曼昆经济学原理》复习资料
曼昆经济学原理考点
曼昆经济学原理考点
曼昆经济学原理是经济学教学的经典教材之一，其中包含了许多重要的经济学概念和理论。
以下是一些曼昆经济学原理的考点，旨在帮助学生更好地理解和掌握这门学科：
1. 稀缺性和选择：经济学的核心问题是资源的稀缺性和人们的选择行为。
人们面临着有限的资源，需要通过做出不同的选择来满足自己的需求和欲望。
2. 机会成本：做出选择意味着放弃其他选择，而放弃的选择所带来的成本被称为机会成本。
学会权衡利弊，考虑机会成本是经济学分析的重要方法。
3. 边际效益和边际成本：边际效益是指增加一单位生产或消费所带来的额外收益，而边际成本则是指增加一单位生产或消费所需的额外成本。
了解边际效益和边际成本对于优化资源配置至关重要。
4. 供求关系和市场均衡：供求关系决定了商品或服务的价格和数量。
当供求相等时，市场达到均衡状态，价格和数量稳定。
5. 市场失灵：尽管市场通常可以有效分配资源，但有时会出现市场失灵的情况，例如垄断、外部性和公共物品等。
了解市场失灵的原因和后果，以及可能采取的政策措施，是经济学的重要内容。
6. 政府干预：政府在市场中扮演着重要的角色。
了解政府如何
通过税收、补贴、管制等手段来影响经济活动，并了解这些干预的经济效果，是经济学的研究内容之一。
7. 经济增长和经济循环：经济增长是衡量一个国家经济发展水平的指标，经济循环则指的是经济活动的周期性波动。
了解经济增长和经济循环的原因和影响因素，对于理解和分析经济现象至关重要。
以上仅是曼昆经济学原理的一些考点，希望能帮助学生更好地学习和应用经济学原理。
曼昆《经济学原理》重点及答案
一、名词解释：（每题3分，共45分）二、简答题：（每题5分，共25分）三、图形题：（每题5分，共15分）四、案例题：（每题15分，共15分）1理性人 : 指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人。
理性人是经济研究中所假设的，在一定条件下具有典型理性行为的经济活动主体，可以是消费者、厂商、也可以是从事任何其他经济活动的人。
2市场失灵：指一些不受管制的市场不能有效地配置资源。
3产权：指个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。
4互补品：一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求减少的两种物品。
5均衡数量：当价格调整到使供给与需求平衡时的供给量与需求量。
6富有弹性：如果一种商品的需求量对价格变动的反应大，可以说这种物品的需求是富有弹性的。
7生产者剩余：指卖者出售一种物品或服务得到的量减去卖者的成本。
8交易成本：各方在协议与遵守协议过程中所发生的成本。
9私人物品：既有排他性又有竞争性的物品。
10搭便车行为：得到一种物品利益但避开为此支付的行为。
11隐性成本：不要求企业支出货币的投入成本。
12经济利润：企业的总收益减去生产所售物品与劳务的所有机会成本（显性的和隐性的）13固定成本：不随产量变动而变动的成本。
14可变成本：随产量变动而变动的成本。
15规模经济：长期平均总成本随产量增加而减少的特性。
16效率：资源配置使社会所有成员得到的总剩余最大化的性质。
17市场势力：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能力。
18替代品：一种物品的价格上升引起另一种物品需求的增加的两种物品。
19供给量：生产者在一定时期内，在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提出出售的该种商品的数量。
20需求的价格弹性：一种物品需求量对其价格变动反应程度的衡量，用需求量变动的百分比除以价格不变动的百分比计算。
21必需品和奢侈品：必需品倾向于需求缺乏弹性，而奢侈品倾向于需求富有弹性。
一种物品是必需品还是奢侈品并不取决于物品本身固有的性质，而取决于买者的偏好。
深圳大学曼昆经济学原理考研复习资料
第一篇导言第一章经济学十大原理1.经济学稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
2.经济学十大原理（1）人们如何作出决策原理一：人们面临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大利益的特性。
平等：经济成果在社会成员中平均分配的特性。
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那么明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到它必须放弃的东西。
机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设人是理性的。
在机会成本既定时，理性人系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
许多决策涉及到对现有行动计划进行微小增量调整，经济学家把这些调整称为边际变动。
只有一种行动的边际收益大于或等于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这项行动。
理性人：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现其目标的人。
边际变动：对行动计划的微小增量调整。
原理四：人们会对激励做出反应激励是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
由于人们通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以当成本或收益变动时，人们的行为也会改变。
激励：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
（2）人们如何相互交易原理五：贸易可以使每个人的状况都变得更好贸易使每个人可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动。
通过与他人交易，人们可以按较低的价格买到各种各样的物品与劳务。
国家和家庭一样也能从相互交易中获益。
贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动，并享有各种各样的物品与劳务。
原理六：市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法在一个市场经济中，中央计划者的决策被千百万企业和家庭决策取代。
这些企业和家庭在市场上相互交易，价格和个人利益引导他们的决策，他们仿佛被“看不见的手”所指引，引起了合意的市场结果。
市场经济：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过它们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
曼昆《经济学原理》复习资料
《经济学原理》期末复习提纲一、题型名词辨析（4分×5=20分）选择题（1分×20=20分）判断题（2分×10=20分）计算题（10分×2=20分）论述题（10分×2=20分）二、知识点第1章•理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的，所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何与他人相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西边际变动：对行动变化微小的增量调整市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升•熟悉经济学的十大原理1、人们面对权衡取舍，有所得必有所失，要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西，真正的成本不是会计成本，而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择，边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策，并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限，如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中，失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
•领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
（大炮vs黄油；环境vs收益；效率vs公平）第2章•理解循环流向图与生产可能性边界这两个模型的内容循环流向图：说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型p21生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
表明了社会所面临的一种权衡取舍，但随着时间的推移，可以改变。
曼昆《经济学原理》整理
曼昆《经济学原理》整理《经济学原理》是经济学家尼古拉斯·曼昆(N. Gregory Mankiw)的经济学教材，这本教材包含宏观经济学和微观经济学两个分册。
在本文中，我将主要整理《经济学原理》的微观经济学分册。
《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》是一本系统而经典的微观经济学教材。
教材中的内容通俗易懂，生动有趣，深入浅出，非常适合初学者学习和理解。
微观经济学研究个体决策者如何进行决策，以及这些决策如何影响市场的供求关系和资源配置。
教材分为十章，每一章都涉及到微观经济学的重要概念和原理。
以下是每章的主要内容概述：第一章介绍了经济学和经济思维的基本概念。
它解释了经济学的定义、研究方法和一些重要的经济原理，如稀缺性和成本。
第二章介绍了供求关系和市场机制的基本概念。
它解释了需求和供给曲线的性质，以及市场均衡和价格调整的过程。
第三章讨论了价格弹性和收入弹性的概念。
它解释了价格弹性和收入弹性如何衡量市场对价格和收入变化的敏感程度。
第四章讨论了消费者行为的理论和决策过程。
它解释了消费者如何进行最优消费决策，以及如何通过边际效用和限制性预算来衡量消费者福利。
第五章探讨了生产者行为的理论和决策过程。
它解释了生产者如何进行最优生产决策，并介绍了生产函数、边际产出和成本曲线的概念。
第六章介绍了市场失灵的原因和解决办法。
它讨论了市场外部性、公共物品和不完全竞争的问题，以及政府在解决市场失灵方面的角色。
第七章讨论了消费者剩余和生产者剩余的概念。
它解释了消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何衡量买家和卖家对交易的满意程度。
第八章讨论了纳什均衡和博弈理论的概念。
它解释了博弈理论如何帮助我们理解决策者之间的相互作用和策略选择。
第九章介绍了垄断和垄断竞争的市场结构。
它解释了垄断者如何通过价格和产量限制来影响市场，并讨论了垄断竞争下的市场行为。
第十章介绍了资源市场的概念和原理。
它解释了劳动市场和资本市场如何确定工资和利率，并讨论了市场竞争对工资和利率的影响。
曼昆《经济学原理》重点整理1-7章
曼昆《经济学原理》重点整理1-7章第1章理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的，所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何与他人相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西边际变动：对行动变化微小的增量调整市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升熟悉经济学的十大原理1、人们面对权衡取舍，有所得必有所失，要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西，真正的成本不是会计成本，而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择，边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策，并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限，如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中，失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
（大炮vs黄油；环境vs收益；效率vs公平）第4章理解四种市场结构的含义竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场垄断者：一些市场上只有一个卖者，而且这个卖者决定价格寡头：有几个并不总是主动地进行竞争的卖者垄断竞争：有许多卖者，每个卖者提供略有差别的产品，有决定价格的能力能够分辨需求与需求量、供给与供给量需求量：指人们在一定的时期内，在某一个价格水平上，愿意购买和能够购买的商品量需求：把价格与需求量联系在一起的向右下方倾斜的曲线影响需求的因素：商品本身的价格、收入、相关物品价格、嗜好、预期、买者数量。
经济学原理第7版(曼昆)宏观经济学复习重点
第23章1.对于一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出2.国内生产总值〔GDP〕在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。
GDP通常是一年或一个季度〔3个月〕；衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产；只包括现期生产的物品，不包括过去生产的物品；生产并合法出售的所有东西；只包括最终物品的价值；包括有形的物品，也包括无形的劳务；使用市场价格。
3.GDP的四个组成部分是消费〔C〕、投资〔I〕、政府购买〔G〕和净出口〔NX〕。
〔1〕消费是家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与服务的支出〔2〕投资是用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出〔3〕政府购买包括地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出〔4〕净出口等于外国对国内生产的物品的购买〔出口〕减国内对外国物品的购买〔进口〕国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和4. 真实GDP和名义GDP真实GDP：按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产〔是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值〕不受价格变动的影响，反映产的产量的变动名义GDP：按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产〔是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值〕GDP平减指数GDP平减指数是用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标即GDP平减指数=〔名义GDP/真实GDP〕*100通货膨胀率=[〔第2年的GDP平减指数-第一年的GDP平减指数〕/第一年的GDP平减指数]*100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI答：指普通消费者购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。
即：CPI=〔当年一篮子物品与服务的价格/基年一篮子的价格〕*100计算消费物价指数：固定篮子、找出价格、计算这一篮子东西的费用、选择基年并计算指数、计算通货膨胀率通货膨胀率：从前一个时期以来物价指数变动的百分比通货膨胀率=[〔第二年CPI-第一年CPI〕/第一年CPI ]*100%生产物价指数：企业所购买的一篮子物品与服务的费用的衡量指标衡量生活费用中的三个问题。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to runcontrolled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good. Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low. 3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach? Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income. Q8 Dose a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equalto quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomiesof scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run.In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost. 15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative. Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve. Q5What is the prisoners’ dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly? The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make themall better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyerand a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services. Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores morequickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores. Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside theproduction possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D. Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the productionpossibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. Thiscan be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shownin Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demandedis Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q– Q2.3b. The farmers’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A toA +B +C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish FixedCost VariableCostTotalCostMarginalProduct0$10$0$10---11010515 102181010208324101525642810203045301025252b. Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8c c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time?each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from othercountries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1to q2, incurringlosses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industryand other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5aFigure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to areaB +C +D +E +F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplusis area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household. Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household. Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a goodto the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the。
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...第32章开放经济的宏观经济理论32.1复习笔记1．开放经济的宏观经济模型的两个假设（1）经济的GDP是既定的，⽤真实GDP衡量的⼀个经济物品与劳务的产量是由⽣产要素供给和所得到的投⼊变为产出的⽣产技术决定的。
（2）经济物价⽔平是既定的，物价⽔平的调整使货币的供求平衡。
2．开放经济的可贷资⾦市场开放经济的可贷资⾦市场中，可贷资⾦的供给来⾃国民储蓄（S），可贷资⾦的需求来⾃国内投资（I）和资本净流出（NCO）。
由于资本净流出既可以是正的，也可以是负的，所以它既可以增加，也可以减少由国内投资引起的可贷资⾦需求。
可贷资⾦的供给量和需求量取决于真实利率。
真实利率对国民储蓄和国内投资和资本净流出均有影响。
利率调整使可贷资⾦的供给与需求平衡。
在均衡利率时，可贷资⾦供给正好与需求平衡。
3．外汇市场真实汇率是由外汇市场上的供给与需求决定的。
外汇的供给来⾃资本净流出。
由于资本净流出不取决于真实汇率，所以，外汇供给曲线是垂直的。
外汇的需求来⾃净出⼝。
由于较低的真实汇率刺激了净出⼝（从⽽增加了为这些净出⼝⽀付需求的外汇量），需求曲线向右下⽅倾斜。
在均衡的真实汇率时，⼈们为购买外国资产⽽供给的外汇数量正好与⼈们为购买净出⼝⽽需求的外汇数量平衡。
4．开放经济中的均衡（1）资本净流出：两个市场之间的联系在可贷资⾦市场上，供给来⾃国民储蓄，需求来⾃国内投资和资本净流出，⽽且真实利率使供求平衡。
在外汇市场上，供给来⾃资本净流出，需求来⾃净出⼝，⽽且真实汇率使供求平衡。
资本净流出是联系这两个市场的变量。
在可贷资⾦市场上，资本净流出是需求的⼀部分。
在外汇市场上，资本净流出是供给的来源。
资本净流出的关键决定因素是真实利率。
图32-1表⽰利率和资本净流出之间的这种负相关关系。
这条资本净流出曲线表⽰可贷资⾦市场和外汇市场之间的联系。
图32-1资本净流出如何取决于利率（2）两个市场的同时均衡在图32-2（a）中，可贷资⾦的供给和需求决定了真实利率。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第7版)复习全书【核心
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 读书笔记 05 目录分析
目录
02 内容摘要 04 精彩摘录 06 作者介绍
思维导图
关键字分析思维导图
内容
应用
复习
教材
第版
经济学
微观经济学
第版
部分
真题 第章
企业
分册
市场
模拟
第篇消费者ຫໍສະໝຸດ 原理供给内容摘要
本书是曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第7版）教材的配套电子书，主要包括两部分内容：第一部 分为核心讲义。遵循曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第7版）教材体系，参照各高校考研真题和期末考 试试卷，共分为22章，全面讲解考试重点难点内容，帮助学员巩固知识，梳理要点，从而轻松应考。第二部分为 模拟试题及详解。根据各高校历年考研真题的命题规律及热门考点精心编写了两套考前模拟试题，并提供详尽、 标准解答。
机会成本指将一种资源用于某种特定用途所放弃的使用该项资源在其他用途中所能获得的最大收益。
目录分析
1
第1篇导言
第2篇市场如何 2
运行
3 第3篇市场和福
利
4 第4篇公共部门
经济学
5 第5篇企业行为
与产业组织
第6篇劳动市 场经济学
第7篇深入研 究的论题
第1章经济学十大原理 第2章像经济学家一样思考 第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处
第18章生产要素市场 第19章收入与歧视 第20章收入不平等与贫困
第21章消费者选择理论 第22章微观经济学前沿
曼昆《经济 学原理（微 观经济学分 册）》（第7 版）模拟试
题及详解 （一）
经济学原理复习题-曼昆版
《经济学原理》课程部分复习题（电子版）一、名词解释稀缺性机会成本外部性通货膨胀 GDP平减指数结构性失业市场失灵均衡价格均衡数量需求价格弹性需求收入弹性需求交叉弹性消费者剩余生产者剩余公共物品私人物品边际成本边际产量规模经济价格歧视国内生产总值 CPI 比较优势货币中性自然产量率无谓损失经济利润沉没成本二、单项选择题1、下列不会引起牛排需求发生变化的情况是（）A、医生说多吃牛肉有损健康B、牛的饲养者宣传牛排中含有丰富的营养C、牛排价格从3美元涨到4美元D、汉堡价格从每千克2美元降到1.5美元2、比萨和炸玉米饼是替代品，如果比萨价格上升，则（）A、比萨的需求减少，炸玉米饼的需求增加B、两种商品的需求都减少C、炸玉米饼的需求量增加，比萨的需求量减少D、炸玉米饼的需求增加，比萨的需求量减少3、下列哪项不列入GDP核算（）A、出口到国外的一批货物B、经济人为一座旧房屋买卖收取的佣金费C、政府为贫困家庭发放的一笔救济金D、保险公司收到的一笔家庭财产保险费4、经济学是研究个人、企业、政府以及整个社会在面对（）时做出选择的一门社会科学A．必要性 B.贫困 C.稀缺 D.效率5、已知某种商品的需求是富有弹性的，在其他条件不变的情况下，卖者要想获得更多的收益，应该( ) A．适当降低价格 B.适当提高价格 C.保持价格不变 D.加大销售量6、一国的GDP大于GNP，则该国公民从国外取得的收入与外国公民从该国取得的收入之间的关系是( ) A．大于 B.小于 C.等于 D.无法判断7、完全竞争和垄断竞争的主要区别是( )A．产品差异程度 B.市场中厂商的数量C.长期当中厂商获得的利润D.进出行业的容易度8、我们必须在“是生产大炮还是生产黄油”的问题上作出选择，这主要是( )A.欲望的无限性B.资源利用问题C.资源配置问题D.选择的普遍性9、照相机和胶卷是( )A.非相关品B.独立产品C.互补产品D.互替产品10、假定某机器原来生产产品A，利润收入为200元，现在改生产产品B，所花的人工、材料费为1000元，则生产产品B的机会成本是( )A.200元B.1000元C.1200元D.无法确定11、消费者剩余是消费者的( )A.实际所得B.主观感受C.没有购买的部分D.消费剩余部分12、一个行业的市场被几家厂商控制，他们通过操纵价格来决定这个行业产品的价格，这样的市场结构被称为( )A.完全竞争B.完全垄断C.寡头垄断D.垄断竞争13、建筑工人工资提高将使( )A.新房子供给曲线左移并使房子价格上升B.新房子供给曲线右移并使房子价格下降C.新房子需求曲线左移并使房子价格下降D.新房子需求曲线右移并使房子价格上升14、假定短期内在某一产量水平上，某厂商的平均成本达到了最小值，这意味着( )A.边际成本等于平均成本B.厂商获得了最大利润C.厂商获得了最小利润D.厂商的超额利润为零15、某人的吸烟行为属( )A.生产的外在经济B.消费的外在经济C.生产的外在不经济D.消费的外在不经济16、企业为了获得更多的利润提高产品价格所引起的通货膨胀属于( )A.需求拉上的通货膨胀B.预期的通货膨胀C.成本推动的通货膨胀D.惯性的通货膨胀17、公开市场业务是指( )A.中央银行在金融市场上买进或卖出有价证券B.中央银行增加或减少对商业银行的贷款C.中央银行规定对商业银行的最低贷款利率D.中央银行对商业银行实施监督18、下列哪一项不属于扩张性财政政策？( )A．减少税收 B.制定物价管制政策C.增加政府支出D.增加公共事业投资19、利润最大化原则是（）A、边际成本等于平均成本B、边际成本小于边际收益；C、边际成本等于边际收益D、边际成本大于边际收益；20、当存在正的外部经济影响时，（）A、社会边际成本大于私人边际成本，社会边际收益大于私人边际收益；B、社会边际成本小于私人边际成本，社会边际收益小于私人边际收益；C、社会边际成本大于私人边际成本，社会边际收益小于私人边际收益；D、社会边际成本小于私人边际成本，社会边际收益大于私人边际收益；21、短期平均成本曲线呈U型，是因为（）A、外部经济B、内在经济；C、规模经济D、边际收益递减规律。
曼昆-经济学原理-复习资料
《经济学原理》课程（曼昆版）复习资料第一章1.你在篮球比赛的赌注中赢了100美元.你可以选择现在花掉它或者在利率为5%的银行账户中存一年.现在花掉100美元的机会成本是CA现在的95美元；B一年后的95美元；C现在的105美元；D一年后的105美元.2.魔力饮料公司的三位经理正在讨论是否要扩大产量.每位经理提出了做出这个决策的一种方法，你认为哪位经理的决策是正确的呢？C哈利：我们应该考查一下我们公司的生产率——每个工人生产的加仑数——将上升还是下降.罗恩：我们应该考查一下我们的平均成本——每个工人的成本——将上升还是下降.赫敏：我们应该考查一下多卖一加仑饮料的额外收益，大于还是小于额外的成本.A哈利；B罗恩；C赫敏；D都正确.3.如果你的室友做饭比你好，但你打扫房间比你的室友快，那么你们两个人有效率的分工应该是AA你的室友承担全部做饭工作，你承担全部打扫工作；B你的室友承担全部打扫工作，你承担全部做饭工作；C你的室友与你交替地承担做饭工作和打扫工作；D你的室友与你共同雇工来承担做饭和打扫工作.4.在美国独立战争期间，美国殖民地政府无法筹集到足够的税收来为战争融资，为了弥补这个差额，殖民地政府决定更多地印发货币.印发货币弥补支出有时被称为“通货膨胀税”.你认为当增发货币时，谁被更多地“征税”了？BA穷光蛋；B有钱人；C男人；D女人.5.你管理的公司在开发一种新产品过程中已经投入500万美元，但开发工作还远远没有完成.在最近的会议上，公司销售人员报告说，竞争性产品的进入将使新产品的预期销售额减少到300万美元.那么你认为公司为了这项新产品开发，最多应该继续花费多少呢？CA0美元（即马上停止继续开发新产品）；B100万美元；C300万美元；D500万美元.6.假设你现在计划星期六在图书馆学习，但有朋友约你外出旅游.那么外出旅游的机会成本是什么呢？BA外出旅游的午餐费；B旅游时间里可以学习到的知识；C到图书馆抢座位的痛苦；D和朋友约会的快乐.7.社会保障制度为60岁以上的人提供收入.如果一个社会保障的领取者决定去工作并赚一些钱，那么他所领到的社会保障补助通常会减少.这种社会保障体制将会如何影响60岁以上老人的工作时间？BA增加工作时间；B减少工作时间；C工作时间不变；D无法确定工作时间的变化.8.下列哪一项政府活动的动机是关注平等？BA对有线电视频道的价格进行管制；B向穷人提供可用来购买食物的消费券；C在公共场所禁止吸烟；D把美孚石油公司分拆为几个较小的公司.9.从总体上来说，我们的生活水平通常要高于我们父辈或祖辈那个时代，主要原因是DA我们更年轻；B我们更聪明；C我们钞票更多；D我们生产率更高.第二章1.实证表述与规范表述之间的差别是什么？各举出一个例子.答：实证表述是描述世界是什么的观点，是描述性的.规范表述是企图描述世界应该如何运行的观点，是命令性的.两者的主要差别是我们如何判断它们的正确性.从原则上讲，可以通过检验证据而确认或否定实证描述.而规范表述的判断不仅涉及事实数据，还涉及价值观的问题.举例如下：实证表述：发放可交易的污染许可证可以有效地控制污染物的排放.规范表述：政府应该向企业发放可交易的污染许可证.2.下列论述中哪个问题属于宏观经济学范畴？CA家庭把多少收入用于储蓄的决策；B政府管制对汽车废气的影响；C高国民储蓄对经济增长的影响；D企业关于雇佣多少工人的决策.3.下列哪种表述是实证表述？AA社会面临着通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍；B中国应该减少外汇储备数量；C美联储应该降低货币增长率；D社会应该要求福利领取者去找工作.4.设想一个生产军用品和消费品的社会，我们把这些物品称为“大炮”和“黄油”.假想一个侵略成性的邻国削减了军事力量，结果鹰党和鸽党都等量减少了自己原来希望生产的大炮数量.用黄油产量的增加幅度来衡量，哪一个党会得到更大的“和平红利”呢？AA鹰党得到更大“和平红利”；B鸽党得到更大“和平红利”；C鹰党和鸽党获得相同“和平红利”；D无法确定.5.一个经济由Larry、Moe和Curly这三个工人组成.每个工人每天工作10小时，并可以提供两种服务：割草和洗汽车.在一小时内，Larry可以割一块草地或洗一辆汽车；Moe可以割一块草地或洗两辆汽车，而Curly可以割两块草地或洗一辆汽车.请问下列哪一种资源配置明显地是无效率的呢？CA三个工人把他们所有的时间都用于割草；B三个工人把他们所有的时间都用于洗汽车；C三个工人都分别把一半时间用于两种活动；D Larry分别把一半时间用于两种活动，而Moe只洗汽车，Curly只割草.6.以下哪个表述是关于要素市场上物品与劳务流向和货币流向的？BA Selena向店主支付1美元买了1夸脱牛奶；B Stuart在快餐店工作，每小时赚4.5美元；C Shanna花30美元理发；D Sally从顶峰工业公司购买了一套价值1万美元的家具.7.人们需要在清洁的环境和工业产量之间进行权衡取舍.现在假设工程师开发出了一种几乎没有污染的新的发电方法，对于以清洁环境和工业产量为两种物品的生产可能性边界图中，生产可能性边界会发生什么变化呢？B A生产可能性边界会向内移动；B生产可能性边界会向外移动；C生产可能性边界形状将变得内凹；D生产可能性边界形状将变为直线.8.下列哪种表述是规范表述？CA关税和进口配额通常降低了总体经济福利；B租金上限降低了可得到的住房数量和质量；C美国应该取消农业补贴；D弹性汇率和浮动汇率提供了一种有效的国际货币协定.第三章1.为什么经济学家反对限制各国之间贸易的政策?答：因为每个国家都会在不同的劳务或物品生产上具有比较优势.各国在生产上进行分工，专门生产自己具有比较优势的产品，可以使世界经济的总产量增加，同时相互间进行贸易，每个国家的消费者都可以消费更多的物品和劳务，所有的国家都可以实现更大的繁荣.2.美国和日本工人每人每年可以生产4辆汽车.一个美国工人每年可以生产10吨粮食.而一个日本工人每年可以生产5吨粮食.为了简化起见，假设每个国家有1亿工人.哪个国家在生产汽车上具有绝对优势？在生产粮食上呢？答：美国在生产粮食中占有绝对优势.美国和日本生产汽车的绝对能力是相同的.哪个国家在生产汽车上具有比较优势?在生产粮食上呢?A答：美国在生产粮食上有比较优势，日本在生产汽车上有比较优势.A美国生产粮食有比较优势，日本生产汽车有比较优势；B美国生产汽车有比较优势，日本生产粮食有比较优势；C美国生产粮食有比较优势，日本生产汽车有绝对优势；D美国生产汽车有绝对优势，日本生产粮食有比较优势.3.Pat和Kris是室友.他们把大部分时间用于学习(理所当然)，但也留出一些时间做他们喜爱的活动：做比萨饼和制作清凉饮料.Pat制作1加仑清凉饮料需要4小时，做1块比萨饼需要2小时.Kris制作1加仑清凉饮料需要6小时，做1块比萨饼需要4小时.A每个室友做1块比萨饼的机会成本是什么？谁在做比萨饼上有绝对优势？谁在做比萨饼上有比较优势?答：Pat做1块比萨饼的机会成本是1/2加仑清凉饮料.Kris制作1块比萨饼的机会成本是2/3加仑清凉饮料.Pat 在做比萨饼上既有绝对优势又有比较优势.B如果Pat和Kris互相交换食物，谁将用比萨饼换取清凉饮料?可能的交换比例是多少？B答：Pat将用比萨饼换清凉饮料.A Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的1加仑清凉饮料；B Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的7/12加仑清凉饮料；C Pat将用1加仑清凉饮料交换Kris的1/4块比萨饼；D Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的1/7加仑清凉饮料.C比萨饼的价格可以用若干加仑清凉饮料来表示.能使两个室友状况都更好的比萨饼交易的最高价格是多少？最低价格是多少？解释原因.答：1块比萨饼的最高价格是2/3加仑清凉饮料，最低价格是1/2加仑清凉饮料.因为Pat在做比萨上有比较优势，并且机会成本是1/2加仑清凉饮料.如果两个室友之间实行贸易，他会选择生产比萨饼，并与Kris交换清凉饮料.如果1块比萨交换不到1/2加仑清凉饮料，Pat就宁可少生产1块比萨饼，而自己去生产1/2加仑清凉饮料.Kris 在生产清凉饮料上有比较优势，机会成本是3/2块比萨饼.在贸易中，他会选择生产清凉饮料并与pat交换比萨饼.对于克里斯而言，1加仑清凉饮料最少要换3/2块比萨饼，也就是说，1块比萨饼的最高价格是2/3加仑清凉饮料.如果1块比萨饼的价格高于2/3加仑清凉饮料，Kris的1加仑清凉饮料就换不到3/2块比萨饼.那他就宁可少生产1加仑饮料，自己去生产3/2块比萨饼.4.英格兰和苏格兰都生产烤饼和毛衣.假设一个英格兰工人每小时能生产50个烤饼或1件毛衣.假设一个苏格兰工人每小时能生产40个烤饼或2件毛衣.A在每种物品的生产上，哪个国家有绝对优势？哪一国有比较优势？C答：英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有绝对优势，苏格兰工人在生产毛衣上有绝对优势.1个英格兰工人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是1/50件毛衣，生产1件毛衣的机会成本是50个烤饼.1个苏格兰工人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是1/20件毛衣，生产1件毛衣的机会成本是20个烤饼.可见，英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势，苏格兰人在生产毛衣上有比较优势.A英格兰工人在生产毛衣上有绝对优势；B苏格兰工人在生产烤饼上有绝对优势；C英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势；D苏格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势.B如果英格兰和苏格兰决定进行贸易，苏格兰将用哪种商品与英格兰交易？解释原因.答：苏格兰人将用毛衣与英格兰人交易.因为他们在生产毛衣上有比较优势.C如果一个苏格兰工人每小时只能生产一件毛衣，苏格兰仍然能从贸易中得到好处吗？英格兰仍然能从贸易中得到好处吗？解释原因.答：如果1个苏格兰人每小时只能生产1件毛衣，那么他们生产1件毛衣的机会成本是40个烤饼，仍低于英格兰人生产1件毛衣的机会成本(50个烤饼).所以，苏格兰人在生产毛衣上仍有比较优势.而此时，1个苏格兰人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是l／40件毛衣，仍高于1个英格兰人生产1个烤饼的机会成本，即英格兰人在生产烤饼上仍有比较优势.那么在贸易中，苏格兰人和英格兰人仍都能受益.5.一个巴西的普通工人可以用20分钟生产1盎司大豆,用60分钟生产1盎司咖啡;而一个秘鲁的普通工人可以用50分钟生产1盎司大豆,用75分钟生产1盎司咖啡.A在生产咖啡上有绝对优势？解释之.答：巴西的普通工人有绝对的优势，因为他生产1盎司咖啡用时（60分钟）比秘鲁的普通工人（75分钟）少.B谁在生产咖啡上有比较优势？解释之.答：秘鲁的普通工人具有比较优势.因为秘鲁工人生产每盎司咖啡的机会成本（75/50=1.5盎司的大豆）低于在巴西工人平均每盎司咖啡的机会成本（60/20=3大豆盎司）.C如果两国进行专业分工并相互贸易，谁将进口咖啡？解释之.答：巴西将从秘鲁进口咖啡，因为秘鲁在咖啡生产上有比较优势.D假设两国进行贸易，而且，进口咖啡的国家用2盎司大豆交换1盎司咖啡.解释为什么两国都将从这种贸易中获益.答：因为两国的机会成本都比原先下降了，生产时间节省了（巴西：60-40=20分钟；秘鲁：100-75=25分钟）6.假设加拿大有1000万工人，而且每个工人1年可生产2辆汽车或30蒲式耳小麦.那么，加拿大生产1蒲式耳小麦的机会成本是多少呢？CA2辆汽车；B1辆汽车；C1/15辆汽车；D无法确定.7.假设加拿大有1000万工人，而且每个工人1年可生产2辆汽车或30蒲式耳小麦.现在假设美国从加拿大购买1000万辆汽车，每辆汽车交换20蒲式耳小麦.如果加拿大消费1000万辆汽车，这种交易使加拿大可以消费多少小麦？BA15000蒲式耳小麦；B20000蒲式耳小麦；C30000蒲式耳小麦；D40000蒲式耳小麦.8.Maria每小时可以读20页经济学著作，也可以每小时读50页社会学著作.她每天学习5小时，那么Maria阅读100页社会学著作的机会成本是多少呢？BA读20页经济学著作；B读40页经济学著作；C读50页经济学著作；D读100页经济学著作.9.下表描述了Baseballia国两个城市的生产可能性如果这两个城市相互交易，那么两个城市之间贸易时白袜子的交易价格范围是多少?AA最高价格是2双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子；B最高价格是1双红袜子，最低价格是1/2双红袜子；C最高价格是3双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子；D最高价格是3双红袜子，最低价格是2/3双红袜子.10.下列表述哪个是正确？AA.“即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处.”B.“某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势.”C.“如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处.D.“如果某种贸易对一个人是好事，那么它对另一个人也总是好事.”11.假定一个美国工人每年能生产100件衬衣或20台电脑，而一个中国工人每年能生产100件衬衣或10台电脑.A.画出这两个国家的生产可能性边界.假定没有贸易，每个国家的工人各用一半的时间生产两种物品，在你的图上标出这一点.答：两个国家的生产可能性边界如下图所示.如果没有贸易，一个美国工人把一半的时间用于生产每种物品，则能生产50件衬衣、10台电脑；同样，一个中国工人则能生产50件衬衣、5台电脑.生产可能性边界（图）B.如果这两个国家进行贸易，哪个国家将出口衬衣？举出一个具体的数字例子，并在你的图上标出.哪一个国家将从贸易中获益？解释原因.答：中国将出口衬衣.对美国而言，生产一台电脑的机会成本是5件衬衣，而生产一件衬衣的机会成本为1/5台电脑.对中国而言，生产一台电脑的机会成本是10件衬衣，而生产一件衬衣的机会成本为1/10台电脑.因此，美国在生产电脑上有比较优势，中国在生产衬衣上有比较优势，所以中国将出口衬衣.衬衣的价格在1/5到1/10台电脑之间.两个国家都会从贸易中获益.例如，衬衣的价格为1/8台电脑，换言之，中国出口8件衬衣换回1台电脑.中国专门生产衬衣（100件），并出口其中的8件，这样就有92件衬衣和换回的1台电脑.而没有贸易时，92件衬衣和1台电脑在中国是不可能得到的产出.美国专门生产电脑（20台）并向中国出口其中的1台换取8件衬衣.这样，美国最后就有19台电脑和8件衬衣，这是没有贸易时美国不可能得到的产出.由此可见，贸易使中国和美国所能消费的产品增加，两国都获益了.C.解释两国可以交易的电脑价格（用衬衣衡量）是多少.D答：一台电脑的价格将在5到10件衬衣之间.如果电脑价格低于5件衬衣，美国将不会出口，因为在美国一件衬衣的机会成本为1/5台电脑.如果电脑的价格高于10件衬衣，中国将不会进口，因为在中国一台电脑的机会成本是10件衬衣.A1件衬衫交换1/2台电脑；B1件衬衫交换1/12台电脑；C1台电脑交换4件衬衫；D1台电脑交换8件衬衫.D.假设中国的生产率赶上了美国，因此，一个中国工人每年可以生产100件衬衣或20台电脑.你预期这时的贸易形式会是什么样的.中国生产率的这种进步将如何影响两国居民的经济福利？答：此时，中美双方将同时生产两种商品，然后进行贸易，不过此时的贸易被称为水平贸易，即生产率大致相同的两个国家进行的贸易.而中国在提高生产率之前，两国进行的是垂直贸易.垂直贸易可以增进两国的福利，水平贸易同样能增进两国的福利.经常举的例子是，美国自己生产小汽车，但它还是进口日本的汽车.原因是两国生产的汽车在性能、耗油量及体积大小等方面有差异，通过进口国外的汽车可以满足美国人多样化的需求，因此会增进美国人的福利.总的来说，中国生产率的这种进步会提高两国居民的经济福利.12.下列表述正确还是错误？分别做出解释.AA.“即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处.”答：对.因为一国即使在生产所有的物品上都有绝对优势，它也不可能在所有物品上都有比较优势.相反，即使一国在所有物品的生产上都没有绝对优势，它也会在某些物品上具有比较优势.B.“某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势.”答：错.一个人不可能同时在做两件事情上都拥有比较优势，因为如果用一件事情表示另一件事情的机会成本，那么这两件事情的机会成本互为倒数.C.“如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处.答：错.贸易所达到的是双赢或多赢局面.在贸易中，人们各自生产自己具有比较优势的产品，社会总产量增加，每个人的状况会变得更好.D.“如果某种贸易对一个人是好事，那么它对另一个人也总是好事.”答：错.双方的贸易价格必须位于两者之间的机会成本.E.“如果贸易能给某个国家带来好处，那么它也一定能给该国的每一个人带来好处.”答：错.贸易给某个国家带来好处的同时，可能损害该国内某些人的利益.如，假设一国在生产小麦上有比较优势，在生产汽车上有比较劣势，那么，出口小麦、进口汽车给这个国家带来好处，因为现在这个国家能够消费更多的商品.但是，贸易的出现，尤其是进口汽车，会损害国内汽车制造工人和厂商的利益.A即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处；B某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势；C如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处；D如果贸易能给某个国家带来好处，那么它也一定能给该国的每一个人带来好处.13.下表描述了Baseballia国两个城市的生产可能性A.没有贸易，波士顿一双白袜子价格（用红袜子表示）是多少？芝加哥1双白袜子价格是多少?答：没有贸易时，波士顿1双白袜子价格是1双红袜子，芝加哥1双白袜子价格是2双红袜子.B.在每种颜色的袜子生产上，哪个城市有绝对优势？哪个城市有比较优势?答：波士顿在生产红、白袜子上都有绝对优势.波士顿在生产白袜子上有比较优势，芝加哥在生产红袜子上有比较优势.C.如果这两个城市相互交易，两个城市将分别出口哪种颜色的袜子?答：如果它们相互交易，波士顿将出口白袜子，而芝加哥出口红袜子.D.可以进行交易的价格范围是多少?答：白袜子的最高价格是2双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子.红袜子的最高价格是1双白袜子，最低价格是1／2双白袜子.第四章关键概念：1.竞争市场：指有许多买者和卖者，以致于每个人对市场价格的影响都微不足道的市场.具备四个条件：A市场上有大量的买者和卖者；B市场上每个厂商提供的商品都是同质的；C所有资源具有完全的流动性；D信息是完全的或充分的.2.需求量：指买者愿意而且能够购买的一种物品数量.3.需求定理：在其他条件不变的情况下，某种商品的需求量与其价格之间成反向变动，即需求量随着商品价格上升而减少，随着商品价格下降而增加.4.正常商品：指在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的商品.5.低档商品：指在其他条件不变的情况下，收入增加引起需求减少的商品.6.替代品：指一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量增加的两种物品，或者说是指在效用上可以相互代替，满足消费者同一种欲望的商品.7.互补品：指一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量减少的两种物品，或者说是指在效用上互相补充配合，从而满足消费者同一种欲望的商品.8.供给量：指卖者愿意而且能够出售的数量，或者说是生产者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提供出售的该种商品数量.9.供给定理：指有关价格与供给量之关系的定理，即在其他条件相同时，一种物品价格上升时，该物品供给量就增加；当价格下降时，该物品供给量就减少.10.均衡：指价格达到使供给量等于需求量水平的状况，即在某个给定的价格水平下，生产者愿意提供的商品量恰好等于消费者愿意而且能够购买的商品量.11.供求定理：指任何一种物品价格的调整都会使该物品的供给与需求达到均衡的定理，即在其他条件不变的情况下，需求变动分别引起均衡价格和均衡数量的同方向变动，供给变动分别引起均衡价格的反方向变动和均衡数量的同方向变动.1.什么因素决定买者对一种物品的需求量?答：物品的价格、买者的收入水平、相关物品的价格、买者的偏好和对物品的价格预期.2.什么因素决定了卖者对一种物品的供给量?答：价格、投入价格、技术、预期决定了卖者对一种物品的供给量.3.啤酒与比萨饼是互补品，因为人们常常边吃比萨饼，边喝啤酒.当啤酒价格上升时，比萨饼市场的供给、需求、供给量、需求量以及价格会发生什么变动?答：因为啤酒和比萨饼是互补品，所以当啤酒价格上升而其他条件不变时，啤酒的需求会下降，比萨饼的需求也下降.而比萨饼的供给并没有什么原因使它变动，这样，比萨饼的需求曲线会向左移动，而供给曲线不变.达到市场均衡时的供给量、需求量、均衡价格都会下降.4.考虑DVD、电视和电影院门票市场.A对每一对物品，确定它们是互补品还是替代品·DVD和电视·DVD和电影票·电视和电影票答：DVD和电视机是互补品，因为不可能在没有电视的情况下看DVD.DVD和电影票是替代品，因为一部电影即可以在电影院看，也可以在家看.电视和电影票是替代品，原因与上面的类似.B假设技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本.答：技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本，使电视机的供给曲线向右移动.电视机的需求曲线不变.结果是电视机的均衡价格下降，均衡数量上升.5.过去20年间，技术进步降低了电脑芯片的成本.你认为这会对电脑市场产生怎样的影响？对电脑软件呢？对打字机呢?答：技术突破降低芯片成本，使电脑投入价格降低，电脑供给曲线向右下方移动，电脑的需求曲线并未改变.于是电脑市场的均衡价格下降，均衡数量增加.电脑与电脑软件是互补品.电脑市场均衡数量上升，软件的需求也会上升，需求曲线向右上方移动，而供给曲线没有改变.于是，软件市场的均衡价格上升，均衡数量增加.由于打字机也可以用来打字，它和电脑是替代品.电脑芯片成本降低使电脑价格降低，销售量上升，人们对打字机的需求会下降.打字机的价格下降，销售量下降.6.番茄酱是热狗的互补品(以及调味品).如果热狗价格上升，番茄酱市场会发生什么变动？番茄市场呢？番茄汁市场呢？橘子汁市场呢？。
曼昆 微观经济学 总复习
1. 确定该事件是使供给曲线移动还是使需求曲线 移动（还是使两者都移动）
2. 确定曲线移动的方向 3. 用供求图说明这种移动如何改变均衡价格和均
衡数量
经济学十大原理
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曲线移动与沿曲线移动
▪ 供给变动: 影响供给变动的非价格因素使供给曲
线移动（比如技术或投入品成本）。
▪ 供给量的变动：沿着一条固定供给曲线的变动。 ▪ 需求变动: 影响需求变动的非价格因素使需求曲
▪ 我们分析美国和日本将分别生产和消费多少物品 ▪ 如果两个国家都选择自给自足 ▪ 如果两个国家之间进行贸易
▪ 美国每个月有50，000个小时的劳动能用在生产上，
生产1台电脑需要100个小时的劳动，生产1吨小麦 需要10个小时的劳动。
经济学十大原理
5
日本每个月有30，000个小时的劳动能用在生产上，生产1台电 脑需要125个小时的劳动生产1吨小麦需要25个小时的劳动。日 本的生产可能性曲线
1,000
贸易条件下日本的生产
日本生产240台电脑需要30， 000个劳动小时 因此，日本的小麦产量为0
0
电脑（台）
100
200
300
经济学十大原理
9
小麦 (吨) 5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
贸易条件下美国的消费
生产
+ 进口 – 出口 = 消费总
量
电脑 160 110
0
270
1,000
格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。
▪ 需求表：表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的
表格。
经济学十大原理
14
海伦的需求表与需求曲线
拿铁咖 啡价格
(完整word版)曼昆经济学原理复习大纲(超全)
宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
实证表述：试图描述世界是什么样子的观点（描述性，科学家）。
规范表述：试图描述世界应该是什么样子的观点（规范性，政策顾问）。
科学家试图去解释世界，政策顾问试图去改善世界。
经济学家意见分歧的原因：1.科学判断的不同（征税是根据收入还是消费）
第九章应用：国际贸易（重点）
世界价格：一种物品在世界市场上所通行的价格。
出口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的出口者时，国内该物品生产者的状况变好了，而国内该物品消费者的状况变坏了。
从赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说，贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
进口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的进口国时，国内该物品消费者的状况变好了，而国内该物品生产者的状况变坏了。
需求量：买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。（其他条件：决定需求的非价格因素）
市场需求是个人需求之和。
需求曲线的移动（重点）：（需求增加需求减少）
a.收入
正常物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
富有弹性：价格上升，总收益减少。
单位弹性：价格上升，总收益不变。
尽管线性需求曲线的斜率是不变的，但弹性并不是不变的。这是因为斜率是两个变量变动的比率，而弹性是两个变量变动的百分比的比率。
在价格低而数量高的各点上，需求曲线是缺乏弹性的；在价格高而数量低的各点上，需求曲线是富有弹性的。
需求收入弹性：衡量一种物品需求量对消费者收入变动反应程度的指标。（正常物品是正数，低档物品是负数）
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilitiesfrontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’ surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like amonopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’ dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly? The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which issociety’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of eachother.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Sincemuch oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9c Chapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable. Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3– Q2.b. The farmers’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is anincrease in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish FixedCost VariableCostTotalCostMarginalProduct0 $10$0$10 ---1 10 105 15102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8c c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time?each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1 to q2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5aFigure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household. Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household. Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get?for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理..doc
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put inplace. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knivesin steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in theirown self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea o“f e fficiency”?The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A inFigure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptiveand make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm,or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producingthose goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producer’s technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below theequilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a goo—d a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more ofthe burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consume’r surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and abovethe price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, produce’r s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents thecosts of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the priceminus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignorethe cost?An accountant would not count the owner ’ ospportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost .An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer.Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant toHelen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing?Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why thenmight arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity ofoutput increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm choosesthe level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P* ), the level of output that * maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price ( Q ), as long as price is greater than average variable costat that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greaterthan average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which casethe firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enterthe industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raisethe price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, priceequals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cutin prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firmmust reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m . The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’d ilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat onany cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantityQ1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price ( P2) equals average total cost ( ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods,which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that areused to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquirethrough education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society derstanding of’t hes b u e n s t ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than itwould take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine,and they exchange some wine for some clothes.Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most ofthe economy ’ s resources are being ustoedproduce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economyare being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase inthe production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given upyields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it ’ s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get abigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1 /15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canadawill need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to theleft in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will notfind Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/ 225] = 0.29/ 0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationerscan choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3 – Q2.b. The farmers ’complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, asshown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B+ C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the pricereduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplusrises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that peoplesubstitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15.The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus inthe adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from areaC +D +E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computersbecause their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown inFigure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the softwaremarket changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C+ D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world ’ s richest men, since his company prod software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product0 $10 $0 $10 ---1 10 10 5 15 102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2b. Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8cc. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, thenbecomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q 1 to q 2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginalcost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5a Figure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises toP M . Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producersand the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement.The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household.Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car inFord ’ s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality,so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.精品文档。
曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理
第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的，因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
因此，经济学家研究人们如何做出决策，如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。
经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为，所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始：原理一：人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率（efficient）：是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。
平等（equality）：是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。
机会成本（opportunity）：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设，人是理性的。
在机会成本为既定的条件下，理性人（rational people）系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
边际变动（marginal change）：对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。
理性人通常比较边际收益（marginal benefit）与边际成本（marginal cost）来做决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。
原理四：人们会对激胁做出反应激励（incentive）是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西（如惩罚或奖励的预期）。
由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以，他们会对激励做出反应。
当成本或收益变动时，他们的行为也会随之发生改变。
曼昆经济学原理 重点总结
微观经济学：第一章经济学导论1.稀缺：①指相对于人们无穷的欲望来讲，物品是稀少短缺的②稀缺性：是经济物品的显著特征之一；并不意味着稀少，而指不可以免费得到；要得到经济物品必须有其他经济物品交换③稀缺规律：商品一般是稀缺的，只能得到有限供应，必须通过价格或其他形式进行分配④稀缺原因：一定时期内（大前提），物品本身是有限的；利用物品进行生产的技术条件是有限的；人的生命是有限的2.选择的机会成本：资源投入某一特定用途后，所放弃的其他用途的最大利益注：理论上讲是资源改做他用的各种可能中最优的选择，但由于信息不完全只能是其它使用中能获得的比较满意的选择3.经济学十大原理：①人们面临选择（人们为得到一样东西，就不得不放弃另一样东西）（效率是社会从稀缺性资源中获得的最多的东西，平等是把这些资源的成果公平的分给社会成员）②机会成本（由于稀缺性，人们就要比较可供选择的方案的成本和收益）③边际量（人们通过比较边际利益和编辑成本而做出抉择）④激励（理性决策者会做出边际利益大于边际成本的决策）⑤贸易会是每个人的状况越来越好（贸易可以使人们做最擅长的事）⑥市场通常是组织经济活动的好方法（家庭和企业→合意的市场结果；价格指引个别决策者在大多数情况下实现了整个社会福利最大化的结果）⑦政府有时可以改善市场结果（市场失灵时即市场本身不能进行资源配置时，政府干预经济，可以促进效率和平等；外部性指一个人的行为对旁观者的影响）⑧一国的生产水平取决于他的生产物品与劳务的能力（生活水平的不同由于生产率不同）⑨政府发行过多货币时，物价水平上升⑩社会面临通货膨胀和短期失业之间的权衡（↓↑）第二章需求和供给1．需求（人们愿意购买的商品数量）①需求表价格—数量组合A B C D E F G价格(元)1234567需求量(单位数)700600500400300200100②需求曲线价格注：当供=需时，有均衡价格③需求定理：需求量与价格呈反向变化④影响需求的因素a商品本身价格；相关商品价格b消费者的收入及社会的公平程度；的偏好；的对未来的期望。
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《经济学原理》期末复习提纲一、题型名词辨析（4分×5=20分）选择题（1分×20=20分）判断题（2分×10=20分）计算题（10分×2=20分）论述题（10分×2=20分）二、知识点第1章•理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的，所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何与他人相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西边际变动：对行动变化微小的增量调整市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升•熟悉经济学的十大原理1、人们面对权衡取舍，有所得必有所失，要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西，真正的成本不是会计成本，而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择，边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策，并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限，如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中，失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
•领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
（大炮vs黄油；环境vs收益；效率vs公平）第2章•理解循环流向图与生产可能性边界这两个模型的内容循环流向图：说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型p21生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
表明了社会所面临的一种权衡取舍，但随着时间的推移，可以改变。
P22第3章•学会利用图形分析生产可能性边界生产可能性边界：表示一个经济所能生产的产量的各种组合•理解绝对优势与比较优势的含义绝对优势：根据生产率比较一种物品的不同生产者。
如果一个生产者生产一个单位的物品所需的投入要素比其他生产者少，就说该生产者在生产此物品上有绝对优势。
比较优势：根据机会成本比较一种物品的不同生产者。
如果一个生产者生产一种物品的机会成本比其他生产者小，就说该生产者在生产此物品上有比较优势•学会运用比较优势原理分析交易的机会成本当每个人专门生产自己有比较优势的物品时，经济的总产量就增加了。
贸易可以使社会上每个人都获益，是因为它使人们从事他们具有比较优势的活动。
第4章•理解四种市场结构的含义竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场垄断者：一些市场上只有一个卖者，而且这个卖者决定价格寡头：有几个并不总是主动地进行竞争的卖者垄断竞争：有许多卖者，每个卖者提供略有差别的产品，有决定价格的能力•能够分辨需求与需求量、供给与供给量需求量：指人们在一定的时期内，在某一个价格水平上，愿意购买和能够购买的商品量需求：把价格与需求量联系在一起的向右下方倾斜的曲线影响需求的因素：商品本身的价格、收入、相关物品价格、嗜好、预期、买者数量。
商品本身的价格是影响需求量的因素，引起需求曲线上点的移动；其它都是影响需求的因素，引起需求曲线上点的移动。
供给量：厂商在一定的时间内，在某一个价格水平上，愿意供给和能够供给的商品量供给：把价格与供给量联系在一起的向右上方倾斜的曲线影响供给的因素：投入价格、技术、预期、卖者的数量。
商品本身的价格引起供给曲线上点的移动，其他因素引起的都将是供给曲线的移动。
•理解互补品与替代品的含义替代品：一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求增加的两种物品互补品：一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求减少的两种物品• 熟悉需求定理和供给定理• 学会利用供求模型分析价格的变动• 完全竞争市场和垄断竞争市场结构长期和短期均衡的含义第5章• 理解弹性的经济学含义及其决定因素弹性：在经济上是指一个变量对另一个变量变动的反应程度，或者一个变量变动影响另一个变量的程度。
它通常是两个变量变动的百分比，分母是自变量，而分子是因变量。
需求的价格弹性：指需求量变动对价格变动的反应程度，分母是价格变动的百分比，分子是需求量变动的百分比。
影响需求弹性的因素：相近替代品的可获得性、必需品与奢侈品、市场的定义、时间的长短、本身用途的广泛性•• E p >1 富有弹性 曲线平坦降价销售可以增加销售收入 E p <1 缺乏弹性 曲线陡峭 提价销售才能增加销售收入但是，由于同一条直线上弹性值不同，这就决定了在陡峭的曲线的上部，降价()()121212121212121222Q Q P P P P Q Q P P P P Q Q Q Q ++⨯--=÷+-÷÷+-=也能增加销售收入，反之，在平坦曲线的下部，降价则要减少销售收入。
E p=1 单位弹性价格变动，总收益不动E p=0 完全无弹性一条垂线E p=∞完全富有弹性一条水平线•能够利用弹性概念分析“谷贱伤农”的含义当粮食供给增加，导致价格下降时，也导致了销售量的增加。
但因为粮食的需求缺乏弹性，所以价格下降的幅度大于销售量增加的幅度，所以总收益下降。
第6章•学会利用供求模型分析价格管制造成的经济后果均衡价格未必是能使人满意的价格，它可能偏高或偏低，偏低则谷贱伤农，偏高则公众消费不起，所以政府要将其控制在适当的位置上，这就产生支持价格和限制价格。
政府决定的实际价格高于均衡价格为支持价格，能在短期中推动政府扶持企业的发展，如稳定农业生产；扩大农业投资；长期中则增加财政负担，农产品供给过多，失业增加。
政府决定的实际价格低于均衡价格为限制价格，在短期中有利于社会的公平和稳定。
但却不利于刺激生产，产品短缺；不利于抑制需求，资源浪费；引发黑市交易、请客送礼，败坏社会气，滋生腐败。
一般来说，行政手段干预的负面效应很大，市场手段改变需求的负面效应较小，但这两个手段仍只能在短期中不得已而为之，而不能作为常规操作手段。
现在发达国家着眼于改变供给，其效果相对要好得多。
•能够区分稀缺与短缺这两个概念•学会利用供求模型分析税收对买方价格和卖方价格的影响税收抑制了市场活动。
当对一种物品征税时，该物品在新均衡时的销售量减少了。
买者与卖者分摊税收负担。
在新均衡时，买者为该物品支付得多了，而卖者得到的少了。
•理解供求曲线的弹性与税收负担之间的关系 p110对买者和对卖者征税本质上是相同的，唯一区别是谁把钱交给政府。
税收归宿取决于供给和需求的弹性，税收负担更多得落在缺乏弹性的市场一方身上。
因为，在本质上，弹性衡量当条件变得不利时，买者或卖者离开市场的意愿。
需求弹性小意味着买者对消这某种物品没有适当的替代品。
供给弹性小意味着卖者对生产这某种物品没有适当的替代品。
当对这种物品征税时，市场中其他好的选择少的一方不能轻而易举地离开市场，从而必须承担更多的税收负担。
第7章•掌握支付意愿、消费者剩余、生产者剩余以及总剩余等概念支付意愿：买者愿意为某种物品支付的最高量消费者剩余：买者的支付意愿减买者的实际支付量（=买者的评价-买者支付的量），衡量了消费者从一种物品中得到的买者自己感觉到的利益，由需求曲线以下和价格以上的面积衡量。
反映了经济福利。
生产者剩余：卖者出售一种物品得到的量减卖者的成本（=卖者得到的量-卖者的成本），衡量卖者参与市场的利益，由价格之下和供给曲线以上的面积衡量。
总剩余：两者之和（=买者的评价-卖者的成本）•理解经济效率的含义效率：资源配置使社会所有成员得到的总剩余最大化的性质平等：福利在社会成员中分配的公平性关于市场结果的观点：1)自由市场把物品的供给分配给对这些物品评价最高的买者。
2)自由市场把物品的需求分配给可以以最低成本生产这些物品的卖者。
3)自由市场生产使消费者和生产者剩余总和最大化的产量，均衡结果是资源的有效配置。
•学会利用供求曲线衡量消费者剩余与生产者剩余及其变动（比如技术革新的影响）第8-9章•熟练应用供求曲线分析税收和补贴所造成的无谓损失 p137无谓损失：当税收（或某种其他政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余减少。
税收引起无谓损失是因为它使买者和卖者不能实现某些贸易的好处。
贸易的好处——买者评价与卖者成本之间的差额——小于税收。
一旦征税，这些贸易就无法进行。
无谓损失就是由于税收阻止了这些互利的贸易而引起的剩余损失。
由于供给和序曲弹性衡量市场参与者对市场状况的反应程度，所以供给和需求弹性越大，税收的无谓损失也就越大。
随着税收规模提高，无谓损失的增加越来越快，且快于税收规模。
税收收入起初随着税收规模扩大而增加，但最终由于高税收减少了市场规模，也就减少了税收收入。
•学会应用供求曲线分析自由贸易与关税对国内生产者剩余和消费者剩余的影响自由贸易对出口国的影响：国内该物品的生产者状况变好，而国内该物品的消费者状况变坏；在赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说，贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
自由贸易对进口国的影响：国内该物品的消费者状况变好，而国内该物品的生产者状况变坏；在赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说，贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
关税的影响：关税减少了进口量，并使国内市场接近于没有贸易时的均衡。
关税会引起无谓损失，因为它是一种税，扭曲了激励，并使稀缺资源配置背离了最优水平。
一部分是国内企业以高成本生产造成的无谓损失，一部分是消费不足的无谓损失。
P156第10章•理解正外部性、负外部性的含义及其对资源配置的影响外部性：一个经济主体的行为会影响别的经济主体的福利。
外部性有负，也有正，前者增加别人的福利，后者减少别人的福利。
负外部性：社会成本大于私人成本，社会最适量小于私人市场决定的数量，征税正外部性：社会价值大于私人价值，社会最适量大于私人市场决定的数量，补贴外部性的内在化：改变激励，以使人们考虑到自己行为的外部效应。
科斯定理：如果产权明晰，有关各方可以无交易成本地协商资源配置，那么，他们可以自己解决外部性问题。
庇古税：用于纠正负外部性影响的税收。
庇古税是存在外部性时的正确激励，从而使资源配置接近于社会最优。
因此，庇古税既增加了政府的收入，也提高了经济福利。
第11章•理解公共品的经济含义（竞争性与非排他性）以及由此引发的免费搭车问题排他性：可以阻止一个人使用一种物品时该物品的特性竞争性：一个人使用一种物品减少其他人使用时该物品的特性私人物品：既有排他性又有竞争性公共物品：既无排他性有无竞争性，如国防、灯塔、知识、基础研究和反贫困。
共有资源：有竞争性但无排他性，如清洁的空气和水、畅通的交通和野生动物。