Hypotactic vs

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形合与意合

一、英语的形合法
英语造句常用各式种形手段连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性接应（overt cohesion），注重结构完整，注重以形显义。英语句中的连接手段和形式（cohesive ties）不仅数量大，种类大，而且用得十分频繁： 1. 关系词和连接词。关系词包括关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词，如who, whom, whose, that, which, what, when, where, why, how 等，用来连接主句和定语从句、主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句。

英语连接词包括并列连词和从属连词
并列连词如and, or, but, yet, so, however, as well as 从属连词如when, while, since, until, so…that, unless, lest 等，用来连接词、词组、分句或状语从句。英语造句几乎离不开这些关系词和连接词，汉语则少用甚至不用这类词。 2. 介词。（如with, to, in, of, about, between, through、inside, into, within, without, throughout , according to, along with, on behalf of, with regard to）。
他吹嘘说，任何奴隶一踏上英国的土地就获得自由，而他却出卖穷人家六岁的孩子到工厂干活，每天十六小时，受尽鞭打责骂。点评：英语运用连接词、介词和代词形式手段，注重句子形式和完整，注重显性连接（overt coherence），汉语译文注重意义和逻辑顺序，注重隐性连贯（covert coherence）。
其次，还可以采用形合法翻译英语中一些带有意合特征的句子或汉语与之“形似”的句子。（1）the sight of the girl always reminds me of her parents. 我一见到这个女孩，就想起他的父母。（3） His youth got him off. 由于他年轻，他得到了宽恕

形合与意合

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在翻译时……
英语注重形合，注重结构和形式，常常借助各种连接手段，因而比较严谨（preciseness）；汉语注重意合，注重功能和意义，常常不用或少用连接手段，因而比较简洁（conciseness）。英译汉时，往往要先分析英语句子的结构和形式，才能确定汉语句子的功能和意义。汉译英时，往往要先分析汉语句子的功能和意义，才能确定英语句子的结构和形式。英汉互译往往是英语语法型语句与汉语语义型语句之间的转换，也是树形句法与流水句法之间的转换。如：
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2.made proposals, but they proved futile. 打肿脸充胖子，吃亏是自己。 If you get beyond your depth, you will suffer. 人到事中迷，就怕没人提。 When a man is lost in a labyrinth, what he needs badly is a hint. 反复、排比、对偶、对照等。这些句式可以互文见义，往往不用关联词。如：种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。 As you sow, so will you reap. 吃苦在前，享乐在后 Be the first to bear hardships and the last to enjoy comforts.
形合与意合
Hypotactic vs. Paratactic
形合（hypotaxis）指的是词语或分句之间用语言形式手段（如关联词）连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系。例如：I shall despair if you don’t come. 英语造句主要采用形合法。
意合（parataxis）指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，其中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。例如：The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. 汉语造句主要采用意合法。

形合与意合HypotacticvsParatactic

“…Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to
study the organization of language above the sentences or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts.”
语篇翻译
Translation：A Textual Perspective
“Fire!” “Fine weather, isn‟t it?”
After ending his seafaring career, Melville‟s concern over his sporadic education inspired him to read voraciously, In 1847, he married Elizabeth Shaw and moved first to New York and then the Berkshires. There he lived near the reclusive writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, who was to become a close friend and confident.
英汉语篇照应手段对比
英语所属语系印欧语系汉语汉藏语系
语言特点
重形合
重意连
代词使用代词使用频率高，如果语篇代词使用频率低，多省略物频率中主语相同，第二次出现时，主代词、主语或原词复现多用代词替代存在关系代词指示代词照应使用that的频率高于this 无关系代词使用“这”的频率高于“那”

英汉比较与翻译(主要差异)

compact
男孩哭得心都快碎了，当我问及他时，他说饿极了，有两天没吃了。
diffusive
Features of English as a Compact Language
句子主次分明，层次清楚，前呼后拥，严密规范，句式呈“聚集型” (compactness)。
结构严谨,通常由名词性短语和动词性短语构成;主语不可或缺，谓语动词是句子的中心，两者协调一致提纲挈领，聚集各种关系网络。英语句子先把主要信息以“主、谓、宾（表）”的语法主干形式突出地表达出来，尔后再运用动词不定式、分词短语、从句、独立结构或其他语法手段来表现次要信息或用连词、介词来衔接。
他一下子为她的出众长相所倾倒了：她一头乌发披肩，飘逸潇洒，一双黑眸炯炯有神。他们这群人，又想吃人，又是鬼鬼祟祟，想法子遮掩，不敢直接下手，真要令我笑死。
All these people wanting to eat human flesh and at the same time stealthily trying to keep up appearances, not daring to act promptly, really made me nearly die of laughter.
英汉语言差异性特征对比
单击此处添加正文，文字是您思想的提炼，请尽量言简意赅的阐述观点。
Part 01.
1
Synthetic vs. Analytic
2
Hypotactic vs. Paratactic
3
Compact vs. Diffusive
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Stative vs. Dynamic
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Chronicle vs. Non-chronicle

Chap 4 英汉对比与翻译(二) BY Mrs. Huang

Examples:
1. That is our policy and that is our declaration. —— W. Churchill 这就是我们的国策。这就是我们的宣言。这就是我们的国策。这就是我们的宣言。 2. First, we make clear what is doing the travelling —— a car, a bus, a plane or whatever it may be. 首先，我们要搞清旅行工具，例如小汽车、首先，我们要搞清旅行工具，例如小汽车、公共汽车、飞机或别的可用工具。共汽车、飞机或别的可用工具。
Examples:
1. A dialect is known by every linguist in this room. 有一种方言这间屋子里的每个语言学家都懂得有一种方言这间屋子里的每个语言学家都懂得。这间屋子里的每个语言学家都懂得。比较：在这房间里的每位语言学家都懂一种方言。比较：在这房间里的每位语言学家都懂一种方言。 2. You don’t grow the grain you eat and you don’t make the clothes you wear. 你吃的粮食不是你自己种的你穿的衣服也不是你自己做的你吃的粮食不是你自己种的，你穿的衣服也不是你自己做的。不是你自己种的，也不是你自己做的。比较：你不种…… 比较：你不种……
Chapter 4 英汉对比与翻译（二）英汉对比与翻译（
Contents:
1. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合形合与意合) 形合与意合 2. Complex vs. Simplex (简约与繁复简约与繁复) 简约与繁复 3. End-weight vs. Top-heavy 4. Subject-prominent vs. Topic-prominent 5. Static vs. Dynamic(静态与动态静态与动态) 静态与动态 6. Impersonal vs. Personal 7. Practice

英汉互译技巧

2. But for many, the fact that poor people are able to support themselves almost as well without government aid as they did with it is in itself a huge victory. (ibid) [译文] 但是对于许多人来讲，穷人能够在不用政府援救的条件下也像是有政府帮助那样自己养活自己这一事实本身就已经证明了它是一个巨大的胜利。(1.增译法, 2.同位语译法，3.词性转换） 3.But we must bear in mind that the great proportion of books, plays and films which become before the censor are very far from being “works of art”. (四级模拟题) [译文]可是我们要牢记送到审读员面前的大量书刊、戏剧和电影远非“杰作”。(正-反翻译法) 4. We are taught that a business letter should be written in a formal style rather than in a personal one. (四级模拟题) [译文]老师教我们，公函要以正式文体书写，而不应以私人信函的文体来书写。(正-反翻译法)
翻译的技巧
英汉翻译技巧是为了解决“懂”与“会”之间的关系，也就是说怎样处理好“学”与“用”的关 “ “ 系，使我们能够通过学习，掌握一般的英汉翻译技巧，将学到的翻译知识自觉地用于翻译实践。翻译是一门实践性很强的学问，需要长期下苦功夫才能真正学到手。所以译者的翻译能力不能单靠学习理论知识、强化技巧训练，而是需要扎扎实实的双语功底及大量的翻译实践。

英汉汉英口笔译常识(句法对比)

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从属与并列 ( subordinate vs. Coordinate )
The doorway lay at least 12 umbrellas of all sizes and colors. 门口放着一堆雨伞，少说也有12把，五颜六色，大小不一。 There are many wonderful stories to tell about the places I visited and the people I met. 我访问了一些地方，遇到了不少人。要谈起来，奇妙的事儿可多着呢。
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静态与动态 ( Static vs. Dynamic )
I am afraid of your misunderstanding me. 我担心担心你会误解误解我。担心误解 Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe. 火箭已经用来探索用来探索宇宙。用来探索 I used to be a bit of a fancier myself. 过去我也常常有点胡思乱想胡思乱想。胡思乱想
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2.英语被动句译为汉语主动句。英语被动句译为汉语主动句。
The glass is broken. 玻璃杯破了。 The house is surrounded by trees. 房子周围都是树。 Last night I was covered up with two quilts. 昨晚我盖了两条被子。
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Thank you!
Байду номын сангаас
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4.英语被动句译成汉语无主句。英语被动句译成汉语无主句。

Comparison Between English and Chinese

children had a good time. 说说笑笑，跑跑跳跳，孩子们过得十分愉快。
Abstract vs. Concrete 抽象与具体
– 英语：大量使用抽象名词 – 汉语：以具体的形象表达抽象的内容
Abstract vs. Concrete 抽象与具体
– 汉语用以下手段表达英语的抽象词义 1）用动词取代抽象名词： His familiarity with many rarely used languages surprised us all. 他通晓多种不常使用的外国语，这使我们大家感到很惊讶。 High blood pressure is a contraindication for this drug. 高血压患者忌服此药。
Static vs. Dynamic 静态与动态
– 汉语的动态倾向表现在：汉语动词常常重复或重叠 You will have enough to eat and sufficient to put on. 要吃有吃，要穿有穿。 Talking and laughing, running and jumping, the
英译汉不如英译法容易。
You don’t want to leg behind, neither does she.
你不愿意落后，她也不愿意落后。
People believe that the American team will win the football game. Peter thinks so.
Never get on or off the bus before it comes to a standstill.
车未停稳，请勿上下。
I wouldn’t come to you if I hadn’t something to ask of. 无事不登三宝殿。

《英汉互译实践与技巧》补充课件3：形合与意合

• 他跳起来，连忙跑到洗手间的镜子前，拿掉毛巾，细看他腮上的伤口。
使用分词
• 大夫怕她紧张，没有完全给她讲明病情有多严重。 • The doctor, not wishing to make her nervous, did not fully explain the seriousness of her condition. • 从这些家务劳动中解放出来了，妇女就可以把精力集中到生产上来。 • Freed of these household chores, the woman can concentrate their energy d catches a chill, what are we going to say to its mother? • 2. He spoke so rapidly that we could not clearly understand him.
3. 英语的介词与汉语的动词
使用连词
• 车未停稳，请勿上下。 • Never get on or off the bus before it comes to a standstill. • 无事不登三宝殿。 • I wouldn’t come to you if I hadn’t something to ask of you. • 他不来，我不去。 • If he won’t come here, I’ll not go there. • 欲盖弥彰 • The more one tries to hide, the more one is exposed.
2.英语关联词语的显性化与汉语关联词语的隐性化
关系词：关系代词、关系副词、连接代词、连接副词。如：who, whom, whose, that, which, what, when, where, why, how等连接词：并列连词、从属连词。如：and, or, but, yet, as well as, so, since, when, as, until, if, so…that等

英汉对比之形合与意合

英语的形合法
• The many colours of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside. 彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。 • Change of information, if any, concerning the contents of this section will be in the appendix at the end of this book. 本节内容如有改变，均见书末附录。
• The present onslaught of vehicles poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrian peace of mind. 现如今车辆横冲直撞，严重威胁着城市生活，路上行人无不提心吊胆。
英语的形合法
3. 其他连接手段形态变化形式：词缀变化，各种词性的形态变化（如数、格、时、体、语态等）以及保持前后一致的关系（grammatical and notional concord）代词

英语的形合法
2. 介词简单介词：with, to, above, over, in, of, about etc. 合成介词：inside, onto, upon, within, without, throughout etc. 成语介词：according to/in accordance with, along with, because of, on behalf of etc.
• He boasts that a slave is free the moment his feet touch British soil and he sells the children of the poor at six years of age to work under the lash in the factories for sixteen hours a day. 他吹嘘说，奴隶们只要一踏上英国的土地就能获得自由，而他自己却将穷人家六岁的孩子卖到工厂里做工，每天要干十六个小时，受尽鞭打责骂。

英汉对比研究(1)

名词优势造成造成介词优势，使英语的静态倾向更为显著。 He is at his books. (He is reading books) 他在读书。 He has someone behind him. (Someone supports him) 有人给他撑腰。
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由于以上的特点，英汉互译的过程往往是静态与动态互相转换的过程。
打肿脸充胖子，吃亏是自己。 If you get beyond your depth, you will suffer.
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紧缩句与成语
墙倒众人推。 When a man is going down-hill, everyone will give him a push. 不到黄河心不死。 Until all is over, ambition never dies.
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形合和意合 ( Hypotactic vs. Paratactic )
2. 介词 (介词是英语里最活跃的词类之一,是连接词、语或从句的重要手段。英语造句几乎离不开介词，汉语则常常不用或省略介词。）
The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside. 彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。 He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession. 他有一种令人难堪的习惯；一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。
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4.被动与主动 ( Passive vs. Active )
被动语态在英语里是一种常见的语法现象。

3. Hypotactic vs.Paratactic

She could be numb to the pressure, but she couldn‟t work the same magic on her fellow students, whose eyes were deeply penetrating. More significantly, their imagination was equally penetrating. A rumor was already spreading that Wang Yuyang and Director Qian had entered a stage of stalemate as they waged psychological warfare, waiting to see who would blink first; either the east wind would have the upper hand or the west wind would prevail. The other girls all knew that this was the calm before the storm; it was just a matter of when.
Examples

The cat ate the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the corner of the house. a. 猫吃了那只吃了放在房子角落里的麦芽糖的耗子。 b.吃了放在房子角落里的麦芽糖的耗子被猫吃了。 c. 耗子吃了放在房子角落里的麦芽糖。猫又把这只耗子吃了。 d. 螳螂捕蝉, 黄雀在后 .
By contrast, Chinese more frequently relies on covert coherence and context, focusing on temporal or logical sequences. Instead of using various cohesive ties such as relatives, connectives and prepositions as in English, Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted sentences, four-character expressions, and some grammatical or rhetorical devices such as repetition, antithesis, and parallelism.

Hypotactic VS Paratactic

4.四字格（言简意赅） eg: 不进则退 He who does not advance falls backwaed.
Summing-up
英语造句注重意合，注重功能、意义，常常不用或者少用连接手段，因而较简洁
（意合，指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，句中的语法意义和逻辑
关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。)
The hypotactic usage of English
To clarify the relation between words,phrases or clauses,English more often resorts to overt cohesion,frequently using various cohesive ties. Such as relatives,connectives,prepositions and some others.
The paratactic usage of Chinese
Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted
sentences(紧缩句)four-character expressions(四字格)，and some grammatical or rhetorical devices such as repetition, antithesis and parallelism.
(形合，指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形式手段（如关联词) 连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系，英语造句主要采用形合法。）
For example:
I shall despair if you don't come.
二.Paratactic Paratactic is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them.

3.Hypotactic vs. Paratactic

See more details in the book. P48-63
意合、形合之连接词
翻译技巧：中文句子中许多主词和连接词都省略，但其意自明，翻成英语时要补上主词和连接词。
补充连接词
阿Q没有家，住本庄的土谷祠里；没有固定的职业，只给人家做短工，割麦便割麦，春米便春米，撑船便撑船。阿Q没有家，（他）住本庄的土谷祠里；（他）没有固定的职业，只给人家做短工，（人家叫他）割麦（他）便割麦，（人家叫他）春米（他）便春米，（人家叫他）撑船（他）便撑船。
By the winter of 1942, their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow. 到了1942年冬季，他们对纳粹恐怖统治的抵抗已经名存实亡了。（把原文的隐喻变为译文中的明喻） Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard. 据说家家户户多多少少都有自家丑事。
To clarify the relations between words, phrases or clauses, English more often resorts to overt cohesion(显性衔接显性衔接), 显性衔接 frequently using various cohesive ties (衔衔接纽带) 接纽带
制度、信仰和世界观不同
颜色：在英语世界里黑色表示悲哀与庄严，在中国和朝鲜以白色表示哀悼，有时也用黑色；绿色对英美人有时意味着妒嫉，而对法国人有时却意味着不计前嫌；在欧洲，紫色一般是权力的象征，而在东方黄色是不可侵犯的权贵颜色。数字：在中国词汇中，三、五、八、九出现频率较高，常用来表示数量多，如：三令五申、三教九流、三五成群、五湖四海，等；而8和9通常被用于表示好运。13在西方式大忌，门牌号、运动员号等都回避，而北京人却偏爱13，如：侠女十三妹，十三陵，十三太保

英汉对比(第三章)

English is hypotactic with its emphasis on formal
cohesion and completeness of structure. Chinese is paratactic with its stress on semantic coherence and integrity. English being restricted by morphological changes and grammatical rules, has more formal markers and relating devices while Chinese lacks morphological changes and has fewer connectives.
5. 上梁不正下梁歪。 If the upper beam is not straight, the lower ones w

ill go aslant. 6.有饭大家吃。 Let everybody share the food if there is any. 7. 物极必反 Once a certain limit is reached, a change in the o pposite direction is inevitable. 8. 欲盖弥彰 The more one tries to hide, the more one is expos ed
For instance, a Chinese sentence may contain
several verbs without any connectives as in:
我们应该遵循“抓住机遇，深化改革，扩大开放，

英汉语言对比-9-hypotactic vs. paratactic-1 (1)

When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes, of which one goes much deeper than the other. 为什么如此众多的美国人不能如想象中的那样幸福呢？我认为原因有二，而两者之间又有深浅之分。
2. Prepositions: Simple Prepositions: monosyllabic prepositions (at, by, for, down, in, of, on, to); polysyllabic prepositions (about, before, during, inside, throughout, underneath, within, without);
II. English: hypotaxis
Explicit cohesion / overt cohesion（显性衔接） Meanings indicated by the form /the structure（以形显义）；注重形式的语法型语言
Various cohesive ties in English: 1. relatives:
Complex Prepositions: two-word sequences (as for, except for, apart from, instead of, according to, owing to); three-word sequences (in terms of, in charge of, in front of, in conformity with, by virtue of, on account of, as far as, for the sake of, with regard to)