IB_chapter3_International trade theory and political reality

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3-Modern international trade theory

Making a study on manufacturer behavior is to introduce the characteristics of the social economy, and have a better understanding of inter-state trade. So we make the following assumptions for the economic social operation: 研究厂商行为是为了推出社会经济运行的特征，更好地理解国与国间的贸易，对经济社会运行作如下假设： First, the economy society makes two production factors (capital and labor) to produce two goods X and Y; 第一，经济社会使用两种生产要素（资本和劳动）生产两种商品X和Y；
The two production of A country
A国两种商品的生产
资本（K） K3 EY Y3=3Y1 资本和劳动的价格w和r不变 K2 Y2=2Y1 Y1 K1 X3=3X1 L1 X1 X2=2X1 L3 L2 EX
O
劳动（L）

A country has a larger amount of labor than capital, and the country use all of the capital and labor to produce two goods X and Y, and the two sectors are constant returns to scale. The slope of expansion channel OEX of X industry in A country is smaller than the channel OEY of Y industry, X industry (K / L) X is less than the Y industry (K / L) Y, It is said X in country A is labor-intensive industry, and Y industry is capitalintensive industry. A国劳动拥有量大于资本，使用所有的资本和劳动生产两种商品 X和Y，两个行业都是规模报酬不变。A国X行业的扩张通道OEX的斜率比Y行业的扩张通道OEY小，X行业（K/L）X小于Y行业（K/L）Y，称在A 国X行业是劳动密集型行业，Y行业是资本密集型行业。

theoryofinternationaltrade国际贸易理论

The Basic Theory Using Demand and Supply
1. Why do countries trade? What is the basis for trade, especially the product (commodity) composition?
2. For each country, what are the overall gains (or losses) from trade?
3. What are the effects of trade on each country’s economic structure? Production, Consumption.
4. What are the effects of trade on the distribution of income within each country? Winners, Losers.
Thus the producer surplus is equal to
P S(ez)ze
The Rising Importance of Trade
Trade flows relative to GDP have increased sharply
A National Market with No Trade
The Demand and Supply of Motorbikes
Demand--Preliminaries
•Demand curve shows the maximum price buyers are willing to pay for each unit. •Demand versus “quantity-demanded.” •“Law of demand” and the “substitution effect.” •Change (shift) of demand. •Elasticity—a measure of the responsiveness of quantity-demanded to a change in market price.

Internationaltradechapter3part1PPT课件

Shipping mark is mark of simple designs, some letters, numbers and simple words on packages.
Company Logo
Shipping Marks
Including information:
▪ Name of exporter and his address ▪ Name of importer ▪ Contract number ▪ Carton or crate number (piece number, serial
运输包装和销售包装
Company Logo
❖Bulk Cargo , Nude Cargo and Packed Cargo
❖ Bulk Cargo / Cargo in Bulk grain, ore, coal and sand ❖ Nude Cargo steel product, timber, tyre and cars ❖ Packed Cargo most of commodities
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❖ Container 20foot 40foot TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit)
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钢制托盘
塑料托盘
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forklift
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LOGO
Chapter Three Part 1 Cargo Packing
Sales contract
❖ Name and quality clause ❖ Quantity clause ❖ Packing clause ❖ Price clause ❖ Transport clause ❖ Payment clause ❖ Insurance clause ❖ Inspection clause ❖ Arbitration clause ❖ Claim clause ❖ Force Majeure clause

第三章国际贸易理论框架.ppt

– 需求偏好学说 – 人力资本学说
+ 规模经济理论 + 产业内贸易理论 + 技术差距理论
+
产品生命周期学说
+ 需求相似理论
+ 一、古典国际贸易理论
+ 1、亚当·斯密的绝对成本理论
时期：（18世纪60年代到19世纪60年代）背景：是在亚当所处的时代，英国的产业革命逐渐
展开，经济实力不断增强，新兴的产业资产阶级迫切要求在国民（经济）各个领域中迅速发展资本主义。
1873年）
+ 代表作《政治经济学》
+ 约翰.斯图亚特·穆勒（John Stuart Mi11 1806-1873）是英国实证主义的最早代表，也是19世纪英国影响最大的思想家之一。
+ 他出生于伦敦一个学者家庭。其父詹姆士·穆勒（1773-1836）是19世纪英国休谟派哲学家、著名功利主义者边沁的门人，在哲学、政治经济学、历史、伦理等方面均有较高造诣。约翰·穆勒没有进过正规学校，主要是在其父的指导和熏陶下自学。。1820 年，他到了法国，不仅学习法国语言文学，也学化学、动物学、逻辑学和高等数学，并结识了一些自由派经济学家和思想家。穆勒1823年随父到英国东印度公司任秘书，直到1858年此公司解散为止，最后两年曾任高级职务。穆勒没有在大学里任过教，除公司事务外，其余时间主要是从事著述。1865一 1868年，他任英国国会下院议员，接近自由党。穆勒在哲学、政治、经济、宗教、道德等各方面都有著述，其主要哲学著作有：《逻辑体系》（1843）、《论自由》（1859）、《功利主义》（1861）、《汉弥尔顿爵士哲学研究》（1860、《孔德和实证主义》（1865）、《论宗教》（1874）等。

1-International trade theory

•
Trade will benefit both nations provided only that their relative costs are different for two or more commodities. In short, trade depends on differences in comparative cost, and one nation can profitably trade with another even though its real costs are higher in every commodity.
REASONS FOR INTERNATIONAL TRADE
1) Resource reasons
The uneven distribution of resources around the world is one of the basic reasons why nations began and continue to trade with each other. (1) Favorable climatic conditions and terrain
Leading exporters in world merchandise trade (year:2006 Unit: billion dollars)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Germany America China Japan France Netherlands United Kingdom Italy Canada Belgium 1111.2 1038.3 968.9 649.9 490.4 462.4 448.3 410.6 389.5 369.2

Chapter-International-Trade-Theory文档

?Smith, Ricardo, and Heckscher-Ohlin promote unrestricted free trade
?New trade theory and Porter's theory of national competitive advantage justify limited and selective government intervention to support the development of certain export-oriented industries
?South Korea could produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice, 20 tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination in between
6-10
How Does The Theory Of Absolute Advantage Work?
?advocates government intervention to achieve a surplus in the balance of trade
?Mercantilism views trade as a zero-sum game - one in which a gain by one country results in a loss by another
?International trade allows a country
?to specialize in the manufacture and export of products and services that it can produce efficiently

国际贸易学课件--International Trade Theory

大于进口，但一定时期总体上应该出口大于进口；
代表人物：托马斯·孟（Thomas Mun, 1571－
1641）
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博弈论（Game theory）
一、田忌赛马、斗地主与《美丽心灵》
来，斗两把！
二、博弈模型的构成 ►博弈方（Players） ►策略（Strategies） ► 次序（Orders） ► 得益（Payoffs）
假设两个国家是“中国”和“美国”。两国都生产“大米”和“小麦”，但生产技术不同。劳动是唯一的生产要素，两国有相同的劳动力资源，都是100 人。
2020/9/30
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表2-1：中国和美国的生产可能性
表2-2：中国和美国的劳动生产率
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Chapter 2： International Trade Theory
一、古典贸易理论（Classical Trade Theory）二、新古典贸易理论（Neo-Classical Trade Theory ）三、新贸易理论（New Trade Theory）四、新新贸易理论（New New Trade Theory）
“劳动生产力上最大的增进、以及运用劳动时所表现的更大的熟练、技巧和判断力、似乎都是分工的结果。”
2020/9/30
Copyright by 钱学锋
分工的好处：
1、劳动者的技巧因业专而日进； 2、可以免除因工作转换而损失的时间； 3、有利于机械的发明。
男女搭配，工作不累！
2020/9/30
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绝对优势理论的意义和局限性

internationaltrade (3)

International TradeIntroductionInternational trade refers to the exchange of goods, services, and capital between countries. It plays a significant role in promoting economic growth, improving living standards, and fostering global integration. This document aims to explore the concept of international trade, its benefits, challenges, and key considerations.Benefits of International TradeEconomic GrowthOne of the key benefits of international trade is the stimulation of economic growth. By participating in global markets, countries can tap into a wider customer base, leading to increased production and higher revenue for businesses. This, in turn, generates employment opportunities and boosts economic activities.Access to ResourcesInternational trade allows countries to access resources that may be scarce or expensive domestically. For example, some countries may lack the natural resources required for industrial production, such as oil or minerals. Through trade, these resources can be imported, ensuring uninterrupted production and economic development.Specialization and Comparative AdvantageInternational trade encourages countries to specialize in producing goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Comparative advantage refers to a country’s ability to produce a specific good or service at a lower opportunity cost compared to other countries. By focusing on producing goods that they can produce more efficiently, countries can maximize their productivity, leading to increased output and overall economic welfare.Consumer BenefitsInternational trade provides consumers with access to a wider range of goods and services at competitive prices. As countries specialize in producing certain goods, they can achieve economies of scale, reducing production costs. This cost reduction is passed on to consumers through lower prices, thus improving their purchasing power and overall standard of living.Challenges in International TradeTrade BarriersTrade barriers, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies, can hinder international trade and limit its benefits. Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods, making them more expensive and less competitive. Quotas restrict the quantity of goods that can be imported. Subsidies, on the other hand, provide financial assistance to domestic producers, giving them an unfair advantage over international competitors. These barriers can distort market competition, reduce efficiency, and limit consumer choices.Political and Legal ConsiderationsInternational trade is influenced by political and legal factors, such as trade agreements, regulations, and intellectual property rights. Negotiating and complying with these agreements can be complex and time-consuming. Disputes arising from trade disagreements can lead to trade wars and affect the stability of global trade relationships.Currency FluctuationsCurrency fluctuations can impact international trade by affecting the costs of imports and exports. When a country’s currency appreciates, its exports become more expensive, potentially reducing demand. Conversely, a depreciation of the currency can make imports more expensive, leading to inflation and reducing purchasing power. These fluctuations can introduce uncertainty and volatility into international trade transactions.Key Considerations for International TradeMarket Research and AnalysisBefore engaging in international trade, thorough market research and analysis are essential. Understanding the target market, consumer preferences, and competitive landscape can help identify opportunities and risks. This information allows businesses to tailor their products and marketing strategies to meet the specific demands of international customers.Legal and Regulatory ComplianceCompliance with international trade laws and regulations is crucial to ensure smooth operations and avoid legal disputes. Businesses need to be aware of customs regulations, import/export requirements, and trade restrictions imposed by different countries. Engaging legal experts can assist in navigating the complexities of international trade laws.Risk ManagementInternational trade carries inherent risks, such as political instability, economic downturns, and transportation issues. Businesses should develop risk management strategies to mitigate potential risks. This may include diversifying the customer base, securing insurance coverage, and establishing contingency plans for disruptions in the supply chain.Cultural and Language ConsiderationsInternational trade involves interactions with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Understanding cultural nuances and adapting communication strategies accordingly can help build trust and facilitate successful business negotiations. Language barriers can also be overcome through translation services or hiring multilingual staff.ConclusionInternational trade plays a vital role in promoting economic growth, enhancing living standards, and facilitating global integration. By embracing the benefits of international trade, countries can leverage opportunities, access resources, and enjoy a wider array of goods and services. However, challenges such as trade barriers, political considerations, and currency fluctuations exist. Addressing thesechallenges through market research, legal compliance, risk management, and cultural considerations can pave the way for successful international trade partnerships.。

04-International Trade Theory

International Trade TheoryThis chapter has reviewed a number of theories that explain why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade and has explained the pattern of international trade that we observe in the world economy. We have seen how the theories of Smith, Ricardo, and Heckscher-Ohlin all make strong cases for unrestricted free trade. In contrast, the mercantilist doctrine and, to a lesser extent, the new trade theory can be interpreted to support government intervention to promote exports through subsidies and to limit imports through tariffs and quotas. In explaining the pattern of international trade, the second objective of this chapter, we have seen that with the exception of mercantilism, which is silent on this issue, the different theories offer largely complementary explanations. Although no one theory may explain the apparent pattern of international trade, taken together, the theory of comparative advantage, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the product life-cycle theory, the new trade theory, and Porter's theory of national competitive advantage do suggest which factors are important. Comparative advantage tells us that productivity differences are important; Heckscher-Ohlin tells us that factor endowments matter; the product life-cycle theory tells us that where a new product is introduced is important; the new trade theory tells us that increasing returns to specialization and first-mover advantages matter; and Porter tells us that all these factors may be important insofar as they impact the four components of the national diamond. The following points have been made in this chapter:1.Mercantilists argued that it was in a country's best interests to run a balance-of-tradesurplus. They viewed trade as a zero-sum game, in which one country's gains cause losses for other countries.2.The theory of absolute advantage suggests that countries differ in their ability toproduce goods efficiently. The theory suggests that a country should specialize in producing goods in areas where it has an absolute advantage and import goods in areas where other countries have absolute advantages.3.The theory of comparative advantage suggests that it makes sense for a country tospecialize in producing those goods that it can produce most efficiently, while buying goods that it can produce relatively less efficiently from other countries-even if that means buying goods from other countries that it could produce more efficiently itself.4.The theory of comparative advantage suggests that unrestricted free trade bringsabout increased world production; that is, that trade is a positive-sum game.5.The theory of comparative advantage also suggests that opening a country to freetrade stimulates economic growth, which creates dynamic gains from trade. The empirical evidence seems to be consistent with this claim.6.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory argues that the pattern of international trade isdetermined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce.7.The product life-cycle theory suggests that trade patterns are influenced by where anew product is introduced. In an increasingly integrated global economy, the productlife-cycle theory seems to be less predictive than it was between 1945 and 1975. 8.The new trade theory argues that in those industries where substantial economies ofscale imply that the world market will profitably support only a few firms, countries may predominate in the export of certain products simply because they had a firm that was a first mover in that industry.9.Some new trade theorists have promoted the idea of strategic trade policy. Theargument is that government, by the sophisticated and judicious use of subsidies, might be able to increase the chances of domestic firms becoming first movers in newly emerging industries.10.Porter's theory of national competitive advantage suggests that the pattern of tradeis influenced by four attributes of a nation: (a) factor endowments, (b) domestic demand conditions, (c) relating and supporting industries, and (d) firm strategy, structure, and rivalry.11.Theories of international trade are important to an individual business firm primarilybecause they can help the firm decide where to locate its various production activities.12.Firms involved in international trade can and do exert a strong influence ongovernment policy toward trade. By lobbying government, business firms can promote free trade or trade restrictions.。

International trade theory-Handout3

ECON G31D Handout 3The Heckscher-Ohlin modelBSS Chapter 5MMKM Chapter 8 and Appendix 3BPS Chapter 6Trade is based on differences in factor endowments. Hence the difference from the ‘no trade’ model is that we drop the assumption of identical relative factor endowments.Based on neoclassical production theory.Countries only differ in terms of their endowments of capital and labour.The main idea is that those countries with relatively abundant capital (typically developed countries) will export capital intensive goods, while those countries with relatively abundant labour (typically developing countries) will export labour intensive goods.Thus trade is based on differences between countries and trade between very similar countries (e.g. within the EU) is not explained by this model. Four main propositions:1.The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem:Each country will export the good which is relatively intensive in that country’s relatively abundant factor.2.The factor price equalisation theorem:Trade equalises the real return to each factor of production acrosscountries.3.The Stolper-Samuelson theorem:Trade increases the real return to a country’s relatively abundant factor but reduces the real return to the relatively scarce factor.4.The Rybczynski theorem:An increase in a country’s endowment of one factor will increase output of the good which uses that factor intensively and reduce output of the other good.Assumptions•There are 2 countries, 2 goods and 2 factors of production.Production•Factors are homogeneous within and between countries.•The supply of each factor in each country is fixed. Factors are perfectly mobile between industries within a country but immobile betweencountries.•Production functions are identical between countries and exhibit constant returns to scale.•Goods differ in their factor requirements, with no factor intensity reversals. Hence we can say that one good is always labour intensive and the other always capital intensive.Demand•Preferences are homothetic and identical between countries.Other assumptions•Both countries produce both goods.•No transport costs, tariffs or other barriers to trade.•All commodity and factor markets are perfectly competitive.•Countries differ in their relative factor endowments.All the assumptions except the final one are made to rule out alternative causes of trade.Hence differences in factor endowments are isolated as the cause of trade. Factor Intensities:We assume that good X is always capital intensive and good Y is always labour intensive.Factor Endowments and PPFsTo see the relationship between endowments and PPFs, consider this diagram:LClearly country A, with relatively more capital, can produce a greater total quantity of X, while country B can produce a greater total quantity of Y.XAutarky equilibriumIn autarky, the relative prices of the two goods differ in the two countries. Specifically, in each country the good which intensively uses that country’s relatively abundant factor is relatively cheap.XFree trade equilibriumResidents of country A will see that Y is relatively cheap in country B. Residents of country B will see that X is relatively cheap in country A. Hence residents of A will start importing Y from B, and residents of B will start importing X from A, until prices are equalised.XEach country now produces more of the good which is intensive in that country’s relatively abundant factor.The previous diagram illustrates the Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem :Given the assumptions of the model, each country will export thecommodity which intensively uses its relatively abundant factor.Differences in the relative supplies of capital and labour are the only reason for trade in this model.In effect, each country exports the services of its relatively abundant factor. Thus trade in goods offsets differences in supplies of factors.Factor returns and endowments (Stolper-Samuelson theorem)In neoclassical production theory, we saw that commodity price changes were associated with greater factor price changes.e.g. if P Y rises and Y is labour-intensive,r P P wX Y ˆˆˆˆ>>>This leads directly to the simple version of the Stolper-Samuelson theorem :A relative increase in the price of a commodity will increase the real return to the factor used intensively in that industry and reduce the real return to the other factor.For each country, trade is associated with a rise in the relative price of that country’s export good.From the HO theorem, we know that each country exports the good which intensively uses its relatively abundant factor.Hence a stronger result arising from the SS theorem is:The real return to a country’s relatively abundant factor rises when a country opens to trade, while the real return to the other factor falls.Factor Price EqualisationWhen looking at neoclassical production, we saw a direct relationship between commodity prices and factor prices.With identical technology, the link between commodity and factor prices must be the same in both countries, so long as both countries produce both goods.Hence as trade equalises commodity prices, it will also equalise factor prices.The Factor price equalisation theorem states:Under the assumptions of the model, free trade in commodities willequalise factor prices, so long as both countries produce both goods. The factor price equalisation theorem can be illustrated diagramatically for arbitrarily chosen factor prices:LGiven these factor prices, efficient production of the two goods requires them to use capital-labour ratios k X and k Y.The area between the rays from the origin showing these capital-labour ratios is called the cone of diversification. If the countries’ endowment points lie within this cone, both countries will produce both goods.Hence if both countries’ endowments lie within the cone of diversification, factor prices will be equalised.When will factor prices not be equalised?1. Tariffs or transport costs generally prevent goods prices from equalising. Factor prices, like goods prices, will tend to converge but not equalise.2. With sufficiently diverse factor endowments, one country might specialise completely. Commodity price equalisation is no longer sufficient for factor price equalisation.(See section on integrated equilibrium approach below.)3. Factor intensity reversals.Even when both countries are diversified, commodity price equalisation might not lead to factor price equalisation with a FIR. The easiest way to see this is with the diagram below, where a single price ratio is consistent with two factor price ratios.K/LWhen will two countries produce both goods with different factor price ratios?We need to return to the idea of the cone of diversification. We saw when looking at neoclassical production that with a FIR, there will be more than one possible equilibrium wage rental ratio for a given pair of isoquants. This also means that there will be two possible cones of diversification.LNow assume that one country has its endowment point in the cone of diversification corresponding to factor price ratio (w/r)1 and the other country has its endowment point in the cone of diversification corresponding to factor price ratio (w/r)2.Both countries will produce both goods, but trade will not equalise factor prices.4. Factor price equalisation depends on the other main assumptions of the model: most importantly identical CRS production functions.5. The number of goods and factors needs to be equal and factors need to be free to move between industries.Integrated Equilibrium approach1Instead of taking two countries’ factor endowments and looking for conditions under which factor prices are equalised, we can think of world endowments of factors and how they can be divided to ensure factor price equalisation.In the diagram below, the axes represent world allocations of capital and labour.Assuming the world economy is integrated (factors are free to move anywhere), we can find equilibrium prices and factor prices. Suppose that at these factor prices Ok X and Ok Y are the equilibrium K-L ratios in the twoAFactor prices will be equalised if the integrated equilibrium can be reproduced under free trade. What division of factor endowments will allow this?Points Q X and Q Y represent the quantities of resources used in producing each good. It can be shown that any division of resources inside the parallelogram O A Q X O B Q Y is consistent with the integrated equilibrium.1 A more formal description of this approach can be found in A.K. Dixit and V. Norman, Theory of International Trade, Cambridge University Press, 1980.Consider point E, which represents the endowments of the two countries measured from their respective origins.Construct the parallelogram O A CED. If O A C = O A Q X/3 and O A D = O A Q Y/2, then country A produces a third of total production of X and half total production of Y, while country B produces the rest.Both countries produce both goods using the same factor proportions, and factor prices are equalised.Now consider country A’s endowment point at Z, outside parallelogramO A Q X O B Q Y. If country A produces the two goods using the integrated equilibrium factor prices, the factors used in producing good X (O X F) will produce enough to exceed world demand. Hence the integrated equilibrium cannot be reproduced.Factor price equalisation is consistent with all points on or inside parallelogram O A Q X O B Q Y:•Inside O A Q X O B Q Y both countries’ production is diversified;•On the edges of the parallelogram, one country will specialise while the other diversifies;•At Q X or Q Y both countries specialise completely.Outside parallelogram O A Q X O B Q Y at least one country specialises in one good while factor prices differ between countries:•In area O A GQ X, country A specialises in good X while B is diversified;•In area O B GQ X, country B specialises in good Y while A is diversified; •On curve GQ X, country A specialises in good X while country B specialises in good Y.Note 1: this approach rules out FIRs.Note 2: there is an obvious link between this approach and the countries’ cones of diversification.When will the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem not hold?1. Different preferences.If each country has preferences strongly biased towards the good produced using its relatively abundant factor intensively, each country might import that good.X2. Different technology.Assume countries have identical technology for good X but different technology for good Y.If, with any combination of factors, country A can produce Y much more efficiently than country B, then A might export good Y despite its relatively small endowment of labour.3. Factor intensity reversal.With a factor intensity reversal, we can no longer say that one good is labour intensive and the other capital intensive.If the countries’ endowments lie in different cones of diversification (see earlier diagram) the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem actually predicts they will both import the same good. Clearly, with only two countries, this is impossible.Changes in endowments (Rybczynski theorem)What happens if a country’s endowment of one factor (say capital) rises? Assume commodity prices are fixed.This means factor prices do not change, so each commodity continues to be produced using the same factor proportions.From this we can see that the country’s output of the good which uses the factor there is now more of (X) increases, but output of the other good must fall.Y’YH’KHX LThis gives us the Rybczynski theorem:If relative commodity prices are constant and both commoditiescontinue to be produced, an increase in the supply of a factor will raise the output of the good using that factor intensively and lower theoutput of the other good.This effect can be illustrated using PPFs:YXImplications of the Rybczynski theorem1. Small countryA small country will continue to trade at unchanged prices.From the Rybczynski theorem, we know that the country (A) will trade more if its endowment of the factor (K) used intensively in its export good (X) increases, but less if its endowment of the other factor increases.In terms of offer curves, this is shown below. OC A’ assumes that A’s endowment of K has increased (with an unchanged endowment of L), whereas OC A’’ assumes instead that A’s endowment of L has increased.YThus unbalanced growth can be pro- or anti-trade.2. Large countryA change in a large country’s factor endowment will affect its terms of trade.Most importantly, an increase in the endowment of the factor usedintensively in a large county’s export industry will reduce the relative price of the country’s export good and worsen the country’s terms of trade.Again, OC A ’ assumes that A ’s endowment of K has increased (with an unchanged endowment of L ), whereas OC A ’’ assumes instead that A ’s endowment of L has increased.Y。

克鲁格曼国际经济学答案（英文）

Overview of Section IInternational Trade TheorySection I of the text is comprised of six chapters: Chapter 2 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter 3 Specific Factors and Income Distribution Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Chapter 7 International Factor Movements T Section I Overview Section I of the text presents the theory of international trade. The intent of this section is to explore the motives for and implications of patterns of trade between countries. The presentation proceeds by introducing successively more general models of trade, where the generality is provided by increasing the number of factors used in production, by increasing the mobility of factors of production across sectors of the economy, by introducing more general technologies applied to production, and by examining different types of market structure. Throughout Section I, policy concerns and current issues are used to emphasize the relevance of the theory of international trade for interpreting and understanding our economy. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of world trade. In particular, it discusses what we know about the quantities and pattern of world trade today. The chapter uses the empirical relationship known as the gravity model as a framework to describe trade. This framework describes trade as a function of the size of the economies involved and their distance. It can then be used to see where countries are trading more or less than expected. The chapter also notes the growth in world trade over the previous decades and uses the previous era of globalization (pre-WWI) as context for today’s experience. Chapter 3 introduces you to international trade theory through a framework known as the Ricardian model of trade. This model addresses the issue of why two countries would want to trade with each other. This model shows how mutually-beneficial trade arises when there are two countries, each with one factor of production which can be applied toward producing each of two goods. Key concepts are introduced, such as the production possibilities frontier, comparative advantage versus absolute advantage, gains from trade, relative prices, and relative wages across countries. 4 Krugman/Obstfeld • International Economics: Theory and Policy, Seventh Edition Chapter 4 introduces what is known as the classic Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade. Using this framework, you can work through the effects of trade on wages, prices and output. Many important and intuitive results are derived in this chapter including: the Rybczynski Theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, and the Factor Price Equalization Theorem. Implications of the Heckscher-Ohlin model for the pattern of trade among countries are discussed, as are the failures of empirical evidence to confirm the predictions of the theory. The chapter also introduces questions of political economy in trade. One important reason for this addition to the model is to consider the effects of trade on income distribution. This approach shows that while nations generally gain from international trade, it is quite possible that specific groups within these nations could be harmed by this trade. This discussion, and related questions about protectionism versus globalization, becomes broader and even more interesting as you work through the models and different assumptions of subsequent chapters. Chapter 5 presents a general model of international trade which admits the models of the previous chapters as special cases. This “standard trade model” is depicted graphically by a general equilibrium trade model as applied to a small open economy. Relative demand and relative supply curves are used to analyze a variety of policy issues, such as the effects of economic growth, the transfer problem, and the effects of trade tariffs and production subsidies. The appendix to the chapter develops offer curve analysis. While an extremely useful tool, the standard model of trade fails to account for some important aspects of international trade. Specifically, while the factor proportions Heckscher-Ohlin theories explain some trade flows between countries, recent research in international economics has placed an increasing emphasis on economies of scale in production and imperfect competition among firms. Chapter 6 presents models of international trade that reflect these developments. The chapter begins by reviewing the concept of monopolistic competition among firms, and then showing the gains from trade which arise in such imperfectly competitive markets. Next, internal and external economies of scale in production and comparative advantage are discussed. The chapter continues with a discussion of the importance of intra-industry trade, dumping, and external economies of production. The subject matter of this chapter is important since it shows how gains from trade arise in ways that are not suggested by the standard, more traditional models of international trade. The subject matter also is enlightening given the increased emphasis on intra-industry trade in industrialized countries. Chapter 7 focuses on international factor mobility. This departs from previous chapters which assumed that the factors of production available for production within a country could not leave a country’s borders. Reasons for and the effects of international factor mobility are discussed in the context of a one-factor (labor) production and trade model. The analysis of the international mobility of labor motivates a further discussion of international mobility of capital. The international mobility of capital takes the form of international borrowing and lending. This facilitates the discussion of inter-temporal production choices and foreign direct investment behavior. 。

国际商务 International Trade Theory

Result: Country A sells less because of high prices and Country B sells more because of lower prices. In the long run, no one can keep a trade surplus.
5-5
Discussion
Why countries trade with each other? p101 What are some of the theories that explain the benefits of international trade?
5-6
2. Mercantilism: mid-16th century p102
5-12
6. Product life-cycle theory- Vernon (1966)
p114

Based on the observation that for most of the 20th century a large proportion of world‟s new products had been developed by US firms and sold first in the US market (e.g., mass-produced automobiles, TVs, and instant camera). Most new products were initially produced in America because firms believed it was better to keep production facilities close to the market. Also, the demand for most new products tends to be based on non-price factors.

International Trade Theory

Increasing Product Variety and Reducing Costs
Without trade a small nation may not be able to support the demand necessary for producers to realize required economies of scale, and so certain products may not be produced With trade a nation may be able to specialize in producing a narrower range of products and then buy the goods that it does not make from other countries each nation then simultaneously increases the variety of goods available to its consumers and lowers the costs of those goods
The Benefits of Trade
Why is it beneficial for countries to engage in free trade? The theories of Smith, Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin show why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade even for products it is able to produce for itself International trade allows a country to specialize in the manufacture and export of products that can be produced most efficiently in that country, and import products that can be produced more efficiently in other countries

商务英语 international-trade-theory

Adam Smith argued that a country has an absolute advantage in the production of a product when it is more efficient than any other country in producing it.
In Ghana, it takes 10 resources to produce one tone of cocoa, and 13
1/3 resources to produce one ton of rice. So, Ghana could produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 15 tons of rice
quotas or duties what its citizens can buy from
another country or what they can produce and sell
to another country
4-2
The Benefits Of Trade
Smith, Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin show why it is
this means buying goods from other countries that they
could produce more efficiently at home.
4-14
Comparative Advantage
Assume:
Ghana is more efficient in the production of both cocoa and rice.
Chapter 4

国际贸易理论Bppt课件共501页文档

据海关初步统计，2019年全国进出口总值为25616.3亿美元，同比增长17.8%。
其中：出口14285.5亿美元，增长17.2%；进口11330.9亿美元，增长18.5%。
2019年全国进出口简要情况表金额单位：亿美元
项目
12月当月
1—12月累计
绝对值同比% 绝对值同比%
进出口总值
出口贸易额=出口额/出口价格指数进口贸易额=进口额/进口价格指数
中国的对外贸易额
据海关初步统计，2019年全国进出口总值为 21738.3亿美元，同比增长23.5%，
其中：出口12180.2亿美元，增长25.7%；进口9558.2亿美元，增长20.8%。 2019年进出口总额上升到世界第三位
2019年中国的对外贸易总额为25616.3亿美元，同比增长17.8%，其中：出口14285.5 亿美元，增长17.2%；进口11330.9亿美元，增长18.5%。
1 .1国际贸易的重要性
国际贸易（International Trade）是在一定的历史条件下产生和发展起来的，是社会生产力发展和社会分工扩大的必然结果.
1.2.2 对外贸易额与对外贸易量
一、对外贸易额
进口贸易总额：一定时期内一国从国外进口货物的全部价值。
出口贸易总额：一定时期内一国向国外出口货物的全部价值。
对外贸易额＝进口贸易总额＋出口贸易总额，反映一国对外贸易的总规模。
国际货物贸易额＝世界出口货物总额
二、对外贸易量
剔除价格变动影响而计算出来的对外贸易额，仅反映出贸易的实际规模。
第1章
绪论
二次世界大战结束至今的60余年，是国际贸易获得前所未有巨大发展的60余年。
在这60余年中，关税与贸易总协定临时生效并成功进行了八次多边贸易谈判，世界贸易组织成立并在调整当代世界经济和贸易关系中的地位日益重要。

国际经济学-第3章新古典贸易理论

2) They use factor inputs which are of uniform quality; 它们使用同质的要素投入;
3) They all use the same technology.1 H-O Theory
4. Theoretical Concept 理论观点 A country will export products that use
在两个国家、两种商品、两种生产要素模型中，产品市场、要素市场及各国市场同时实现均衡。
Introduction
第6页
＊Among the important results are that international trade can improve economic efficiency but that trade will also cause a redistribution of income between different factors of production. In other words, some will gain from trade, some will lose, but the net effects are still likely to be positive.
特别是，该理论强调了国家资源禀赋作为比较优势的关键决定因素的作用。
3.1 H-O Theory
第 17 页
＊Example Brazil exports coffee because it has an abundance of the soil and
climatic conditions required for coffee’s production; India and China are huge exporters of shoes and garments because they are heavily endowed with labor.

International trade英语专业专业必修课国际贸易实务英文版课堂笔记整理

Chapter 1 Introduction to International tradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•International trade(the fair and deliberate exchange of goods and/or services across national boundaries）•Trade in goods (the purchase and sale of visible goods:coffee, chemicals, airplanes, textiles, tobacco)&Trade in services(the purchase and sale of invisible goods: transportation, insurance, tourism, hotel accommodations, commerce)•Self-sufficient (someone who does his own hunting, finds his own shelter, and provides for his own needs)•Barter (the trade of goods without any exchange of money)•Balance of trade (a nation’s rel ationship of exports to imports). A favorable balance of trade, or trade surplus, occurs when the value of the country’s expor ts exceeds that of its imports;An unfavorable balance of trade, or trade deficit, occurs when the value of the country’s imports exceeds that of its exports.•Balance of payments [the difference between money coning into a country (from exports) and money going out of the country (for import) plus money flows coming into or leavinga country from other factors such as tourism, foreign aid.BOP=EM-IM+MF]. Afavorable balance of payments means more money is flowing into a country than flowing out;An unfavorable balance of payments is when more money is flowing out ofa country than coming in.•Dumping(the practic of selling products in foreign country at lower prices than those charged in the producing country). Companies use this tactic to reduce surplus products in foreign markets or to gain a foothold in a new market by offering products for lower prices than domestic competitors do.The foundation of international trade and economic activities：In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills.Questions & Answers (text)•What are major reasons of the exchange of goods between nations?✧First, no nation has all of the commodities that it needs.✧Second, a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs.✧Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries.✧Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style (fashion).•Why is FDI now more important than trade?✧First, FDI enables host country to build a new manufacturing plant and to payworkers to build it.✧Second, once the plant is operative, it provides both jobs and taxes for host country.✧Third, FDI acts as a catalyst (催化剂) in economic growth for host country.•Why inflows into Sub-Saharan Africa have increased?Tourism is the world's largest industry and every year it pumps billions of dollars into some of the poorest countries in the world. It creates jobs, reduces poverty, builds new roads, airports, hotels and hospitals.•What are major obstacles to Chinese foreign trade?✧Firstly, China should deal with pressure from international markets that aregradually becoming saturated（饱和）.✧Secondly, the cost of Chinese exports is increasing, partly because of the highercost of labor and environmental protection.✧Thirdly, increasing international trade protection has caused China to stumble into（陷入）difficult territory.✧Finally, the trade imbalance between China and other countries is getting worse.Chapter 2 Basic Theory of International TradeQuestions & Answers (terms)•Opportunity Cost机会成本：有一得必有一失(the amount of another goods or service that might otherwise have been produced)•Absolute Advantage两者相权取成本低、效率高者[A commodity will be produced in the country where it costs least in terms of resources (capital, land, and labor).] Comparative Advantage两利相权取其重，两劣相权取其轻only one of the goods would work "most best" and "least worse"•What the Theory of C-A Shows if we want to maximize total output in the world then:✧first, fully employ all resources worldwide;✧second, allocate those resources within countries to each country's comparativeadvantage industries;✧third, allow the countries to trade freely .•Specialization (there were some things he was more capable of doing and it would benefit him to concentrate his efforts on the production of those goods in which he was particularly proficient)What are the major benefits of exporting?Why export? Y our general objectives will probably be:To increase profitabilityTo utilise production capacity to the fullThe small domestic market may not big enough for growthYou may be manufacturing a specialised product and find there are not enough customers in SwedenYou may be looking for the increased security your company can achieve by spreading its risks over a variety of marketsYou may want to ensure that your product is kept up to date by exposure to competition in international marketsIt provides scope to develop a company's strengths and abilities. Selling in aninternational environment will sharpen your innovative edge and open up opportunities that might never come your way if you limit yourself to the home market.Michael Porter’s Dia mond ModelMichael Porter of the Harvard Business School introduced a new competitiveness theory, the so-called diamond model. He argues that national prosperity is not inherited, but created by choices; in other words, national wealth is not set by factor endowments, but created by strategic choices. He introduced a concept of “clusters”, or groups of interconnected firms, suppliers,related industries, and institutions that arise in particular locations.1. Firm strategy, Structure and RivalryThe world is dominated by dynamic conditions, and it is direct competition that impels firmsto work for increases in productivity and innovation.2. Demand ConditionsThe more demanding the customers in an economy, the greater the pressure facing firms to constantly to improve their competitiveness via innovative products, through high quality, etc.3. Related Supporting IndustriesUpstream or downstream industries facilitates the exchange of information and promotes a continuous exchange of ideas and innovations.4. Factor ConditionsContrary to conventional wisdoms, Porter argues that the “key” factors of production (or specialized factors) are created, not inherited. Specialized factors are skilled labor, capital and infrastructure. “Non-key” factors or general use factors, such as unskilled labor and raw materials, can be obtained by any company and, hence, do not generate sustained competitive advantage. However, specialized factors involve heavy, sustained investment. They are more difficult to duplicate. This leads to a competitive advantage, because if other firms cannot easily duplicate these factors, they are valuable.The role of government in Porter’ Diamond Model is “acting as a catalyst and challenger; it is to encourage—or even push—companies to raise their aspirations and move to higher levels of competitive performance…”.They must encourage companies to raise their performance, stimulate early demand for advanced products, focus on specialized factors creation and to stimulate local rivalry by limiting direct cooperation and enforce anti-trust（反托拉斯，反垄断）regulations.Chapter 5 International Trade TermsRole of International Trade TermsStanding for specific obligations of the buyer and the seller.Name the exact point at which the ownership of the merchandise is transferred from the seller to the buyer.Define the responsibilities and expenses of both the seller and the buyer.Define the nature of the contract, such as FOB contract or CIF contract, to determine expenses and risks as well as their rights and obligations accordingly.The use of the trade terms greatly simplifies the contract negotiations, and thus saves time and cost.The price of commodity（refers to the unit price, which is made up of a name of currency, a unit price, a measuring unit, a trade term, and a name of destination or shipping place .For example,US$ 800 per M/T CIF London）国际贸易合同的主要条款有: 合同对象(标的)：commodities or services 合同总值: total value or quantities 交货条件: trade terms 包装: packaging 装运期: shipment装运口岸和目的地: departure port or destination 保险: insurance 支付条款: payment Procedures of Marine Insurance•To apply for marine insurance;•To determine the insurance value of the goods to be insured;•To determine the insurance average and coverage;•To determine insurance premium;•To sign an insurance policy•To lodge an insurance claim.Proper pricing, complete and accurate quotations, and choice of terms of sale and payment are four critical elements in selling a product or service internationally. Of the four, pricing is the most problematic, even for the experienced exporter.Export product cost structure, involving cost of production, selling and delivery costs, and customs duties.Pricing Considerations•At what price should the firm sell its product in the foreign market?•What type of market positioning does the company want to convey from its pricing structure?•Does the export price reflect the product's quality?•Is the price competitive?•Should the firm pursue market penetration or market-skimming pricing objectives abroad?•What type of discount (trade, cash, quantity) and allowances (advertising, trade-off) should the firm offer its foreign customers?•Laws pose a problem?•Should prices differ by market segment?•What should the firm do about product line pricing?•What pricing options are available if the firm's costs increase or decrease?•Is the demand in the foreign market elastic or inelastic?•Are the prices going to be viewed by the foreign government as reasonable or unfair?•Do the foreign country's antidumping?Pricing Summary Here are the key points to remember when determining your product's price: •Determine the objective in the foreign market.•Compute the actual cost of the export product.•Compute the final consumer price.•Evaluate market demand and competition.•Consider modifying the product to reduce the export price.•Include “non-market" costs, such as tariffs and customs fees.•Exclude cost elements that provide no benefit to the export function, such as domestic advertising.In the cost-plus method of calculation, the exporter starts with the domestic manufacturing cost and adds administration, research and development, overhead, freight forwarding, distributor margins, customs charges, and profit. The effect of this pricing approach may be that the export price escalates into an uncompetitive range.The actual payment= the full invoice of the goods +the additional charges of expenses the seller has paid.Stages in Handling a Bill of Exchange•To draw•Presentation and acceptance•Endorsement•Without recourse•Payment•Dishonor and recourse。

国际贸易理论与政策

(a) Labor is the only factor used in production of X and Y;
(b) Labor is perfectly mobile within each country but internationally immobile;
(c) Labor input required per unit of output remain constant;
results are demonstrated in the chapter: the H-O
theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, and thel Exchange and The Gains from Trade
Y
O
2021/7/22
Autarky equilibrium conditions:
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Yc Y p
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The International Exchange and The Gains from Trade
TOT Rela_tP ivreod
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The Extension of the Ricardian Model
VI. The Ricardian Model with Many Goods
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