自身有利的环境,而不是将这样的机会拱手让给别人。

这样一来不论事态如何发展它都会获益。

正如适应型战略一样,塑造型战略的周期也很短暂或者是持续性的。

在这种战略风格下,灵活性最重要,对预测机制的依赖不大,这一战略通常通过一组实验来实施。

但是与适应型战略不同的是,塑造型战略制定者关注的范围不限于公司本身,他们会先定义具有吸引力的新市场、新标准、新的技术平台和商业实践,然后围绕他们的事业组建一个包括客户、供应商、以及(或者)补充者在内的强大的生态圈。

他们会通过市场营销、游说以及聪明的合伙关系传播这些观点。

在数字革命初期,互联网软件公司经常会使用塑造型战略创造新的社区、标准和平台,后来这些都成为新市场和业务的基础。

正是由于这种战略,Facebook能在短短几年内取代行业先行者MySpace。

Facebook最聪明的战略举措之一,就是2007年向外部开发商开放其网络平台,从而将各类应用吸引到它的网站上。

Facebook并不指望预测其中哪一个应用程序以后能发展到多大规模或者多么成功,而且它也不需要这样做。

到2008年,它已经吸引到3.3万个应用程序,到2010年这一数字上升到55万多个。

随着行业的发展,超过三分之二的成功社交网络应用变成了游戏,让人丝毫不意外的是,其中最受欢迎的一些应用(由Zynga、Playdom和Playfish 开发)都在Facebook上运行,并且丰富了该网站的内容。

此外,即使随着时间的推移,社交网络市场格局发生剧变,一些最受欢迎的应用可能还是会出现在Facebook上。

因为,通过创造一个灵活且受人欢迎的平台,Facebook主动将商业环境塑造成对自己有利的情况,而非仅仅在现有市场占一席之地,或者对变化做出反应,不论这种反应的速度有多快。

愿景型战略有些时候,一家公司不仅要有塑造未来的力量,可能还要清楚未来是什么样子以及如何实现。

这时就需要一些大胆的战略—就像发明家们创造全新市场时的战略(比如爱迪生在电力方面以及马丁·罗斯布拉(Martin Rothblatt)在XM卫星广播方面),或者公司领导层凭借一种全新的视野让公司重获新生—例如印度知名企业家拉丹·塔塔(Ratan Tata)尝试推出超低成本汽车Nano。

这些都是很冒险的行为,这些战略信奉的是:先制造出产品,然后顾客自动会被吸引过来。

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