外文文献翻译译稿和原文教学内容
乡村旅游外文翻译文献
乡村旅游外文翻译文献乡村旅游外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)翻译:Factors for success in rural tourism tourism developmentSince the 1970s,economic restructuring and farm crisis have reduced rural communities' economic development options, making older development strategies less viable and forcing many to look for nontraditional ways to sustain themselves. One of the most popular nontraditional rural development strategies has been tourism and its associated entrepreneurship rural development strategies has been tourism and its associated entrepreneurship opportunities because oftourism's ability to bring in dollars and to generate jobs and support retail growth. The purpose of this study was to identify and examine those factors that have helped rural communities successfully develop tourism and its entrepreneurship opportunities. Several focus groups were conducted with local businesspersons and leaders in six rural Illinois communities. The results clearly demonstrate the importance of the community approach to tourism development and that rural tourism development and entrepreneurship cannot work without the participation and collaboration of businesspersons directly and indirectly involved in tourism.Since the 1970s, economic restructuring and the farm crisis have severely reduced rural communities’economic opportunities.Economic restructuring has caused a loss of rural manufacturing plants and many jobs. The 1980s farm crisis in the Midwest also led to a decline in the numbers of farmers and restructured farm ownership, forcing some farm families to augment their incomes with off-farm jobs, to depart farming, or to declare bankruptcy. The farm crisis and the loss of manufacturing jobs had substantial ripple effects in rural communities. As rural joblessness rates rose above urban levels, real income growth stagnated in rural areas (Sears and Reid 1992). Many stores and agribusinesses disappeared from small rural towns. Not surprisingly, a 1992 statewide survey in Illinois found that 39% of rural residents perceived their economic prospects as worsening (Walzer 1993).These changes limited rural communities’economic development options, making older development strategies such as manufacturing less viable and forcing many to look for nontraditional ways to sustain themselves . One of the most popular nontraditional rural developmentstrategies has been tourism and its associated entrepreneurship opportunities (Edgell and Harbaugh 1993; Luloff et al. 1994). Rural areas have a special appeal to tourists because of the mystique associated with rural areas and their distinct cultural, historic, ethnic, and geographic characteristics (Edgell and Harbaugh 1993). Rural tourism also is less costly and easier to establish than other rural economic development strategies such as manufacturing. Rural tourism can be development strategies such as manufacturing. Rural tourism can be developed locally with participation from local government and small businesses, and its development is not necessarily dependent on outside firms or companies. Although tourism can be expensive to develop in certain cases (e.g., large resort areas) or can involve large firms and chains, rural tourism can be developed with relatively little investment credit, training, and capital. Hence, rural tourism can be less costly to develop as compared to other economic development strategies; additionally, rural tourism need not involve dependency on outside firms and their decisions on whether they want to be in an area. Rural tourism provides a base for these small businesses that might not otherwise be in rural communities because of their small populations. Tourism particularly helps two types of small businesses in rural areas—those directly involved in tourism (e.g., attractions and hotels/motels) and those indirectly involved in tourism (e.g., gas stations and grocery stores). Additionally, rural tourism works well with existing rural enterprises such as farms (e.g., U-Pick farms) and can generate important secondary income for farm households (Oppermann 1996).Nonetheless, rural tourism remains one of the few viable economic options for rural communities .Like other economic development strategies, rural tourism requires several components to be successful.Tourism development involves(1) attractions: the natural and manmade features both within and adjacent to a community; (2) promotion:the marketing of a community and its tourism attractions to potential tourists;(3) tourism infrastructure: access facilities (roads, airports, trains, and buses),water and power services, parking, signs, and recreation facilities; (4) services: lodging, restaurants, and the various retail businesses needed to take care of tourists’ needs; (5) hospitality: how tourists are treated by both community residents and employees in tourism businesses and attractions (Gunn 1988). Left out of this list are tourism entrepreneurs and their role in fostering these components.While the above components and a community’s assets are clearly important to tourism development, only the widespread participation and contribution of rural tourism entrepreneurs can ensure a broad-based foundation for successful tourism development. A research literature has emerged on how to best facilitate the development of tourism. One view, drawing heavily on the economic literature, argues that tourism and its associated entrepreneurship opportunities are best developed by helping and creating individuals businesses and then letting them compete in the marketplace for a review and description of this view). This view, however, has been critiqued because (1) it views tourism and tourism-related businesses as isolated from the larger community and its issues;(2) it does not recognize the interdependence of the various sectors and actors involved in tourism; and (3)most small tourism business, especially those in rural areas, do not have the individual resources to promote either themselves or the community as a tourist product (Gunn 1988; Murphy 1985; Palmer and Bejou 1995).Opposing this view is the community approach to tourism development and entrepreneurship (Murphy 1985). As its name implies, the approach argues that tourism is a community product and that, along with entrepreneurial skills and the presence of tourist businesses, it is also necessary to have the community and local capabilities (e.g., local leadership and formal and informal networks)directly involved in tourism development and promotion effort (Murphy 1985). While the community approach may be an effective way to develop and promote tourism, creating the necessary intercommunity cooperation and collaboration is a complex and difficult process. Businesses are asked to share resources while simultaneously competing. Local governments may see collaborating to develop tourism as risky, or they may be worried about losing control over local decision making (Huang and Stewart 1996; Jamal and Getz 1995). Because of these problems, research on collaboration and those factors that allow for community development of tourism is needed . The purpose of the present study is to identify and examine those factors that help rural communities successfully develop tourism and its entrepreneurship opportunities. The present study makes an additional contribution to the research literature by including rural tourism entrepreneurs, an overlooked group in rural tourism research (Stokowski 1990).乡村旅游发展成功因素作者：苏珊娜威尔逊，丹尼尔·朱莉和约翰国籍：美国出处：SAGE 出版社中文译文：20世纪70年代以来，经济体制的改革和农业危机使得农村社区经济发展的选择减少，同时促使老年人发展战略可行性降低，迫使人们去寻找非传统的方式来维持生计。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿1. IntroductionOver the past two decades, organizations of all types have increasingly acknowledged the importance of customer satisfaction and loyalty. The marketing literature suggests that the long term success of a firm is clearly based on its ability to rapidly respond to changing customer needs and preferences (Narver &Slater, 1990; Webster, 1992). A key motivation for the increasing emphasis on customer satisfaction is that higher customer satisfaction can lead to have a stronger competitive position resulting in higher market share and profitability (Fornell, 1992), reduced price elasticity, lower business cost, reduced failure cost, and mitigated cost of attracting new customers (Chien, Chang, & Su, 2003).The principal focus of this study is on evaluating the efficiency of customer satisfaction and loyalty (CS&L) for existing mobile phone brands in Turkish mobile phone sector. Since the early1990s, with the launch of the mobile phones, there has been a remarkable development both in their product sophistication and their rapid and widespread adoption. With more than three billion subscribers around the world, the extent of mobile phone diffusion in emerging markets has been increasingly larger than that in developed countries (Kalba, 2008). Turkey, being one of the fastest emerging market economies in the world, adopted mobile phone technology in 1994. Since then, there has been a considerable increase in the level of mobile phone ownership, where the number of mobile phone users in the country is expected to reach around70 million by the end of 2013, representing a penetration rate of over 90% (RNCOS, 2010). The significant rise in mobile phone usage can partially be attributed to the fact that Turkey has the youngest population in Western Europe. Turkey currently has the 6th largest young mobile phone user base in the world, with more than 11million subscribers underthe age of 25, providing a very lucrative market for mobile phone companies (Euro monitor International,2010). It should however be noted that the penetration in this market at present is still below the EU average, indicating that the mobile phone sector is not saturated yet, and there is still space for new investors. Currently, there exist nearly more than 10 major mobile phone companies operating in the Turkish mobile phone sector, each having a relatively large product line. As of 2010, the top five mobile phone brands were Nokia, Samsung, LG, Motorola and Sony Ericsson and together they account for nearly 75% of overall market sales. As a new comer, phone is rapidly increasing its market share, but as of the start of this study, did not have a significantly large presence. In terms of market share, Nokia has been undisputedly the market leader (36.4% of sales) with Samsung featuring second (19.5%) and LG ranking third (10.1%) (Patron Turk,2010).Commensurate to its widespread diffusion globally, there has been a growing worldwide academic interest in mobile phone usage which focuses mainly on examining its contribution to social life, user preferences and its ergonomic features (Bag chi, Kirs, & Lopez, 2008). A number of empirical studies were also conducted within the context of Turkish mobile phone sector. The topics of these studies ranged from examining motivation of use (Dedeoglu,2004; Oscan & Kodak, 2003) to mobile phone selection (Isiklar &Buyukozkan, 2007), from customer satisfaction (Turkyilmaz &Ozkan, 2007) to brand loyalty (Simsek & Noyan, 2009).The methodology used in study to evaluate the relative CS&Lefficiency of mobile phone brands is based on data envelopment analysis (DEA). The traditional DEA technique has long been utilized as an invaluable tool in the field of operations research and management science to solve problems in wide range of industries(Hu, Lai, & Huang, 2009; Lee, 2009; Lin, Lee, & Chiu, 2009) as well as in not-for-profit organizations (Mahajan, 1991; Wu, Liang, &Chen, 2009; Zhang, Huang, Lin, & Yu, 2009); but its diffusion into the field of marketing and related disciplines has been relatively slow. For instance, in the marketing field, DEA has recently been employed as a powerful tool for data analysis in measuring efficiency in retailing sector (Charnes, Cooper, Learner, & Phillips,1985; Donthu & Yoo, 1998; Keh, 2000; Keh & Chu, 2003; Thomas,Barr, Cron, &Slocum, 1998), evaluating website marketing efficiency(Shuai & Wu, 2011), benchmarking marketing productivity(Donthu, Hershberger, & Osmonbekov, 2005; Kamakura, Ratchford,& Agrawal, 1988), and measuring relative market efficiency(Murthi, Srinivasan, & Kalyanaram, 1996) or service quality(Athanassopoulos, 1997; Soteriou & Staurinides, 1997). The assessment of CS&L has always been a major research item on the agenda of researchers in the marketing and related fields, because the issue of how efficiently a firm manages its marketing processes and their relationship with their customers is central to its ability to gain competitive edge vis-à-vis its rivals. The DEA approach adopted in this study illustrates how differences in CS&L efficiency between various mobile phone brands can be ascertained empirically, and thus helps management determine proper policies and courses of action.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the recent literature on customer satisfaction and customer loyalty studies. Section 3 provides an in-depth description of our research methodology. Section 4 presents the results of our analysis. The last section (Section 5) summarizes our findings, describes managerial implications of the study and provides the concluding remarks.2. Background literatureWhile customer satisfaction has been defined in various ways, the high-level conceptualization that appears to have gained the widest acceptance states that satisfaction is a customer’s post purchase evaluation of a product or service (Cronin & Taylor,1992; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). Customer satisfaction is also generally assumed to be a significant determinant of repeat sales, positive word-of-mouth, and customer loyalty. It has also long been considered as one of the key antecedents of creating brand loyalty (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Dick & Basu, 1994; Fornell,Michael, Eugene, Jaesung, & Barbara, 1996; Syzmanski & Henard,2001). Satisfied customers return and buy more, and they tell other people about their experiences, both positive and negative (Fornellet al., 1996).Building on Hirschman’s (1970) exit-voice theory, weakly dissatisfied consumers would be of primary importance to a firm. While strongly dissatisfied consumers generally choose the exit option (i.e., they leave the firm), the weakly dissatisfied customers tendto stay loyal to the firm and rather employ the voice option, which implies overt complaints as an attempt to change the firm’practices or offerings (Fornell &Wernerfelt, 1988). Thereby, proper handling of customer complaints may ensure that weakly dissatisfied consumers remain loyal, and serve as an exit barrier (Fornell,1992; Halstead & Page, 1992). The impact of loyal customers is considerable; for many industries the profitability of a firm increases proportionally with the number of loyal customers and up to 60% of sales to new customers can be attributed to the word of mouth referrals (Reichheld & Sasser, 1990).Within the existing literature on customer satisfaction research, various customer satisfaction models were developed based on a cumulative view of satisfaction. To this end, a number of customer satisfaction indices (CSIs) were designed with most prominent of those being Swedish Customer Satisfaction Barometer (SCSB), the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) and European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI). Of these CSIs, we employed the ECSI model as the backbone of our CS&L efficiency model in this study due to its recent popularity in the literature and its comprehensiveness in CS&L coverage. The ECSI is a structural model based on the assumptions that customer satisfaction is derived by a number of factors such as perceived quality, perceived value, expectations of customers, and image of a firm. These factors are the antecedents of overall customer satisfaction (Turkyilmaz &Ozkan, 2007). The model also estimates the results when a customer is satisfied or not. The four antecedents of customer satisfaction may also have direct effects on customer loyalty(Johnson, Gustafson, Andreessen, Lervik, & Cha, 2001). Each construct in the ECSI model is a latent construct which is operational zed by multiple indicators (Chien et al., 2003; Fornell,1992). The underlying constructs of the ECSI model are explained as follows:The image construct evaluates the underlying image of the company. Image refers to the brand name and the kind of associations customers obtain from the product/company (Andreassen &Lindestad, 1998). Martensen, Kristiansen, and Rosholt (2000)argue that image is an important dimension of the customer satisfaction model. Image is a consequence of being reliable,professional and innovative, having contributions to society, and adding prestige to its user. It is anticipated that image has a positive effecton customer satisfaction, customer expectations and customer loyalty.Customer expectations are the consequences of prior experience with the company’s products (Rotondaro, 2002). This construct evaluates customer expectations for overall quality, for product and service quality, and for fulfillment of personal needs. The customer expectations construct is expected to have a direct and positive relationship with customer satisfaction (Anderson, Fornell, &Lehmann, 1994).Perceived quality is evaluation of recent consumption experience by the market served. This construct evaluates customization and reliability of a given product or service. Customization is the degree to which a product or service meets a customer’s requirements, and reliability is the degree to which firm’s offering is reliable, standardized, and free from deficiencies. Perceived quality is expected to have a positive effect on customer satisfaction (Fornellet al., 1996).Perceived value is the perceived level of product quality relative to the price paid by customers. Perceived value is the rating of the price paid for the quality perceived and a rating of the quality perceived for the price paid (Fornell et al., 1996). Perceived value structure provides an opportunity for comparison of the firms according their price-value ratio (Anderson et al., 1994). In the model, perceived value is expected to have a positive impact on satisfaction.Customer satisfaction construct indicates how much customers are satisfied, and how well their expectations are fulfilled. This construct evaluates overall satisfaction level of customers, fulfillment of their expectations, and company’s performance versus the ideal provider．Customer loyalty is the ultimate factor in the ECSI model. Loyalty is measured by repurchase intention, price tolerance and intention to recommend products or services to others. It is expected that better image and higher customer satisfaction should increase customer loyalty.3. MethodologyThis section presents the research methodology adopted in this study. The following subsections explain the survey instrument, the data collection procedure, and the DEA model.3.1. Survey instrumentThe DEA model of CS&L, which is shown in Fig. 1, consists of the aforementioned constructs which are based on previous research and prominent theories in the field of consumer behavior. The constructs of the CS&L model are unobservable (latent) variables indirectly described by a set of observable variables which are called manifest variables or indicators. The constructs and their constituent items are shown in Table 1. The use of multiple measures for each construct increases the precision of the estimate as compared to an approach of relying on a single measure. In our CS&L efficiency model, all four antecedents of customer satisfaction and loyalty which include image, customer expectations, perceived quality and perceived value were treated as input variables, while the two constructs, namely customer satisfaction and customer loyalty were considered as output variables.The survey questionnaire was designed using a three-step process. First, the consumer behavior literature was extensively reviewed for the manifest variables. Secondly, the questionnaire items were prepared in Turkish and refined through a series of discussions with two senior marketing managers of a prominent mobile phone company and a number of experienced academics in the field of consumer behavior. Finally, the survey questionnaire was subjected to extensive pre-testing and refinement based on a pilot study of 30 mobile phone users. Feedback from this pilot study indicated that some questions were ambiguous, difficult to understand,or irrelevant for mobile phone sector. This pilot study also served as a practical exercise for interviewers. The final questionnaire contained a total of 23 items pertaining to the CS&L. These23 items appeared to have face validity as to what should be measured. All the items were measured on 10-point scales, with anchors ranging from 1 denoting a very negative view and 10indicating a very positive view. Relying on 10-point scales enables customers to make better discriminations (Andrews, 1984).译文1．介绍在过去的二十年中，所有类型的组织都越来越多地承认了客户满意度和忠诚度的重要性。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿The water level control circuit designWater source total ranks sixth in the world, per capita water resources is only a quarter of the world per capita consumption, and geographical distribution is very uneven, the vast region north of the Yangtze River, northin most parts of the medium-sized cities in the dry state, water shortage has become an important factor restricting China's economic development. Reasonable use of water resources has become an important issue for China is now facing. In order to achieve the rational use of water resources, in addition to in beefing water conservancy projects and enhance the people's awareness of water conservation efforts to improve. But more important is the application of new technical information, real-time to accurately understand and master a variety of hydrological information in order to make the right water scheduling and management, so that preventive measures to minimize water wastage . Coupled with long-standing water level measurement of water level has been an important issue in hydrology, water resources department. For the timely detection of the signs of the accident, precautionary measures in the future, economical and practical, reliable water level wireless monitoring systems will play a major role. The water level of dam safety, one of the important parameters for water drainage and irrigation scheduling, water storage, flood discharge.Provides a good foundation for the automation of monitoring, transmission and processing of the water level reservoir modernization. Need to monitor the water level in many areas of industrial and agricultural production. The site may not be able to close without the manpower to monitor, we can RMON, sitting in the control room facing the instrument can be monitored on-site, convenient and save manpower. In order to ensure the safe production of hydroelectric power station to improve power generation efficiency,Hydropower production process need to monitor the water level in the reservoir, trash rack, pressure drop and the tail water level. However, due to the different power plants with a different factual situations, have different technical requirements, and the measurement methods and location of the water level parameters and also the requirements of the monitoring equipment. This often results in the monitoring system equipment of a high degree of variety, interchangeability is not conducive to the maintenance of equipment will increase the equipment design, production, installation complexity. Therefore, on the basis of the actual situation and characteristics of the comprehensive study of hydropower water level monitoring, the use of modern electronic technology, especially single-chip technology and non-volatile memory technology, designed to develop a versatile, high reliability, easy maintenance, the applicable a variety of monitoring the environment, multi-mode automatic water level monitoring system has important practical significance. The subject according to the reservoir water level measurement needs, design a remote microcontroller water level monitoring system, the system automatically detects the water level, time processing, Data GPRS remote upload function. The design of the monitoring system will be significant savings in manpower and resources, low-power 24 hours of continuous monitoring and upload real-time control reservoir water level, to better adapt to the needs of the modern water level measurement, the safety of the dam reservoir, impoundment spillway to provide a basis.Microcontroller embedded microcontrollers are widely used in industrial measurement and control systems, intelligent instruments and household appliances. In real-time detection and automatic control of microcomputer application system, the microcontroller is often as a core component to use. The basic requirements of the water tower water level control system in the case of unattended automatic limit automatically start the motor to reach the water level in the water level in the water tower to the water tower water supply; water tower water level reached the water level upper limit is automatically off the motor to stop water supply. And unusual time to sound the alarm and troubleshooting in the water supply system at any time to ensure that the towers of the external normal water supply role. The water tower is often seen in daily life and industrial applications, water storage devices, external water supply through the control of its water level to meet the needs of its waterlevel control is universal. Regardless of socio-economic rapid water plays an important role in people's normal life and production. Once off the water, ranging from great inconvenience to the people's living standards, weight is likely to cause serious accidents and losses, and thus a higher demand of water supply system to meet the timely, accurate, safe and adequate water supply. If you still use the artificial way, the labor-intensive, low efficiency, safety is hard to guarantee the transformation of the automated control system, which must be carried out. In order to achieve sufficient amount of water, smooth water pressure, water towers, water level automatic control design low-cost, high practical value of the controller. The design uses a separate circuit to achieve high and low warning level processing, and automatic control, save energy, improve the quality of the water supply system.SCM is an integrated circuit chip, VLSI technology with data processing capability of the central processing unit CPU random access memory RAM, read only memory ROM, and a variety of I / O port and interrupt system, timers / timer other functions (which may also include a display driver circuit, pulse width modulation circuit, analog multi-channel converter, A / D converter and other circuit) integrated into a silicon constitute a small computer system. The basic features are as follows: the chip is small, but complete, SCM is one of the main features. Its internal program memory, data memory, a variety of interface circuit. Large processor speed is higher, the median more of the arithmetic unit, processing ability, but need to be configured in the external interface circuit; microcontroller clocked generally 100MHZ less suitable for small products for independent work, cited pin number from a few hundred. The application is simple, flexible, and free assembly language and C language development of SCM products. The working process of the microcontroller: microcontroller automatically complete the tasks entrusted to it, that is, single-chip implementation of the procedure for a section of the instruction execution process, the so-called directive requirements for single-chip implementation of the various operations used in the form of the command is to write down , which corresponds to a basic operation of designers assigned to it by the instruction set, an instruction; Full instructions can be executed by the microcontroller, the microcontroller instruction set, the different types of single-chip, and its instruction set is also different. So that the microcontroller canautomatically complete a specific task, the problem to be solved must be compiled into a series of instructions (these instructions must be selected microcontroller to the identification and implementation of the Directive), a collection of this series of instructions to become the program, the program need to pre- stored in the components - memory storage capabilities. Memory is composed by a number of storage units (the smallest unit of storage), like a large building has many rooms composed of the same, the instructions stored in these units, the instruction fetch unit and perform like the rooms of large buildings, each assigned to only a room number, each memory cell must be assigned to a unique address number, the address is known as the address of the storage unit, so as long as you know the address of the storage unit, you can find the storage unit that stores instructions can be removed, and then be executed. Programs are usually executed in the order, instruction program is a sequential storage, single-chip in the implementation of the program to be able to a section of these instructions out and be implemented, there must be a component to track the address of instruction where this part the program counter PC (included in the CPU), the start of program execution, endowed the address where the first instruction of the program to the PC, and then made for each command to be executed, the PC in the content will automatically increase, increase The amount is determined by the instruction length of this article may be 2 or 3, to point to the starting address of the next instruction to ensure the implementation of the instruction sequence.Microcontroller tower water level control system is the basic design requirements: inside the tower, we have designed a simple water level detection sensor used to detect the three water level, the low water level, the normal water level, water level. Low water to give a high single-chip, driven pumps and water, the red light; water level in the normal range, the pump add water, the green light; high water when the pump without water, the yellow light. The design process using the sensor technology, microcomputer technology, and light alarm technology and weak control the strong power of technology. Technical parameters and design tasks: 1, the use of the MCU to control the water level on the tower;, the water level in the water level detection sensor probe was the tower to give the microcontroller in order to achieve the water pump and water system and display system control; 3, the light alarm display system circuit, pumps and hydropower route relaycontrol;, analysis is drawn on the working principle of the system structure and a system block diagram using the microcontroller as a control chip, the main work process when the water in the tower low water level, water level detection sensor gave a high microcontroller, microcontroller-driven pump to add water and display system so that the red light lit; pump add water when the water level within the normal range, the green light, when the water level in the high-water mark, The microcontroller can not drive the water pump to add water, the yellow light. Light alarm circuit, the relay control circuit it works: When the water level in the low water, low water level detection sensor line is not +5 V power supply guide pass into the regulator circuit is treated in the output of the voltage regulator circuit has a high level, into the P1.0 port of the microcontroller, another high voltage circuit output of the microcontroller P1.1 port SCM After analysis, the P1.2 port outputs a low red light, drive, P1. 5 out a signal so that the optocoupler GDOUHE guide through so that the relay is closed, so that the water pump to add water; when the water level in the normal range, water pump plus P1.3 pin to a low level, so that the green light; when the water level in the high-water zone, the sensor of the two detection lines are conduction, are +5 power conduction into the SCM, SCM After analysis, the P1.4 pin out of a low yellow light, The optocoupler guide a low out of the P1.5-side can not pass, so that the relay can not be closed, the pump can not add water; failure when three flashing light indicates the system.译文水位控制电路设计中国水之源总量居世界第六位，人均占有水资源量仅为世界人均占有量的四分之一，并且在地域上分布很不平衡，长江以北的广大地区，特别是北方大、中城市大部分地区处于缺水状态，水资源短缺已成为制约我国经济发展的一个重要因素。
外文文献原稿和译文(模板)
北京化工大学北方学院毕业设计（论文）——外文文献原稿和译文（空一行） 外文文献原稿和译文 （空一行） 原□□稿（空一行） IntroductionThe "jumping off" point for this paper is Reengineering the Corporation, by Michael Hammer and James Champy. The paper goes on to review the literature on BPR. It explores the principles and assumptions behind reengineering, looks for commonfactors behind its successes or failures, examines case studies, and presents alternatives to "classical" reengineering theory. The paper pays particular attention to the role of information technology in BPR. In conclusion, the paper offers somespecific recommendations regarding reengineering. Old Wine in New Bottles The concept of reengineering traces its origins back to management theories developedas early as the nineteenth century. The purpose of reengineering is to "make all your processes the best-in-class." Frederick Taylor suggested in the 1880's that managers use process reengineering methods to discover the best processes for performing work, and that these processes be reengineered to optimize productivity. BPR echoes the classical belief that there is one best way to conduct tasks. In Taylor's time, technology did not allow large companies to design processes in across-functional or cross-departmental manner. Specialization was the state-of-theart method to improve efficiency given the technology of the time.（下略）之上之下各留一空行，宋体，三号字，居中，加粗。
外文文献翻译译稿
外文文献翻译译稿1可用性和期望值来自Willliam S.Green, Patrick W.Jordan.产品的愉悦：超越可用性根据人机工程学会（HFES）的观点，人机工程学着眼于“发现和共享可用于各种系统和设备设计的、关于人的特点的知识”。
人们通常只是把它作为生物力学和人体测量所关注的内容，实际上它是从更广泛的意义上的一种对人（产品用户）的全面和综合的理解。
HFES从二战中有军方从事的系统分析中发展而来。
其中的三种主要研究的是人体测量、复杂信息的解释和管理，以及在部队和装备调配中应用的系统分析。
系统分析在尺度和复杂性方面跨度很大，大的系统分析有类似于诺曼底登陆准备的大型系统规划，小到去理解如何从合理性和规模的角度才最佳的布置和装备人员。
诺曼底登陆是20世纪最复杂的事件之一。
他要求建立一个在战斗开始之前还不确定的庞大的人员和物资的合理分配系统。
在更小的规模上，装备和军事人物的布置意味着如何去组织、训练和安排战士，最大限度的发挥他们的长处。
士兵必须迅速地接受训练，并且能够有效地使用和维护在二战中发展起来的一系列技术装备。
其中，对于飞行员、潜艇人员和坦克驾驶员有神采的限制。
复杂的新装备的开发要求找到最好的税收、密码便医院、破译人员、雷达和声纳操作员、轰炸机驾驶员和机组人员。
在战后，随着公司及其产品在尺度、领域和复杂性方面的增长，很多系统分析人员在商用领域找到了发展机会。
尽管是战后的发展才导致了1957年人机工程协会（HFES）的建立，但人机研究的起源可以追溯到大批量生产方式的成型阶段，是当时提高生产效率的要求。
随着工作方式从手工生产和农业生产中的转移，新的工厂工作的概念逐步发展起来。
福特的流水生产线和泰勒的效率理论开始对生产的规划和教育产生影响。
即使在家庭生活中，妇女们也开始接受了现代家庭管理理论，并运用这些理论来组织和规划家庭。
在20世纪末，一种涵盖面更广的人机工程正在发展之中。
新的人机工程学是为了适应已经被广泛意识到的对用户行为模式更深入的需求而诞生的，它开始应用定型研究方法，并探索人的情感和认知因素。
员工激励理论外文文献及翻译.
员工激励理论外文文献及翻译员工激励理论外文文献及翻译One-to-one-management companiesare run -- in a timely inversion of John Adams's ideal -- as organizations of men (and women), not of laws. Nonetheless, a few laws, or at least cultural traits, appear to govern many such organizations. Together those traits create an environment where employees' needs are known, sometimes anticipated, and served, justas customers' needs are known, sometimes anticipated, and served in CRM-focused organizations. What follows is a look at the rules by which one-to-one-management companies operate[2].3.2 It's All in the DetailHow do you build morale and a sense of corporate responsibility? In surprisingly small ways. Standing in the kitchen at Eze Castle Software, CEO Sean McLaughlin watches as one of his programmers sets milk and cookies on a table. It's 2:30 on a Wednesday afternoon. "Hang on, Parvathy," McLaughlin says to the employee as he opens the refrigerator door and pulls out an apple pie. "Put this out, too." When Parvathy is done in the kitchen, she flips some switches, andthe lights flicker all over the fifth floor. Almost instantly, programmers leave their cubicles and make a beeline for thekitchen.Then Parvathy jogs up a staircase and flashes the lights on the sixth floor. Account managers, salespeople, and assorted techies come downstairs and join their colleagues in the kitchen. When they arrive, McLaughlin is at the center of the steadily building crowd, dishing out the pie. Around him conversations spring up between colleagues who work in different departments. The topics range from work to social life to politics. Ten minutes later the lights flash again and it's back to work for the 90 employees in the Boston office of Eze.What's so remarkable about the staff of a developer of securities-trading software with $13 million in revenues taking daily milk-and-cookies breaks? Not much -- until you consider that the practice is part of a cultural shift engineered by the CEO, a shift that has profoundly changed the way he and his employees relate toone another. Perhaps more significant, the changes have affected how employees deal with the myriad little details that keep the six-year-old company grounded.原文请找腾讯3249114六-维^论,文.网Eze's transformation began last year, when McLaughlin realized to his chagrin that his once small and collegial company had -- because of accelerated growth -- begun acting like a large corporation. His employees no longer knew one another, and he himself was increasingly vague about who some of the new faces were. "In the early days I could get to know everyone," saysMcLaughlin.However, the CEO was most annoyed by the fact that his employees -- both old and new -- were beginning to behave with large-company sloppiness rather than with start-up frugality. "Back when we were small, if someone sent a FedEx, we all knew how much that was costing the company," McLaughlin says. He recalls noticing that things were changing when one employee approved paying a contractor $100 a month to water the company's five plants. Then there were rising charges from the company's Internet service provider because of excessive traffic on the corporate T1 line. The cause? Employees were downloading MP3 files to listen to music during the workday. It frustrated McLaughlin that employees weren't taking responsibilityfor their actions and for the ways in which those actions affected the company's bottom line[2].But last summer two things happened that spurred McLaughlin to make some changes.First, the Boston office lost both of its administrative assistants. One assistant quit and the other left a few weeks later. The two had stocked the supply room, sorted the mail, and welcomed visitors. The dual departures wreaked havoc. "The kitchen was out of milk, we didn't have any pens in the supply cabinet, the reception area looked like crap," McLaughlin says.Then came the World Trade Center attacks. Though McLaughlin had long been brooding on how to reverse Eze's fat-cat habits, he had yet to act. He says that 9-11, and the "what are my priorities" thinking it engendered, "created an environment where it was easy for me to initiate a change."The change he had in mind was inspired by a visit to his daughter's kindergarten class. There he saw how the teacher divided the cleanup tasks among the children by posting a rotating "chore wheel." McLaughlin thought the wheel was just the thing to clean up the mess and teach his employees a little corporate responsibility. But he also wanted to institute something that would help improve camaraderie. That's where another kindergarten institution, the milk-and-cookies breaks, came in. "I wanted to build relationships among the employees, to make them feel more company morale," he says.上一页[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] 下一页。
道路与桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together withthe research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states—— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by partners within a number of the statesan industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements.Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinkingire suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ententire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it isthen stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.） Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been foundexcept for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。
数据分析外文文献+翻译
数据分析外文文献+翻译文献1：《数据分析在企业决策中的应用》该文献探讨了数据分析在企业决策中的重要性和应用。
研究发现，通过数据分析可以获取准确的商业情报，帮助企业更好地理解市场趋势和消费者需求。
通过对大量数据的分析，企业可以发现隐藏的模式和关联，从而制定出更具竞争力的产品和服务策略。
数据分析还可以提供决策支持，帮助企业在不确定的环境下做出明智的决策。
因此，数据分析已成为现代企业成功的关键要素之一。
文献2：《机器研究在数据分析中的应用》该文献探讨了机器研究在数据分析中的应用。
研究发现，机器研究可以帮助企业更高效地分析大量的数据，并从中发现有价值的信息。
机器研究算法可以自动研究和改进，从而帮助企业发现数据中的模式和趋势。
通过机器研究的应用，企业可以更准确地预测市场需求、优化业务流程，并制定更具策略性的决策。
因此，机器研究在数据分析中的应用正逐渐受到企业的关注和采用。
文献3：《数据可视化在数据分析中的应用》该文献探讨了数据可视化在数据分析中的重要性和应用。
研究发现，通过数据可视化可以更直观地呈现复杂的数据关系和趋势。
可视化可以帮助企业更好地理解数据，发现数据中的模式和规律。
数据可视化还可以帮助企业进行数据交互和决策共享，提升决策的效率和准确性。
因此，数据可视化在数据分析中扮演着非常重要的角色。
翻译文献1标题： The Application of Data Analysis in Business Decision-making The Application of Data Analysis in Business Decision-making文献2标题： The Application of Machine Learning in Data Analysis The Application of Machine Learning in Data Analysis文献3标题： The Application of Data Visualization in Data Analysis The Application of Data Visualization in Data Analysis翻译摘要：本文献研究了数据分析在企业决策中的应用，以及机器研究和数据可视化在数据分析中的作用。
外文翻译原文及译文-基于51单片机的电子秤设计
外文文献翻译译稿1基于电阻应变式称重传感器的高精度和低容量电子秤开发Baoxiang He,Guirong Lu ,Kaibin Chu ,Guoqiang Ma摘要：基于称重传感器的应变计优化设计中除了一些先进的稳定技术比如温度的影响之外，静态超载和计算机模式识别（CRT）技术也被用来进行动态模拟与分析。
这种多谐振荡的压力释放方法是在生产中创造性的使用了压力传感器，由于这种技术，量程30G的压力传感器才能做到高精度，高稳定性。
由于使用了这种压力传感器，使得基于传感器的电子秤拥有300,00种分类和小于0.2mg的精度。
这种压力传感器的量程和精度远远高于市场上的同类产品，而其价格却远低于电磁压力传感器。
因此，这种压力传感器的商业前景是十分广阔的。
关键词：设计；电阻应变式称重传感器；精度；电子秤1.介绍众所周知，压力传感器的精度是决定一个的电子秤精度的关键。
目前，用于高精度称重的传感器主要是电磁平衡式称重传感器。
低成本电阻应变式称重传感器仅能用于使低精度的称量。
主要影响精度应变式称重传感器的误差是蠕变和温度漂移，特别是对于低负荷的传感器来说。
一般来说，高精度传感器的负载能力最低是300克。
称重传感器的最大分配平衡只有50K，最小分辨率是不小于0.01克。
总而言之，对于超低容量称重传感器来说设计和制造技术是很难被应用到敏感的称重传感器的加工和生产中的。
因此很难做出足够好的高精度平衡的称重传感器。
使得低量程和高精度的传感器始终是全世界的热门话题。
本文将分析应力释放及补偿技术，探索低量程高精度应变式称重传感器的制造技术。
2．原理与方法A. 残余应力的释放制作压力传感器主要部件的材料是铝棒。
为了获得更好的综合性能，铝条会在挤压后进行淬火。
由于淬火的残余应力不能被自然老化而得到充分释放，此外，机械加工和固化过程中也会造成很大的残余应力，特别是对于超低容量称重传感器来说，如果这个压力不及时释放，可能就会在压力传感器被测试或者是最终使用的时候释放出来。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿The introduction of the electronic commerceWith the rapid development of Internet, websites surging forward are after frying the foot " concept ", it is " practical " to all change direction one after another, and " practical one of the more distinct characteristics ": It is most websites that are all attempting to do the true " e-commerce ". What is " e-commerce " so? The so-called e-commerce (Electronic Commerce ) utilizes technology of the computer, network technology and long-range communication technology, realize the electrification , digitization and networked in the course of the whole commercial affair (buys and sells ). People are no longer face-to-face , look at the true goods , depend on the paper medium document (including the cash ) to carry on the business transaction. But provide and deliver system and fund convenient to be safe and settle account and do a deal systematically through a feast for the eyes goods information on net , perfect logistics through the network (buy and sell).In fact, the course of the whole trade can be divided into three stages:The first stage is information interchange stage: To trade company, in order to release information stage this stage. Mainly choose one's own outstanding goods , organize one's own goods information meticulously, set up one's own webpage, then join in famous websites with greater reputation , with stronger influence power , of higher clicking rate, let as many as possible people understand you know you. To buyer, this stage is the stage going to look for the goods and goods information on the net. It is mainly according to the needs of one's own one, surf the Net and look for the information and goods that oneself needs, and the trade company choosing the service with a high reputation to be well cheap.The second stage signs the contract stage of the goods: As B2B (trade company vs. trade company ), this stage is exchange course of signing the contract , finishing the essential trade and business note. The ones that should pay attention to are: Complicatedproblems , such as accuracy , dependability , can't be alteredding of the data ,etc.. As B2C (trade company vs. personal customer ), this stage finishes doing shopping the order form of the course signs course, the customer should refer goods , one's own contacting information , way , payment method to deliver goods which you choose to the trade company after in the network good sign well, the trade company should send mails or the telephone and verify above-mentioned contents after receiving the order form .The third stage carries on goods handing over , fund settlement stage according to the contract: This stage is stage when trade of the whole goods is very key, not merely involve the putting in place correctly and safely on the net of fund, involve the accuracy that the goods provide and deliver , put in place on time too at the same time . There is banking , provide and deliver systematic involvement at this stage, technically, in law, such respects as the standard is first-class have higher requests. The succeeding or not for a stage just here of online trade.The characteristics of developmentWider environment: People are not restricted by time , is not restricted by space , a great deal of restrictions not doing shopping by the tradition , can conclude the business on the net whenever and wherever possible .Wider market: This world will become very small on the net, a trade company can face global consumers , and a consumer can do shopping in any global trade company .Faster circulation and cheap price: E-commerce has reduce the intermediate link of circulation of commodities, has saved a large amount of expenses, thus reduced the cost of the circulation of commodities and trade greatly .Accord with the demands for times even more: People pursue the fashion , stress the individual character more and more nowadays, pay attention to the environment that does shopping, the online shopping, the shopping course that best reflects individualization. Influence1.E-commerce will change the way of the commercial activityThe traditional most typical scene of commercial activity is that " the salesman exists everywhere ", " the purchasing agent runs everywhere ", " reveal the mouth , run and break the leg ", consumers look for the goods that oneself need all pooped outlay in the market .Now, it is if touch it all right to pass Internet, people can enter the online market to browse through , purchase all kinds of products, and can also get online service , trade company can get in touch with the customer on the net , utilize the network to carry on the payment for goods and close serving, the government can also carry on electron calling for bid , government procurement ,etc. conveniently .2.E-commerce will change people's consumption patternThe biggest characteristic of online shopping is consumers' leading factor, do shopping the will is grasped in consumer's hands, at the same time consumers can also finish the trade by way of a kind of relaxed and free self-service , consumer's sovereignty can be fully embodied in the shopping at network.3.E-commerce will change the modes of production of enterprisesBecause e-commerce is a kind of swift , convenient shopping means, consumers' individualization , priviledges need and be able to be totally shown in front of the manufacturer through the network, in order to please customers, stress the design style of the products, a lot of enterprises in the manufacturing industry develop and popularize e-commerce one after another , if American Ford Motor Company connects with inside network of the company in 120,000 computer work stations in the whole world of March of 1998, and include 15,000 distributors of the whole world in the inside network , the final purpose of Ford Company is to realize being according to users' different requests, supply the automobile as required.4.E-commerce will bring a revolution to the traditional tradeE-commerce is in the course of the whole commercial activity, through the combination of people and telecommunications way , improve the efficiency of the commercial activity greatly, reduce the unnecessary intermediate link, the traditional manufacturing industry enters the eras of short run , much varieties by this, " zero stock " become possible; Traditional retail business and wholesale business open the new mode of " online marketing " of " having no shop "; Various kinds of online services have offered the brand-new method of service for service trade of the tradition.5.E-commerce will bring a brand-new financial circlesBecause pay the key link that is e-commerce by mails online, it is basic condition that e-commerce can be developed smoothly too, with the break-through of e-commerce on the electronic trade link, such services as online bank , bank card pay the network , electronic payment system of bank and electronic cheque , electronic cash, bring traditional financial circles into a brand-new field.6.E-commerce will change the government's behaviorThe government is undertaking the function of the management and service of a large number of societies , economy , culture, in e-commerce era, as enterprises use e-commerce to carry on the production and management, the bank computerizes financial services, and while consumers realize cosumption online, will put forward the new request , an electronic government or calling the online government for government's administration behaviour too, will become an important social role as e-commerce is developed.In a word, as a kind of commercial activity course, e-commerce will bring an unprecedented revolution, its impact on social economy far exceeds the commercial affair itself. Besides these above-mentioned influence, it will also bring enormous influence on employment , legal system and culture and education ,etc., e-commerce will bring the mankind into the information-intensive society .In the modern information-intensive society, e-commerce can enable mastering the enterprises and individuals of the information technology and business rule , utilizing various kinds of electronic tools and networks systematically, the low cost with high efficiency is engaged in various kinds of commercial trade activities realized in electronic way. According to using with the function , can divide e-commerce into three levels or 3S , namely SHOW , SALE , SERVE:1.SHOW (show)Offer the electronic market conditions, enterprises release goods and other information on the net by way of webpage, with advertise etc. on the net, through SHOW, enterprises can establish one's own corporate image , expand the popularity of enterprises, propagate the service of one's own products , look for the new trade cooperative partner.2.SALE (trade)Realize the whole course of the transaction activity of the traditional form in electronic way in the network, for instance online shopping ,etc.. Enterprises can finish the whole course of the trade through SALE, expand the range traded, improve the efficiency of the work , reduce the cost of the trade , thus obtain the economic and social benefit.3.SERVE (serve)And the service after sale before meaning various kinds of related to commercial activity that enterprises launch through the network and selling, through such SERVE on net, enterprises can perfect one's own e-commerce system , consolidate the already existing customer , attract the new customer , thus expand the management business of enterprises, obtain greater economic benefits and social benefit. The enterprise is a protagonist who launches e-commerce.KindsE-commerce inside enterprise is mainly to deal with and exchange trade and business information through the way of the network (Intranet ) inside enterprises. The network (Intranet ) is a kind of effective commercial tool inside enterprises, pass the fire wall , enterprises isolate one's own inside network from Internet, it can be used for automaticallying process the commercial affair to operate and work to flow, strengthen it to the access of important system and key data, share experience , solve customer's problem together, and keep the connection while organizing. E-commerce inside enterprises, can bring the following advantage to enterprise : Increase agility that commercial activity punish, to market situation can reacting quickly, can provide service for the customer better . E-commerce (B-B mode ) among enterprise and enterprise mainly carries on the electronic commercial activity through INTERNET or the special-purpose network way. E-commerce among enterprises is merits attention and probes into most three kinds of modes of e-commerce, because it has potentiality of development most.E-commerce (B-C mode ) between enterprise and consumer is mainly that enterprises offer a new-type shopping environment to consumer through INTERNET --The online shop, consumers do shopping on the net through the network , pay on the net. Because this kind of mode has saved customer and time and space of both sides of enterprise, have improve trade efficiency greatly, has saved the unnecessary expenses.Enterprise and inter-governmental e-commerce (B-G mode) the commercial activity cover enterprise and government organize every thing among, mainly including government procurement , declare at the Customs , declare dutiable goods etc.on the net.译文电子商务介绍随着因特网的迅速发展，风起云涌的网站在炒足了“概念”之后，都纷纷转向了“务实”，而“务实”比较鲜明的特点之一：是绝大多数的网站都在试图做实实在在的“电子商务”。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
外文翻译译稿和原稿
外文文献翻译译稿数字频率计使用DMA终端计数停止方法Digital frequency meter using DMATerminal Count stop method1.N.Suresh Kumar,Assistant Professor,Dept of IT,GITAM University.2.Dr.D.V.RamaKotiReddy,Associate professor,College of Engineering,AndhraUniversity.3.Mr.B.pramod Kumar,M.Tech.Student,Gitam University,Visakhapatnam.4.Mr.A.Harish,M.Tech,Lecturer,Dept.of IT.摘要本文提出了一种新型宽量程转速测量方法，使用直接内存访问（DMA）终端计数寄存器（TCR）。
DMA的方法是基于在不断采样的过程中在终端计数DMA控制器的停止销的脉冲计数。
提出了单片机实现所需的硬件配置和演算方法。
通过DMA 控制器和定时器来使用单片机的这个方法是适合系统需求的。
同时对该方法的局限性和来源的误差进行了详细讨论。
DMA终端计数寄存器的方法是适用于实时速度控制系统的。
一．导言：可以通过下列方法对速度进行测量1.测量时间，确定脉冲之间的间隔时间[1]2.脉冲计数，计数采样时间内输入的脉冲[2]3.相结合的方法[3]4.持续访问时长法（CET）[4]5.DMA传输方法。
[4][5]当DMA传输方法的硬件配置执行了一个长的处理器指令，在接收到下一个输入脉冲的上升沿之前，DMA应答信号（DACK）可能无法被接收到。
因此，下一个脉冲将不会被检测出来。
为了不丢失任何输入脉冲，就需要对未履行的DMA请求计数器。
这也可以通过一个简单的H/W配置和更低的功耗方法来解决，这个方法可以通过终端计数寄存器和DMA控制器的TC停止销来实现。
DMA控制器的停止销在固定数量的DMA周期后会改变自己的状态。
外文翻译--最佳人才评价措施
外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：Best Practices in Talent AssessmentBy Dan Harrison, Ph.DAssessing people for jobs is the most important task of any organization. The quality of assessment ultimately determines the performance of new hires as well as the ability of the organization to effectively develop employees. It affects every important aspect of the organization’s success including management effectiveness, sales volume, customer retention and productivity. Assessment is not merely one of the functions of the Human Resource Department. It is the essential foundation for effective talent acquisition and talent management.High quality assessment used at the point of hire enables you to have the greatest impact on performance and productivity in your organization. High quality assessment of applicants during the recruitment process results in less time and money spent on training and developing employees. This enables management to focus on important strategic issues. Good assessment reduces training costs, minimizes losses due to poor decisions, increases employee retention and can even provide a foundation for better teamwork.Effective assessment also provides huge benefits for employee development. Assessing existing employees makes employee development much more efficient and effective. Good assessment can enable employees to clearly understand their performance in relationship to the job requirements. This can be a great boost to employee motivation. It can also provide managers with a means of pinpointing the development areas that will provide the greatest impact on performance. Harrison Assessment s™ Talent Solutions System even goes a step further by providing managers and coaches with effective tools for encouraging and enlisting topperformance as well as providing guidelines for developing specific job success behaviors. In addition, reports also help employees to better understand how to apply their strengths for their career development. These are key areas that promote talent retention and motivation.Formulating the success factors for the specific jobThe first challenge of effective assessment is to fully understand the job and formulate the success factors. Without a clear understanding of the job and the job success factors, assessment cannot be effective. It is essential to understand the tasks performed, the responsibilities, the key performance factors and the requirements that relate to effective performance. The Harrison Assessments System provides a comprehensive list of typical factors for each specific job as well as additional optional factors that can be included.Assessing a person against job factors is much more challenging and much more complex than merely assessing a person. It is essential to determine the key success factors for the specific job, including how important each of those factors are in relationship to each other. In addition, it is essential to determine how having different levels of a job success factor affects the overall performance. This is a complex process requiring sophisticated calculations, which can best be achieved through extensive job research and computer technology.There are two basic categories of job requirements: Eligibility and Suitability. Eligibility factors include previous experience, education, certifications, skills, abilities and reference checks. Suitability factors include attitude, motivation, integrity, interests, work preferences, fit with the company culture and fit with the manager.Assessing Levels of EligibilityMany organizations assess eligibility factors by setting minimum requirements. However, few organizations systematically formulate eligibility factors in order to score each applicant’s level of eligibility. It is not enough to ascertain that the applicant meets the minimum requirements. All that does is eliminate the people whodon’t meet the requirements. It does nothing to assess the remaining people who do meet the minimum requirements. Therefore, it is essential to quantify each candidate’s level of eligibility. This is the only way in which you can effectively compare candidates to each other and to integrate the eligibility score with the behavioral score.First, you need to determine what the eligibility factors are. For example, you may require previous experience in the same job, previous experience doing similar tasks that the job requires, certain educational levels, or skills such as typing speed or the ability to use software packages. The Harrison Assessments enables you to select from a comprehensive list factors and then weight them according to how important they are.By using gradient scoring, you ar e able to quantify the person’s experience and obtain a score for each factor. By weighting the factors in relationship to each other, you are able to obtain an overall eligibility score.Assessing Levels of SuitabilityFor most jobs, suitability factors are about 50% of the job success factors. Therefore, effectively measuring suitability is an essential part of assessment. However, suitability is much more difficult to measure than eligibility. The first challenge is to determine which suitability factors relate to job success for a particular job. However, even when that is determined, to accurately assess job suitability you also need to formulate how different levels of each suitability factor will impact job success. For example, you may determine that self-motivation is an important factor for job success for a particular job. But you still need to quantify how each level of self-motivation will impact success in order to calculate the results. For example, if the person scores a 5 out of 10 on self motivation, you need a means to designate how that will impact overall job success for the specific job. For some jobs, the more self-motivation the person has the better. However, for other jobs, a moderate level is enough and high levels do not relate to increased performance. Each level of each factor needs to be scored according to its impact on performance. That is why HAcontains significant research regarding suitability factors and their impact on performance for different job types and for different jobs. Without this, it is nearly impossible to assess behavior effectively. Suitability factors are behavioral and are much more difficult for people to change than eligibility factors. This makes it even more important to accurately assess behavior during the recruitment process. Most organizations hire people for their eligibility and then try to develop their suitability. And in many cases fire them for their lack of suitability. Since behavior is fundamentally more difficult to change than eligibility, it is better to hire people who already have the suitability for the job. To illustrate different aspects of suitability, here are some examples of job behavior factors that could be relevant to a specific job. These are just a small sample of more than one hundred important suitability factors that could relate to job success.Using Interviews to Assess Job BehaviorIn the past, interviews have been used as the primary means assess attitude, motivation, and job behavior. However, even if interviewers are extremely intuitive, there are many reasons why accurately assessing job behavior using only an interview process is nearly impossible.1. Interviewers do not have access to a real behavioral success formula.There are dozens of behavioral factors that either promote success or inhibit success for any one job. Interviewers rarely have access to a job formula that identifies the behavioral success factors, weights the success factors against each other. And formulates how different levels of these success factors impact job performance.2. Even if the interviewer has access to such a formula, the interviewer would need to accurately assess specific levels of each applicant’s behavior for each of the job success factors.3. Some people are skillful at being interviewed. However, being skillful at an interview usually does not relate to job success and therefore it often confuses the interviewer into thinking that such skillfulness will translate to job success. To makeinterviewing even more difficult, job applicants now have access to extensive information and training related to how answer specific questions and how to “ace” the interview.4. The interviewee aims to tell the interviewer what he/she thinks will be viewed as the best response. The interviewer aims to determine how much of what the person is saying reflects genuine attitudes and behavior and how much is related to just trying to get the job. This in itself is extremely difficult to resolve in the short period of the interview.5. Interviewers are biased. Research clearly shows that interviewers routinely give favorable responses to people who are similar to themselves, and less favorable responses to people who are different from themselves. In the end, the result is very likely to come down to how well the interviewer likes the candidate rather than how well the candidate fits the behavioral requirements of the job.Many interviewers claim insights into the personality of applicants and certainly some interviewers are quite perceptive. However, predicting job success is an entirely different matter. It is not sufficient to perceive a particular quality of a person. Rather, the interviewer must be able to accurately assess themagnitude of each of dozens of qualities in relationship to a complex formula of behavioral requirements for a particular job. This is nearly an impossible task without the aid of significant research and tools.Assessment research shows that interviewing has a moderate ability to predict job success. However, this doesn’t mean that interviewers can predict job behavior. The moderate ability to predict job success comes as a result of exploring the candidate’s resume, previous experience, education, and job knowledge rather than the interviewer’s ability to predict job behavior. If you believe that interviewer can predict job behavior, I suggest you try an experiment. Have your interviewers conduct the interview without ever seeing the resume and without discussing past experience, education or skills. Then have them write down their job success prediction. Later,you can compare this prediction to actual job performance. In fact, conducting interviews in this way would be so difficult that I doubt anyone would even attempt it. In comparison, an effective job behavior assessment can obtain a moderate level of predictive accuracy for job performance on its own, without any knowledge of eligibility or any interview. This is a significant achievement because the eligibility has not been factored into the prediction. However, the value of job behavior assessment is much greater than simply its ability to predict job success on its own. By using an effective job behavior assessment at the interview, the interviewer obtains the tools to transform the interview into a genuine discussion about the person’s real fit for the job as well as the person’s likely level of job satisfaction. Thus, using the results of a behavioral assessment during the interview process is greatly increases the ability to predict job behavior. When this approach is combined with a systematic assessment of eligibility, the ability to predict job performance is increased even further.Summarizing the Value and Challenges of AssessmentEffectively assessing both job behavior and job eligibility is the essential foundation necessary to hire, retain and develop top talent. Assessment needs to quantify levels of eligibility as well as job success behaviors. To do so requires a job success formula. Interviewing does not effectively assess job behavior unless it is conducted using a job behavior assessment. Effective job behavior assessment requires the ability to measure more than 100 traits, a questionnaire that is work-focused, the ability to detect false answers and/or self-deception, a specific job success formula derived from performance research and clear reports that do not require interpretation. Harrison Assessments meets all of the standards mentioned above providing a powerful tool for assessment. It enables you to build a strong foundation for your talent selection, retention and development.HA is the only assessment method that:Uses a full spectrum of behavioral assessments, including personality, interests, work environment preferences and task preferences.Uses a high-tech questionnaire that provides the equivalent of a full day of testing in only 30 minutes.Uses a technological consistency detector that provides an extremely reliable validation of the authenticity of the answers.Can be effectively applied without professional interpretation.Uses the power of paradox to decipher subtleties and complexities of personality related to job performance.Offers complete customization to specific job requirements.Offers a complete research database of success traits for different position types.Delivers cost-effective high correlation with actual job performance.资料来源：By Dan Harrison, Ph.D. Best Practices in Talent Assessment. Harrison Assessments Int'l ，2008：P10-P11二、翻译文章译文：最佳人才评价措施By Dan Harrison, Ph.D不论任何组织，评估人才工作是最重要的任务。
英文文献翻译(终稿)
毕业论文英文文献翻译学生姓名:系别: 中国语言文学系专业: 汉语言文学年级:学号: 200940101021指导教师: 王文征The Big Secret of Dealing with PeopleDale Carnegie There is only one way under high heaven to get anybody to do anything. Did you ever stop to think of that? Yes, just one way. And that is by making the other person want to do it.Remember, there is no other way.Of course, you can make someone want to give you his watch by sticking a revolver in his ribs. You can make your employees give you cooperation - until your back is turned - by threatening to fire them. You can make a child do what you want it to do by a whip or a threat. But these crude methods have sharply undesirable repercussions.The only way I can get you to do anything is by giving you what you want.What do you want?Sigmund Freud said that everything you and I do springs from two motives: the sex urge and the desire to be great.John Dewey, one of America’s most profound philosophers, phrased it a bit differently. Dr. Dewey, said that the deepest urge in human nature is “the desire to be important.” Remember that phrase: “the desire to be important.” It is significant. You are going to hear a lot about it in this book. What do you want? Not many things, but the few that you do wish, you crave with an insistence that will not be denied. Some of the things most people want include:1. Health and the preservation of life.2. Food.3. Sleep.4. Money and the things money will buy.5. Life in the hereafter.6. Sexual gratification.7. The well – being of our children.8. A feeling of importance.Almost all these wants are usually gratified –all except one. But there is one longing – almost as deep, almost as imperious, as the desire for food or sleep – which isseldom gratified. It is what Freud calls “the desire to be great.” It is what Dewey calls the “desire to be important.”Lincoln once began a letter saying: “Everybody likes a compliment.” William James said: “The deepest principle in human nature is the craving to be appreciated.”He didn’t speak, mind you, of the “wish”or the “desire”or the “longing” to be appreciated. He said the “craving” to be appreciated.Here is a gnawing and unfaltering human hunger, and the rare individual who honestly satisfies this heart hunger will hold people in the palm of his or her hand and “even the undertaker will be sorry when he dies.”The desire for a feeling of importance is one of the chief distinguishing differences between mankind and the animals. To illustrate: When I was a farm boy out in Missouri, my father bred fine Duroc – Jersey hogs and pedigreed white – faced cattle. We used to exhibit our hogs and white –faced cattle at the country fairs and live –stock shows throughout the Middle West. We won first prizes by the score. My father pinned his blue ribbons on a sheet of white muslin, and when friends of visitors came to the house, he would get out the long sheet of muslin. He would hold one end and I would hold the other while he exhibited the blue ribbons.The hogs didn’t care about the ribbons they had won. But Father did. These prizes gave him a feeling of importance.If our ancestors hadn’t had this flaming urge for a feeling of importance, civilization would have been impossible. Without it, we should have been just about like animals.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that led an uneducated, poverty –stricken grocery clerk to study some law books he found in the bottom of a barrel of household plunder that he had bought for fifty cents. You have probably heard of this grocery clerk. His name was Lincoln.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that inspired Dickens to write his immortal novels. This desire inspired Sir Christopher Wren to design his symphonies in stone. This desire made Rockefeller amass millions that he never spent! And this same desire made the richest family in your town build a house far too large for its requirements.This desire makes you want to wear the latest styles, drive the latest cars, and talk about your brilliant children.It is this desire that lures many boys and girls into joining gangs and engaging in criminal activities. The average young criminal, according to E.P. Mulrooney, onetime police commissioner of New York, is filled with ego, and his first request after arrest is for those lurid newspapers that make him out a hero. The disagreeable prospect of serving time seems remote so long as he can gloat over his likeness sharing space with pictures of sports figures, movie and TV stars and politicians.The difference between appreciation and flattery? That is simple. One is sincere and the other insincere. One comes from the heart out; the other from the teeth out. One is unselfish; the other selfish. One is universally admired; the other universally condemned.I recently saw a bust of Mexican hero General Alvaro Obregon in the Chapultepec palace in Mexico City. Below the bust are carved these wise words from General Obregon’s philosophy: “Don’t be afraid of enemies who attack you. Be afraid of the friends who flatter you. ”No! No! No! I am not suggesting flattery! Far from it. I’m talking about a new way of life. Let me repeat. I am talking about a new way of life.King George V had a set of six maxims displayed on the walls of his study at Buckingham Palace. One of these maxims said: “Teach me neither to proffer nor receive cheap praise.” That’s all flattery is – cheap praise. I once read a definition of flattery that may be worth repeating: “Flattery is telling the other person precisely what he thinks about himself.”“Use what language you will,”said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “you can never say anything but what you are.”If all we had to do was flatter, everybody would catch on and we should all be experts in human relations.When we are not engaged in thinking about some definite problem, we usually spend about 95 percent of our time thinking about ourselves. Now, if we shop thinking about ourselves for a while and begin to think of the other person’s good points, we won’t have to resort to flattery so cheap and false that it can be spotted almost before it is out of the mouth.One of the most neglected virtues of out daily existence is appreciation. Somehow, we neglect to praise our son or daughter when he or she brings home a good report card,and we fail to encourage our children when they first succeed in baking a cake or building a birdhouse. Nothing pleases children more than this kind of parental interest and approval.The next time you enjoy filet mignon at the club, send word to the chef that it was excellently prepared, and when a tired salesperson shows you unusual courtesy, please mention it.Every minister, lecturer and public speaker knows the discouragement of pouring himself or herself out to an audience and not receiving a single ripple of appreciative comment. What applies to professionals applies doubly to workers in offices, shops and factories and our families and friends. In our interpersonal relations we should never forget that all our associates are human beings and hunger for appreciation. It is the legal tender that all souls enjoy.Try leaving a friendly trail of little sparks of gratitude on your daily trips. You will be surprised how they will set small flames of friendship that will be rose beacons on your next visit. Pamela Dunham of New Fairfield, Connecticut, had among her responsibilities on her job the supervision of a janitor who was doing a very poor job. The other employees would jeer at him and litter the hallways to show him what a bad job he was doing. It was so bad, productive time was being lost in the shop.Without success, Pam tried various ways to motivate this person. She noticed that occasionally he did a particularly good piece of work. She made a point to praise him for it in front of the other people. Each day the job he did all around got better, and pretty soon he started doing all his work efficiently. Now he does an excellent job and other people give him appreciation and recognition. Honest appreciation got results where criticism and ridicule failed.Hurting people not only does not change them, it is never called for. There is an old saying that I have cut out and pasted on my mirror where I cannot help but see it every day:I shall pass this way but once; any good therefore, that I can do or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now. Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.Emerson said: “Every man I meet is my superior in some way. In that, I learn ofhim.”If that was true of Emerson, isn’t it likely to be a thousand times more true of you and me? Let’s cease thinking of our accomplishments, our wants. Let’s try to figure our other person’s good points. Then forget flattery. Give honest, sincere appreciation. Be “hearty in your approbation and lavish in your praise,”and people will cherish your words and treasure them and repeat them over a lifetime – repeat them years after you have forgotten them.From:Dale Carnegie.How To Stop Worrying And Start Living［M］．Beijing:ChinaMaterial Press，2005.和人交往的一大秘诀戴尔·卡耐基天底下只有一个方法，可以让任何一个人去做任何一件事。
我国非物质文化遗产保护毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料题目：我国非物质文化遗产保护文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14外文文献翻译保存奇迹Karin, Richard，联合国教科文组织成员《MAS Ultra大学版》第9期（2001）第54-58页随着经济全球一体化的进程，在我们的视野中传统的婚礼舞和诗人的语言逐渐地消失，因此保护非物质文化遗产并非易事。
教科文组织努力去保护濒危的杰作，同时向全世界展示中国传统的昆曲、日本的能乐、印度舞蹈、来自格鲁吉亚的男子和弦合唱、制作立陶宛木制和金属十字架古老的知识还有几内亚的索索巴拉的传统音乐。
在一个新的名录中，联合国教科文组织宣布这些为“杰出的非物质文化遗产”。
非物质文化遗产这个词语是一个由专家而不是巫师或音乐家所用的专业术语。
它一般是指非物质方面的文化成果，如故事和语言本身，信仰和价值观，以及赋予文化活力的各种形式的知识和技能。
这一遗产可以包括婚礼和葬礼、舞蹈、工匠的技能、口头流传下来的农业知识，甚至可以包括节日和聚会，如坦坦地区的木赛姆牧民大会。
您可能认为只有在博物馆才能发现这些文化的踪迹，但是这些文化在我们身边，是世世代代流传下来的优秀文化。
这不是玻璃下的文化！日本的活国宝在日本，学者们早已认识到无形的文化。
在18世纪和19世纪，语言学家、民俗学家和其他人试图整理世界的口头传统。
然而，全面的“非物质文化遗产保护”是从近年来开始的。
在1950年，日本意识到了传统文化的重要性，开始了一个保护活国宝的长期项目。
类似的方案随后在韩国，菲律宾，泰国，美国和法国开始。
非物质文化遗产被看作是一种资产或资源而得到保护、赞赏、使用和管理，这个想法可以溯源回到明治时代。
在西方，同时，法学家把非物质文化遗产看作是知识产权中的一种资产，利用专利和商标制度去保护它。
但是，有些集体的文化的创造是不成文的或无记录的，所以在保护的时候依然存在一些问题。
儿童教育外文翻译文献
儿童教育外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文：The Role of Parents and Community in the Educationof the Japanese ChildHeidi KnipprathAbstractIn Japan, there has been an increased concern about family and community participation in the child’s educat ion. Traditionally, the role of parents and community in Japan has been one of support and less one of active involvement in school learning. Since the government commenced education reforms in the last quarter of the 20th century, a more active role for parents and the community in education has been encouraged. These reforms have been inspired by the need to tackle various problems that had arisen, such as the perceived harmful elements of society’spreoccupation with academic achievement and the problematic behavior of young people. In this paper, the following issues are examined: (1) education policy and reform measures with regard to parent and community involvement in the child’s education; (2) the state of parent and community involvement at the eve of the 20th century.Key Words: active involvement, community, education reform, Japan, parents, partnership, schooling, supportIntroduction: The Discourse on the Achievement GapWhen western observers are tempted to explain why Japanese students attain high achievement scores in international comparative assessment studies, they are likely to address the role of parents and in particular of the mother in the education of the child. Education mom is a phrase often brought forth in the discourse on Japanese education to depict the Japanese mother as being a pushy, and demanding home-bound tutor, intensely involved in the child’s education due to severe academic competition. Although this image of the Japanese mother is a stereotype spread by the popular mass media in Japan and abroad, and the extent by which Japanese mothers are absorbed in their children is exaggerated (Benjamin, 1997, p. 16; Cummings, 1989, p. 297; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992, p. 82), Stevenson and Stigler (1992) argue that Japanese parents do play an indispensable role in the academic performance of their children. During their longitudinal and cross-national research project, they and their collaborators observed that Japanese first and fifth graders persistently achieved higher on math tests than American children. Besides reciting teacher’s teaching style, cultural beliefs, and organization of schooling, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) mention parent’s role in supporting the learning conditions of the child to explain differences in achievement between elementary school students of the United States and students of Japan. In Japan, children receive more help at home with schoolwork (Chen & Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992), and tend to perform less household chores than children in the USA (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). More Japanese parents than American parents provide space and a personal desk and purchase workbooks for their children to supplement their regular text-books at school (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). Additionally, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) observed that American mothers are much more readily satisfied with their child’s performance than Asian parents are, have less realistic assessments of their child’s academic perform ance, intelligence, and other personality characteristics, and subsequently have lower standards. Based on their observation of Japanese, Chinese and American parents, children and teachers, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) conclude that American families can increase the academic achievement of their children by strengthening the link between school and home, creating a physical and psychological environment that is conducive to study, and by making realistic assessments and raising standards. Also Benjamin (1997), who performed ‘day-to-day ethnography’ to find out how differences in practice between American and Japanese schools affect differences in outcomes, discusses the relationship between home and school and how the Japanese mother is involved in the academic performance standards reached by Japanese children. She argues that Japanese parents are willing to pay noticeable amounts of money for tutoring in commercial establishments to improve the child’s performance on entrance examinations, to assist in ho mework assignments, to facilitate and support their children’s participation in school requirements and activities, and to check notebooks of teachers on the child’s progress and other school-related messages from the teacher. These booklets are read and written daily by teachers and parents. Teachers regularly provide advice and reminders to parents, and write about homework assignments of the child, special activities and the child’s behavior (Benjamin, 1997, p. 119, p. 1993–1995). Newsletters, parents’ v isits to school, school reports, home visits by the teacher and observation days sustain communication in later years at school. According toBenjamin (1997), schools also inform parents about how to coach their children on proper behavior at home. Shimahara (1986), Hess and Azuma (1991), Lynn (1988) and White (1987) also try to explain national differences in educational achievement. They argue that Japanese mothers succeed in internalizing into their children academic expectations and adaptive dispositions that facilitate an effective teaching strategy, and in socializing the child into a successful person devoted to hard work.Support, Support and SupportEpstein (1995) constructed a framework of six types of involvement of parents and the community in the school: (1) parenting: schools help all families establish home environments to support children as students; (2) communicating: effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programs and children’s progress; (3) volu nteering: schools recruit and organize parents help and support; (4) learning at home: schools provide information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions and planning; (5) decision making: schools include parents in school decisions, develop parent leaders and representatives; and (6) collaborating with the community: schools integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and development. All types of involvement mentioned in studies of Japanese education and in the discourse on the roots of the achievement gap belong to one of Epstein’s first four types of involvement: the creation of a conducive learn ing environment (type 4), the expression of high expectations (type 4), assistance in homework (type 4), teachers’ notebooks (type 2), mother’s willingness to facilitate school activities (type3) teachers’ advice about the child’s behavior (type 1), observ ation days by which parents observe their child in the classroom (type 2), and home visits by the teachers (type 1). Thus, when one carefully reads Stevenson and Stigler’s, Benjamin’s and other’s writings about Japanese education and Japanese students’ high achievement level, one notices that parents’ role in the child’s school learning is in particular one of support, expected and solicited by the school. The fifth type (decision making) as well as the sixth type (community involvement) is hardly ever mentioned in the discourse on the achievement gap.In 1997, the OECD’s Center for Educational Research and Innovation conducted a cross-national study to report the actual state of parents as partners in schooling in nine countries, including Japan. In its report, OECD concludes that the involvement of Japanese parents in their schools is strictly limited, and that the basis on which it takes place tends to be controlled by the teacher (OECD, 1997, p. 167). According to OECD (1997), many countries are currently adopting policies to involve families closely in the education of their children because (1) governments are decentralizing their administrations; (2) parents want to be increasingly involved; and (3) because parental involvement is said to be associated with higher achievement in school (p. 9). However, parents in Japan, where students already score highly on international achievement tests, are hardly involved in governance at the national and local level, and communication between school and family tends to be one-way (Benjamin, 1997; Fujita, 1989; OECD, 1997). Also parent–teacher associations (PTA, fubo to kyoshi no kai ) are primarily presumed to be supportive of school learning and not to participate in school governance (cf. OECD, 2001, p. 121). On the directionsof the occupying forces after the second world war, PTA were established in Japanese schools and were considered with the elective education boards to provide parents and the community an opportunity to participate actively in school learning (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88; Nakata, 1996, p. 139). The establishment of PTA and elective education boards are only two examples of numerous reform measures the occupying forces took to decentralize the formal education system and to expand educational opportunities. But after they left the country, the Japanese government was quick to undo liberal education reform measures and reduced the community and parental role in education. The stipulation that PTA should not interfere with personnel and other administrative tasks of schools, and the replacement of elective education boards by appointed ones, let local education boards believe that parents should not get involved with school education at all (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88). Teachers were regarded to be the experts and the parents to be the laymen in education (Hiroki, 1996, p. 89).In sum, studies of Japanese education point into one direction: parental involvement means being supportive, and community involvement is hardly an issue at all. But what is the actual state of parent and community involvement in Japanese schools? Are these descriptions supported by quantitative data?Statistics on Parental and Community InvolvementTo date, statistics of parental and community involvement are rare. How-ever, the school questionnaire of the TIMSS-R study did include some interesting questions that give us a clue about the degree of involvement relatively compared to the degree of involvement in other industrialized countries. The TIMSS-R study measured science and math achievement of eighth graders in 38 countries. Additionally, a survey was held among principals, teachers and students. Principals answered questions relating to school management, school characteristics, and involvement. For convenience, the results of Japan are only compared with the results of those countries with a GNP of 20650 US dollars or higher according to World Bank’s indicators in 1999.Unfortunately, only a very few items on community involvement were measured. According to the data, Japanese principals spend on average almost eight hours per month on representing the school in the community (Table I). Australian and Belgian principals spend slightly more hours and Dutch and Singaporean principals spend slightly less on representing the school and sustaining communication with the community. But when it comes to participation from the community, Japanese schools report a nearly absence of involvement (Table II). Religious groups and the business community have hardly any influence on the curriculum of the school. In contrast, half of the principals report that parents do have an impact in Japan. On one hand, this seems a surprising result when one is reminded of the centralized control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, this control and the resulting uniform curriculum are often cited as a potential explanation of the high achievement levels in Japan. On the other hand, this extent of parental impact on the curriculum might be an indicator of the pressure parents put on schools to prepare their children appropriately for the entrance exams of senior high schools.In Table III, data on the extent of other types of parental involvement in Japan and other countries are given. In Japan, parental involvement is most common in case of schools volunteering for school projects and programs, and schools expecting parents to make sure that thechild completes his or her homework. The former is together with patrolling the grounds of the school to monitor student behavior most likely materialized through the PTA. The kinds and degree of activities of PTA vary according to the school, but the activities of the most active and well-organized PTA’s of 395 elementary schools investigated by Sumida (2001)range from facilitating sport and recreation for children, teaching greetings, encouraging safe traffic, patrolling the neighborhood, publishing the PTA newspaper to cleaning the school grounds (pp. 289–350). Surprisingly, less Japanese principals expect from the parents to check one’s child’s completion of homework than principals of other countries. In the discourse on the achievement gap, western observers report that parents and families in Japan provide more assistance with their children’s homework than parents and families outside Japan. This apparent contradiction might be the result of the fact that these data are measured at the lower secondary level while investigations of the roots of Japanese students’ high achievement levels focus on childhood education and learning at primary schools. In fact, junior high school students are given less homework in Japan than their peers in other countries and less homework than elementary school students in Japan. Instead, Japanese junior high school students spend more time at cram schools. Finally, Japanese principals also report very low degrees of expectations toward parents with regard to serving as a teacher aid in the classroom, raising funds for the school, assisting teachers on trips, and serving on committees which select school personnel and review school finances. The latter two items measure participation in school governance.In other words, the data support by and large the descriptions of parental of community involvement in Japanese schooling. Parents are requested to be supportive, but not to mount the territory of the teacher nor to be actively involved in governance. Moreover, whilst Japanese principals spend a few hours per month on communication toward the community, involvement from the community with regard to the curriculum is nearly absent, reflecting the nearly absence of accounts of community involvement in studies on Japanese education. However, the reader needs to be reminded that these data are measured at the lower secondary educational level when participation by parents in schooling decreases (Epstein, 1995; OECD, 1997; Osakafu Kyoiku Iinkai, unpublished report). Additionally, the question remains what stakeholders think of the current state of involvement in schooling. Some interesting local data provided by the Osaka Prefecture Education Board shed a light on their opinion.ReferencesBenjamin, G. R. (1997). Japanese lessons. New York: New York University Press.Cave, P. (2003). Educational reform in Japan in the 1990s: ‘Individuality’ and other uncertainties. Comparative Education Review, 37(2), 173–191.Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1989). Homework: A cross-cultural examination. Child Development, 60(3), 551–561.Chuo Kyoiku Shingikai (1996). 21 seiki o tenbo shita wagakuni no kyoiku no arikata ni tsu-ite [First Report on the Model for Japanese Education in the Perspective of theCummings, W. K. (1989). The American perception of Japanese parative Education, 25(3), 293–302.Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships. Phi Delta Kappan , 701–712.Fujita, M. (1989). It’s all mother’s fault: childcare and the socialization of working mothers in Japan. The Journal of Japanese Studies , 15(1), 67–91.Harnish, D. L. (1994). Supplemental education in Japan: juku schooling and its implication. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 26(3), 323–334.Hess, R. D., & Azuma, H. (1991). Cultural support for schooling, contrasts between Japanand the United States. Educational Researcher , 20(9), 2–8, 12.Hiroki, K. (1996). Kyoiku ni okeru kodomo, oya, kyoshi, kocho no kenri, gimukankei[Rights and duties of principals, teachers, parents and children in education. InT. Horio & T. Urano (Eds.), Soshiki toshite no gakko [School as an organization](pp. 79–100). Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo. Ikeda, H. (2000). Chiiki no kyoiku kaikaku [Local education reform]. Osaka: Kaiho Shup-pansha.Kudomi, Y., Hosogane, T., & Inui, A. (1999). The participation of students, parents and the community in promoting school autonomy: case studies in Japan. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 9(3), 275–291.Lynn, R. (1988).Educational achievement in Japan. London: MacMillan Press.Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Smith, T. A., Chrostowski,S. J., Garden, R. A., & O’Connor, K. M. (2000). TIMSS 1999 Intern ational science report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and ScienceStudy at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center.Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Garden, R. A., O’Connor, K. M.,Chrostowski, S. J., & Smith, T. A.. (2000). TIMSS 1999 International mathemat-ics report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center. Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (2000).Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture. 1999, educational reform in progress. Tokyo: PrintingBureau, Ministry of Finance.Monbusho Ed. (1999).Heisei 11 nendo, wagakuni no bunkyoshisaku : Susumu kaikaku [Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture 1999: Educational reform in progress]. Tokyo: Monbusho.Educational Research for Policy and Practice (2004) 3: 95–107 © Springer 2005DOI 10.1007/s10671-004-5557-6Heidi KnipprathDepartment of MethodologySchool of Business, Public Administration and TechnologyUniversity of Twente P.O. Box 2177500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands译文：家长和社区在日本儿童教育中的作用摘要在日本，人们越来越关心家庭和社区参与到儿童教育中。
企业风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
企业风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Risk ManagementThis chapter reviews and discusses the basic issues and principles of risk management, including: risk acceptability (tolerability); risk reduction and the ALARP principle; cautionary and precautionary principles. And presents a case study showing the importance of these issues and principles in a practical management context. Before we take a closer look, let us briefly address some basic features of risk management.The purpose of risk management is to ensure that adequate measures are taken to protect people, the environment, and assets from possible harmful consequences of the activities being undertaken, as well as to balance different concerns, in particular risks and costs. Risk management includes measures both to avoid the hazards and toreduce their potential harm. Traditionally, in industries such as nuclear, oil, and gas, risk management was based on a prescriptive regulating regime, in which detailed requirements were set with regard to the design and operation of the arrangements. This regime has gradually been replaced by a more goal-oriented regime, putting emphasis on what to achieve rather than on the means of achieving it.Risk management is an integral aspect of a goal-oriented regime. It is acknowledged that risk cannot be eliminated but must be managed. There is nowadays an enormous drive and enthusiasm in various industries and in society as a whole to implement risk management in organizations. There are high expectations that risk management is the proper framework through which to achieve high levels of performance.Risk management involves achieving an appropriate balance between realizing opportunities for gain and minimizing losses. It is an integral part of good management practice and an essential element of good corporate governance. It is an iterative process consisting of steps that, when undertaken in sequence, can lead to a continuous improvement in decision-making and facilitate a continuous improvement in performance.To support decision-making regarding design and operation, risk analyses are carried out. They include the identification of hazards and threats, cause analyses, consequence analyses, and risk descriptions. The results are then evaluated. The totality of the analyses and the evaluations are referred to as risk assessments. Risk assessment is followed by risk treatment, which is a process involving the development and implementation of measures to modify the risk, including measures designed to avoid, reduce (“optimize”), transfer, or retain the risk. Risk transfer means sharing with another party the benefit or loss associated with a risk. It is typically affected through insurance. Risk management covers all coordinated activities in the direction and control of an organization with regard to risk.In many enterprises, the risk management tasks are divided into three main categories: strategic risk, financial risk, and operational risk. Strategic risk includes aspects and factors that are important for the e nterprise’s long-term strategy and plans,for example mergers and acquisitions, technology, competition, political conditions, legislation and regulations, and labor market. Financial risk includes the enterprise’s financial situation, and includes: Market risk, associated with the costs of goods and services, foreign exchange rates and securities (shares, bonds, etc.). Credit risk, associated with a debtor’s failure to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. Liquidity risk, reflecting lack of access to cash; the difficulty of selling an asset in a timely manner. Operational risk is related to conditions affecting the normal operating situation: Accidental events, including failures and defects, quality deviations, natural disasters. Intended acts; sabotage, disgruntled employees, etc. Loss of competence, key personnel. Legal circumstances, associated for instance, with defective contracts and liability insurance.For an enterprise to become successful in its implementation of risk management, top management needs to be involved, and activities must be put into effect on many levels. Some important points to ensure success are: the establishment of a strategy for risk management, i.e., the principles of how the enterprise defines and implements risk management. Should one simply follow the regulatory requirements (minimal requirements), or should one be the “best in the class”? The establishment of a risk management process for the enterprise, i.e. formal processes and routines that the enterprise is to follow. The establishment of management structures, with roles and responsibilities, such that the risk analysis process becomes integrated into the organization. The implementation of analyses and support systems, such as risk analysis tools, recording systems for occurrences of various types of events, etc. The communication, training, and development of a risk management culture, so that the competence, understanding, and motivation level within the organization is enhanced. Given the above fundamentals of risk management, the next step is to develop principles and a methodology that can be used in practical decision-making. This is not, however, straightforward. There are a number of challenges and here we address some of these: establishing an informative risk picture for the various decision alternatives, using this risk picture in a decision-making context. Establishing an informative risk picture means identifying appropriate risk indices and assessments ofuncertainties. Using the risk picture in a decision making context means the definition and application of risk acceptance criteria, cost benefit analyses and the ALARP principle, which states that risk should be reduced to a level which is as low as is reasonably practicable.It is common to define and describe risks in terms of probabilities and expected values. This has, however, been challenged, since the probabilities and expected values can camouflage uncertainties; the assigned probabilities are conditional on a number of assumptions and suppositions, and they depend on the background knowledge. Uncertainties are often hidden in this background knowledge, and restricting attention to the assigned probabilities can camouflage factors that could produce surprising outcomes. By jumping directly into probabilities, important uncertainty aspects are easily truncated, and potential surprises may be left unconsidered.Let us, as an example, consider the risks, seen through the eyes of a risk analyst in the 1970s, associated with future health problems for divers working on offshore petroleum projects. The analyst assigns a value to the probability that a diver would experience health problems (properly defined) during the coming 30 years due to the diving activities. Let us assume that a value of 1 % was assigned, a number based on the knowledge available at that time. There are no strong indications that the divers will experience health problems, but we know today that these probabilities led to poor predictions. Many divers have experienced severe health problems (Avon and Vine, 2007). By restricting risk to the probability assignments alone, important aspects of uncertainty and risk are hidden. There is a lack of understanding about the underlying phenomena, but the probability assignments alone are not able to fully describe this status.Several risk perspectives and definitions have been proposed in line with this realization. For example, Avon (2007a, 2008a) defines risk as the two-dimensional combination of events/consequences and associated uncertainties (will the events occur, what the consequences will be). A closely related perspective is suggested by Avon and Renan (2008a), who define risk associated with an activity as uncertaintyabout and severity of the consequences of the activity, where severity refers to intensity, size, extension, scope and other potential measures of magnitude with respect to something that humans value (lives, the environment, money, etc.). Losses and gains, expressed for example in monetary terms or as the number of fatalities, are ways of defining the severity of the consequences. See also Avon and Christensen (2005).In the case of large uncertainties, risk assessments can support decision-making, but other principles, measures, and instruments are also required, such as the cautionary/precautionary principles as well as robustness and resilience strategies. An informative decision basis is needed, but it should be far more nuanced than can be obtained by a probabilistic analysis alone. This has been stressed by many researchers, e.g. Apostolicism (1990) and Apostolicism and Lemon (2005): qualitative risk analysis (QRA) results are never the sole basis for decision-making. Safety- and security-related decision-making is risk-informed, not risk-based. This conclusion is not, however, justified merely by referring to the need for addressing uncertainties beyond probabilities and expected values. The main issue here is the fact that risks need to be balanced with other concerns.When various solutions and measures are to be compared and a decision is to be made, the analysis and assessments that have been conducted provide a basis for such a decision. In many cases, established design principles and standards provide clear guidance. Compliance with such principles and standards must be among the first reference points when assessing risks. It is common thinking that risk management processes, and especially ALARP processes, require formal guidelines or criteria (e.g., risk acceptance criteria and cost-effectiveness indices) to simplify the decision-making. Care must; however, be shown when using this type of formal decision-making criteria, as they easily result in a mechanization of the decision-making process. Such mechanization is unfortunate because: Decision-making criteria based on risk-related numbers alone (probabilities and expected values) do not capture all the aspects of risk, costs, and benefits, no method has a precision that justifies a mechanical decision based on whether the result is overor below a numerical criterion. It is a managerial responsibility to make decisions under uncertainty, and management should be aware of the relevant risks and uncertainties.Apostolicism and Lemon (2005) adopt a pragmatic approach to risk analysis and risk management, acknowledging the difficulties of determining the probabilities of an attack. Ideally, they would like to implement a risk-informed procedure, based on expected values. However, since such an approach would require the use of probabilities that have not b een “rigorously derived”, they see themselves forced to resort to a more pragmatic approach.This is one possible approach when facing problems of large uncertainties. The risk analyses simply do not provide a sufficiently solid basis for the decision-making process. We argue along the same lines. There is a need for a management review and judgment process. It is necessary to see beyond the computed risk picture in the form of the probabilities and expected values. Traditional quantitative risk analyses fail in this respect. We acknowledge the need for analyzing risk, but question the value added by performing traditional quantitative risk analyses in the case of large uncertainties. The arbitrariness in the numbers produced can be significant, due to the uncertainties in the estimates or as a result of the uncertainty assessments being strongly dependent on the analysts.It should be acknowledged that risk cannot be accurately expressed using probabilities and expected values. A quantitative risk analysis is in many cases better replaced by a more qualitative approach, as shown in the examples above; an approach which may be referred to as a semi-quantitative approach. Quantifying risk using risk indices such as the expected number of fatalities gives an impression that risk can be expressed in a very precise way. However, in most cases, the arbitrariness is large. In a semi-quantitative approach this is acknowledged by providing a more nuanced risk picture, which includes factors that can cause “surprises” r elative to the probabilities and the expected values. Quantification often requires strong simplifications and assumptions and, as a result, important factors could be ignored or given too little (or too much) weight. In a qualitative or semi-quantitative analysis, amore comprehensive risk picture can be established, taking into account underlying factors influencing risk. In contrast to the prevailing use of quantitative risk analyses, the precision level of the risk description is in line with the accuracy of the risk analysis tools. In addition, risk quantification is very resource demanding. One needs to ask whether the resources are used in the best way. We conclude that in many cases more is gained by opening up the way to a broader, more qualitative approach, which allows for considerations beyond the probabilities and expected values.The traditional quantitative risk assessments as seen for example in the nuclear and the oil & gas industries provide a rather narrow risk picture, through calculated probabilities and expected values, and we conclude that this approach should be used with care for problems with large uncertainties. Alternative approaches highlighting the qualitative aspects are more appropriate in such cases. A broad risk description is required. This is also the case in the normative ambiguity situations, as the risk characterizations provide a basis for the risk evaluation processes. The main concern is the value judgments, but they should be supported by solid scientific assessments, showing a broad risk picture. If one tries to demonstrate that it is rational to accept risk, on a scientific basis, too narrow an approach to risk has been adopted. Recognizing uncertainty as a main component of risk is essential to successfully implement risk management, for cases of large uncertainties and normative ambiguity.A risk description should cover computed probabilities and expected values, as well as: Sensitivities showing how the risk indices depend on the background knowledge (assumptions and suppositions); Uncertainty assessments; Description of the background knowledge, including models and data used.The uncertainty assessments should not be restricted to standard probabilistic analysis, as this analysis could hide important uncertainty factors. The search for quantitative, explicit approaches for expressing the uncertainties, even beyond the subjective probabilities, may seem to be a possible way forward. However, such an approach is not recommended. Trying to be precise and to accurately express what is extremely uncertain does not make sense. Instead we recommend a more openqualitative approach to reveal such uncertainties. Some might consider this to be less attractive from a methodological and scientific point of view. Perhaps it is, but it would be more suited for solving the problem at hand, which is about the analysis and management of risk and uncertainties.Source: Terje Aven. 2010. “Risk Management”. Risk in Technological Systems, Oct, p175-198.译文：风险管理本章回顾和讨论风险管理的基本问题和原则，包括：风险可接受性（耐受性）、风险削减和安全风险管理原则、警示和预防原则，并提出了一个研究案例，说明在实际管理环境中这些问题和原则的重要性。
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外文文献翻译译稿1卡尔曼滤波的一个典型实例是从一组有限的，包含噪声的，通过对物体位置的观察序列（可能有偏差）预测出物体的位置的坐标及速度。
在很多工程应用（如雷达、计算机视觉）中都可以找到它的身影。
同时，卡尔曼滤波也是控制理论以及控制系统工程中的一个重要课题。
例如，对于雷达来说，人们感兴趣的是其能够跟踪目标。
但目标的位置、速度、加速度的测量值往往在任何时候都有噪声。
卡尔曼滤波利用目标的动态信息，设法去掉噪声的影响，得到一个关于目标位置的好的估计。
这个估计可以是对当前目标位置的估计（滤波），也可以是对于将来位置的估计（预测），也可以是对过去位置的估计（插值或平滑）。
命名[编辑]这种滤波方法以它的发明者鲁道夫.E.卡尔曼（Rudolph E. Kalman）命名，但是根据文献可知实际上Peter Swerling在更早之前就提出了一种类似的算法。
斯坦利。
施密特（Stanley Schmidt）首次实现了卡尔曼滤波器。
卡尔曼在NASA埃姆斯研究中心访问时，发现他的方法对于解决阿波罗计划的轨道预测很有用，后来阿波罗飞船的导航电脑便使用了这种滤波器。
关于这种滤波器的论文由Swerling（1958）、Kalman (1960)与Kalman and Bucy（1961）发表。
目前，卡尔曼滤波已经有很多不同的实现。
卡尔曼最初提出的形式现在一般称为简单卡尔曼滤波器。
除此以外，还有施密特扩展滤波器、信息滤波器以及很多Bierman, Thornton开发的平方根滤波器的变种。
也许最常见的卡尔曼滤波器是锁相环，它在收音机、计算机和几乎任何视频或通讯设备中广泛存在。
以下的讨论需要线性代数以及概率论的一般知识。
卡尔曼滤波建立在线性代数和隐马尔可夫模型（hidden Markov model）上。
其基本动态系统可以用一个马尔可夫链表示，该马尔可夫链建立在一个被高斯噪声（即正态分布的噪声）干扰的线性算子上的。
系统的状态可以用一个元素为实数的向量表示。
随着离散时间的每一个增加，这个线性算子就会作用在当前状态上，产生一个新的状态，并也会带入一些噪声，同时系统的一些已知的控制器的控制信息也会被加入。
同时，另一个受噪声干扰的线性算子产生出这些隐含状态的可见输出。
卡尔曼滤波是一种递归的估计，即只要获知上一时刻状态的估计值以及当前状态的观测值就可以计算出当前状态的估计值，因此不需要记录观测或者估计的历史信息。
卡尔曼滤波器与大多数滤波器不同之处，在于它是一种纯粹的时域滤波器，它不需要像低通滤波器等频域滤波器那样，需要在频域设计再转换到时域实现。
卡尔曼滤波器的状态由以下两个变量表示：，在时刻k的状态的估计；，误差相关矩阵，度量估计值的精确程度。
卡尔曼滤波器的操作包括两个阶段：预测与更新。
在预测阶段，滤波器使用上一状态的估计，做出对当前状态的估计。
在更新阶段，滤波器利用对当前状态的观测值优化在预测阶段获得的预测值，以获得一个更精确的新估计值。
预测(预测状态)(预测估计协方差矩阵）更新首先要算出以下三个量：(测量余量，measurement residual)(测量余量协方差)(最优卡尔曼增益）然后用它们来更新滤波器变量x与P：(更新的状态估计)(更新的协方差估计）使用上述公式计算仅在最优卡尔曼增益的时候有效。
使用其他增益的话，公式要复杂一些不变量（Invariant）如果模型准确，而且与的值准确的反映了最初状态的分布，那么以下不变量就保持不变：所有估计的误差均值为零且协方差矩阵准确的反映了估计的协方差：请注意，其中表示的期望值, 。
实例考虑在无摩擦的、无限长的直轨道上的一辆车。
该车最初停在位置0处，但时不时受到随机的冲击。
我们每隔Δt秒即测量车的位置，但是这个测量是非精确的；我们想建立一个关于其位置以及速度的模型。
我们来看如何推导出这个模型以及如何从这个模型得到卡尔曼滤波器。
因为车上无动力，所以我们可以忽略掉B k和u k。
由于F、H、R和Q是常数，所以时间下标可以去掉。
车的位置以及速度（或者更加一般的，一个粒子的运动状态）可以被线性状态空间描述如下：其中是速度，也就是位置对于时间的导数。
我们假设在（k− 1）时刻与k时刻之间，车受到a k的加速度，其符合均值为0，标准差为σa的正态分布。
根据牛顿运动定律，我们可以推出其中且我们可以发现（因为σa是一个标量）。
在每一时刻，我们对其位置进行测量，测量受到噪声干扰。
我们假设噪声服从正态分布，均值为0，标准差为σz。
其中且如果我们知道足够精确的车最初的位置，那么我们可以初始化并且，我们告诉滤波器我们知道确切的初始位置，我们给出一个协方差矩阵：如果我们不确切的知道最初的位置与速度，那么协方差矩阵可以初始化为一个对角线元素是B的矩阵，B取一个合适的比较大的数。
此时，与使用模型中已有信息相比，滤波器更倾向于使用初次测量值的信息。
§推§推导后验协方差矩阵按照上边的定义，我们从误差协方差开始推导如下：代入再代入与整理误差向量，得因为测量误差v k与其他项是非相关的，因此有利用协方差矩阵的性质，此式可以写作使用不变量P k|k-1以及R k的定义这一项可以写作：这一公式对于任何卡尔曼增益K k都成立。
如果K k是最优卡尔曼增益，则可以进一步简化，请见下文。
§最优卡尔曼增益的推导卡尔曼滤波器是一个最小均方误差估计器，后验状态误差估计（英文：a posteriori state estimate）是我们最小化这个矢量幅度平方的期望值，，这等同于最小化后验估计协方差矩阵P k|k的迹（trace）。
将上面方程中的项展开、抵消，得到：当矩阵导数是0的时候得到P k|k的迹（trace）的最小值：此处须用到一个常用的式子，如下：从这个方程解出卡尔曼增益K k：这个增益称为最优卡尔曼增益，在使用时得到最小均方误差。
§后验误差协方差公式的化简在卡尔曼增益等于上面导出的最优值时，计算后验协方差的公式可以进行简化。
在卡尔曼增益公式两侧的右边都乘以S k K k T得到根据上面后验误差协方差展开公式，最后两项可以抵消，得到.这个公式的计算比较简单，所以实际中总是使用这个公式，但是需注意这公式仅在使用最优卡尔曼增益的时候它才成立。
如果算术精度总是很低而导致数值稳定性出现问题，或者特意使用非最优卡尔曼增益，那么就不能使用这个简化；必须使用上面导出的后验误差协方差公式。
自适应滤波器是能够根据输入信号自动调整性能进行数字信号处理的数字滤波器。
作为对比，非自适应滤波器有静态的滤波器系数，这些静态系数一起组成传递函数。
对于一些应用来说，由于事先并不知道所需要进行操作的参数，例如一些噪声信号的特性，所以要求使用自适应的系数进行处理。
在这种情况下，通常使用自适应滤波器，自适应滤波器使用反馈来调整滤波器系数以及频率响应。
总的来说，自适应的过程涉及到将代价函数用于确定如何更改滤波器系数从而减小下一次迭代过程成本的算法。
价值函数是滤波器最佳性能的判断准则，比如减小输入信号中的噪声成分的能力。
随着数字信号处理器性能的增强，自适应滤波器的应用越来越常见，时至今日它们已经广泛地用于手机以及其它通信设备、数码录像机和数码照相机以及医疗监测设备中假设医院正在监测一个患者的心脏跳动，即心电图，这个信号受到50 Hz（许多国家供电所用频率）噪声的干扰剔除这个噪声的方法之一就是使用50Hz 的陷波滤波器（en:notch filter）对信号进行滤波。
但是，由于医院的电力供应会有少许波动，所以我们假设真正的电力供应可能会在47Hz 到53Hz 之间波动。
为了剔除47 到53Hz 之间的频率的静态滤波器将会大幅度地降低心电图的质量，这是因为在这个阻带之内很有可能就有心脏跳动的频率分量。
为了避免这种可能的信息丢失，可以使用自适应滤波器。
自适应滤波器将患者的信号与电力供应信号直接作为输入信号，动态地跟踪噪声波动的频率。
这样的自适应滤波器通常阻带宽度更小，这就意味着这种情况下用于医疗诊断的输出信号就更加准确。
扩展卡尔曼滤波器在扩展卡尔曼滤波器（Extended Kalman Filter，简称EKF）中状态转换和观测模型不需要是状态的线性函数，可替换为（可微的）函数。
函数f可以用来从过去的估计值中计算预测的状态，相似的，函数h可以用来以预测的状态计算预测的测量值。
然而f和h不能直接的应用在协方差中，取而代之的是计算偏导矩阵（Jacobian）。
在每一步中使用当前的估计状态计算Jacobian矩阵，这几个矩阵可以用在卡尔曼滤波器的方程中。
这个过程，实质上将非线性的函数在当前估计值处线性化了。
这样一来，卡尔曼滤波器的等式为：预测使用Jacobians矩阵更新模型更新预测如同扩展卡尔曼滤波器（EKF）一样, UKF的预测过程可以独立于UKF的更新过程之外，与一个线性的（或者确实是扩展卡尔曼滤波器的）更新过程合并来使用；或者，UKF的预测过程与更新过程在上述中地位互换亦可。
外文文献翻译原文1Kalman filtering, also known as linear quadratic estimation(LQE), isan algorithm that uses a series of measurements observed over time,containing noise(random variations) and other inaccuracies, and producesestimates of unknown variables that tend to be more precise than those based on a single measurement alone. More formally, the Kalman filter operates recursively on streams of noisy input data to produce a statistically optimal estimate of the underlying system state. The filter is named after Rudolf (Rudy) E. Kálmán, one of the primary developers of its theory.The Kalman filter has numerous applications in technology. A common application is for guidance, navigation and control of vehicles, particularly aircraft and spacecraft. Furthermore, the Kalman filter is a widely applied concept in timeseries analysis used in fields such as signal processing and econometrics. Kalman filters also are one of the main topics in the field of Robotic motion planning and control, and sometimes included in Trajectory optimization.The algorithm works in a two-step process. In the prediction step, the Kalman filter produces estimates of the current state variables, along with their uncertainties. Once the outcome of the next measurement (necessarily corrupted with some amount of error, including random noise) is observed, these estimates are updated using a weighted average, with more weight being given to estimates with higher certainty. Because of the algorithm's recursive nature, it can run in real time using only the present input measurements and the previously calculated state and its uncertainty matrix; no additional past information is required.It is a common misconception that the Kalman filter assumes that all error terms and measurements are Gaussian distributed. Kalman's original paper derived the filter using orthogonal projection theory to show that the covariance is minimized, and this result does not require any assumption, e.g., that the errors are Gaussian.[1]He then showed that the filter yields the exact conditional probability estimate in the special case that all errors are Gaussian-distributed.Extensions and generalizations to the method have also been developed, such asthe extended Kalman filter and the unscented Kalman filter which work on nonlinear systems. The underlying model is a Bayesian model similar toa hidden Markov model but where the state space of the latent variables is continuous and where all latent and observed variables have Gaussian distributions.The Kalman filters are based on linear dynamic systems discretized in the time domain.They are modelled on a Markov chain built on linear operators perturbed by errors thatmay include Gaussian noise. The state of the system is represented as a vector of realnumbers. At each discrete time increment, a linear operator is applied to the state togenerate the new state, with some noise mixed in, and optionally some information fromthe controls on the system if they are known. Then, another linear operator mixed withmore noise generates the observed outputs from the true ("hidden") state. The Kalmanfilter may be regarded as analogous to the hidden Markov model, with the key difference that the hidden state variables take values in a continuous space (as opposed to a discrete state space as in the hidden Markov model).The Kalman filter is a recursive estimator. This means that only the estimated state from the previous time step and the current measurement are needed to compute the estimate for the current state. In contrast to batch estimation techniques, no history ofobservations and/or estimates is required. In what follows, the notation represents the estimate of at time n given observations up to, and including at time m ≤ n.The state of the filter is represented by two variables:•, the a posteriori state estimate at time k given observations up to and including at time k;•, the a posteriori error covariance matrix (a measure of the estimated accuracy of the state estimate).The Kalman filter can be written as a single equation, however it is most often conceptualized as two distinct phases: "Predict" and "Update". The predict phase uses the state estimate from the previous timestep to produce an estimate of the state at the current timestep. This predicted state estimate is also known as the a priori state estimate because, although it is an estimate of the state at the current timestep, it does not include observation information from the current timestep. In the update phase, the current a priori prediction is combined with current observation information to refine the state estimate. This improved estimate is termed the a posteriori state estimate.Typically, the two phases alternate, with the prediction advancing the state until the next scheduled observation, and the update incorporating the observation. However, this is not necessary; if an observation is unavailable for some reason, the update may be skipped and multiple prediction steps performed. Likewise, if multiple independent observations are available at the same time, multiple update steps may be performed (typically with different observation matrices H k).[14][15]§PredictPredicted (a priori) state estimatePredicted (a priori) estimate covariance§UpdateInnovation or measurement residualInnovation (or residual) covarianceOptimal Kalman gainUpdated (a posteriori) state estimateUpdated (a posteriori) estimate covarianceThe formula for the updated estimate and covariance above is only valid for the optimal Kalman gain. Usage of other gain values require a more complex formula found inthe derivations section.InvariantsIf the model is accurate, and the values for and accurately reflect thedistribution of the initial state values, then the following invariants are preserved: (all estimates have a mean error of zero)••where is the expected value of , and covariance matrices accurately reflect the covariance of estimates•••Example application, technical[edit]Consider a truck on frictionless, straight rails. Initially the truck is stationary at position 0, but it is buffeted this way and that by random uncontrolled forces. We measure the position of the truck every Δt seconds, but these measurements are imprecise; we want to maintain a model of where the truck is and what its velocity is. We show here how wederive the model from which we create our Kalman filter.Since are constant, their time indices are dropped.The position and velocity of the truck are described by the linear state spacewhere is the velocity, that is, the derivative of position with respect to time.We assume that between the (k − 1) and k timestep uncontrolled forces cause a constant acceleration of ak that is normally distributed, with mean 0 and standard deviat ionσa. From Newton's laws of motion we conclude that(note that there is no term since we have no known control inputs. Instead, we assume that ak is the effect of an unknown input and applies that effect to the state vector) whereandso thatwhere andAt each time step, a noisy measurement of the true position of the truck is made. Let us suppose the measurement noise vk is also normally distributed, with mean 0 and standard deviation σz.whereandWe know the initial starting state of the truck with perfect precision, so we initializeand to tell the filter that we know the exact position and velocity, we give it a zero covariance matrix:If the initial position and velocity are not known perfectly the covariance matrix should be initialized with a suitably large number, say L, on its diagonal.The filter will then prefer the information from the first measurements over the information already in the model.Deriving the a posteriori estimate covariance matrixStarting with our invariant on the error covariance Pk | k as abovesubstitute in the definition ofand substituteandand by collecting the error vectors we getSince the measurement error vk is uncorrelated with the other terms, this becomesby the properties of vector covariance this becomeswhich, using our invariant on Pk | k−1 and the definition of Rk becomesThis formula (sometimes known as the "Joseph form" of the covariance update equation) is valid for any value of Kk. It turns out that if Kk is the optimal Kalman gain, this can be simplified further as shown below.Kalman gain derivationThe Kalman filter is a minimum mean-square error estimator. The error in the a posteriori state estimation isWe seek to minimize the expected value of the square of the magnitude of this vector, . This is equivalent to minimizing the trace of the a posterioriestimate covariance matrix . By expanding out the terms in the equation above and collecting, we get:The trace is minimized when its matrix derivative with respect to the gain matrix is zero. Using the gradient matrix rules and the symmetry of the matrices involved we find thatSolving this for Kk yields the Kalman gain:This gain, which is known as the optimal Kalman gain, is the one that yields MMSE estimates when used.Simplification of the a posteriori error covariance formulaThe formula used to calculate the a posteriori error covariance can be simplified when the Kalman gain equals the optimal value derived above. Multiplying both sides of our Kalman gain formula on the right by SkKkT, it follows thatReferring back to our expanded formula for the a posteriori error covariance,we find the last two terms cancel out, givingThis formula is computationally cheaper and thus nearly always used in practice, but is only correct for the optimal gain. If arithmetic precision is unusually low causing problems with numerical stability, or if a non-optimal Kalman gain is deliberately used, this simplification cannot be applied; the a posteriori error covariance formula as derived above must be used.An adaptive filter is a system with a linear filter that has a transfer function controlled by variable parameters and a means to adjust those parameters according to an optimization algorithm. Because of the complexity of the optimization algorithms, most adaptive filters are digital filters. Adaptive filters are required for some applications because some parameters of the desired processing operation (for instance, the locations of reflective surfaces in a reverberant space) are not known in advance or are changing. The closed loop adaptive filter uses feedback in the form of an error signal to refine its transfer function.Generally speaking, the closed loop adaptive process involves the use of a cost function, which is a criterion for optimum performance of the filter, to feed an algorithm, whichdetermines how to modify filter transfer function to minimize the cost on the next iteration. The most common cost function is the mean square of the error signal.As the power of digital signal processors has increased, adaptive filters have become much more common and are now routinely used in devices such as mobile phones and other communication devices, camcorders and digital cameras, and medical monitoring equipment.Assuming the hospital is monitoring a patient's heart beating, namely, ECG, the signal is 50 Hz (frequency is used by many countries supply) noiseNotch filter method to eliminate noise of this is the use of 50Hz (en:notch filter) of the signal filtering. However, because of the power supply in hospital. There will be a little fluctuation, sowe assume that the power supply real may fluctuate in the 47Hz to 53Hz. In order to eliminate47 to static filters will greatly reduce the frequency of 53Hz between the ECG quality, this isbecause in the stopband within might well have a frequency component of beating heart.In order to avoid the possible loss of information, you can use the adaptive filter. The adaptive filter will supply signal and power of patients directly as the input signal, dynamicallytracking noise fluctuation frequency. Adaptive filter this usually stopband width is smaller,which means in this case an output signal for medical diagnosis is more accurate.Hybrid Kalman filter[edit]Most physical systems are represented as continuous-time models while discrete-time measurements are frequently taken for state estimation via a digital processor. Therefore, the system model and measurement model are given bywhere.InitializePredictThe prediction equations are derived from those of continuous-time Kalman filter without update from measurements, i.e., . The predicted state and covariance are calculated respectively by solving a set of differential equations with the initial value equal to the estimate at the previous step.UpdateThe update equations are identical to those of the discrete-time Kalman filter.外文文献翻译译稿2外文文献翻译原文2。