The different meaning of the word
mean的现在分词
mean的现在分词mean的现在分词现在分词： meaningmeaning常见用法n.意思，意义; 含义; 意图;adj.有意思的; 意味深长的;vt.意味(mean的现在分词); 意思是;1. politicians have debased the meaning of the word "freedom"政客们贬低了“自由”一词的意义。
2. art has real meaning when it helps people to understand themselves.当艺术有助于人们了解自身的时候才有真正的意义。
3. people use scientific terms with no clear idea of their meaning.人们使用科学术语，但并非很清楚其含义。
4. she understood his meaning, if not his words, and took his advice.她即便没听懂他的话，也明白了他的意思，并且接受了他的建议。
5. i have been working on exploding the myth of fixity of meaning.我一直在致力于推翻有关意义恒定性的谬谈。
6. the television headlines seemed to wash over her without meaning anything.电视节目的大标题一闪而过，似乎没有引起她的丝毫注意。
7. unsure of the meaning of this remark, ryle chose to remain silent.由于不确定这句话究竟是什么意思，赖尔选择了保持沉默。
8. i hadn't a clue to the meaning of "activism"我根本不明白activism的意思。
《英语词汇学 》复习资料
《英语词汇学》复习资料1Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal-”in “maltreat”is a 4 prefix, while “inter-”in “interstate”is a 5prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English languageof 6 endings, and a language of 7 endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features..14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specificword is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true”and F for “false”.1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a wordof the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.2.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity.3.“Can-opener” used as slang to mean “all-purpose key”.4.Native words are neutral in style.5.The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India.6.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times.7.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is morpheme.8.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.9.Base is what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.10.Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary.11.“Fore-”in “forehead”and “fore-”in “foreknowledge”belong to two kinds ofprefix.12.Word-building and word-formation are relative synonyms.13.The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergonea process of extension of meaning.14.Parent—child and husband—wife are two pairs of converses.15.Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?3.List the four sources of synonyms.4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Ⅳ. Answer the following questions according to the requirement.Classify the three pairs of antonyms according to types of antonyms you have learned and describe the characteristics of each type of them.interviewer/interviewee; male/female; old /young成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical10. lexical11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19.concatenation 20. hyponymyII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1-5 TTTFT 6-10 TFFFT 11-15 TFFTFIII.Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?1)All national character 2) stability 3) productivity 4) polysemy5) collocability2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?1)Prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, i.e. prefixes do notgenerally change the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning.2)Suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function is to changethe grammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning.3)So prefixes are categorized on a semantic basis while suffixes are divided on agrammatical basis.3.1)Borrowing; (2) dialects and regional English (3) figurative and euphemisticuse of words (4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?1)Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms thecore of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptualmeaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generallyhas the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speechcommunity. (3%)2)Associative meaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it isopen-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors asculture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc…（3%）Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.1)Interviewer& interviewee are converses; male & female arecomplementaries; old & young are contraries.2)Complementaries truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are soopposite to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit nopossibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other orvice versa. Complementaries are nongradable, and they cannot be used incomparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very”toqualify them.3)Contraries are gradable antonyms. The existence of one is in relation to theother. We can say: A man is rich or very rich and also we can say a man isrich than the other. Contraries are characteristic of semantic polarity. Theseantonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and canaccommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.4)Converses consist of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicatereciprocal social relationships that one of them cannot be used withoutsuggesting the other. It also includes reverse terms, which compriseadjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying anact or state that reverse or undo the quality, action or state of the other.成考复习资料复习资料2I. 单选题1. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 52. Conversion is amethod________________________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ________________.A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks4. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectiveswhen converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.5. _________ is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.A. Grammatical meaningB. Denotative meaningC. Associative meaningD. Connotative meaning6. The words what have emotive content in themselves are said to contain __ meaning.A. collocativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. denotative7. __________ explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.A. Etymological motivationB. Onomatopoetic motivationC. Morphological motivationD. Semantic motivation8. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT __________.A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked9. “Smog”is formed by combining “smoke”and “fog”. So it is an example ofA. clippingB. compounding成考复习资料C. blendingD. back-formation10. The word “smog”is created by blending, with the structure of __________.A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail11. The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is the creation of new words by means of ________________.A. translation-loansB. emantic loansC. word formationD. borrowings12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________________.A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. conntativeD. collocative14. General features of English contains the following except _________.A. simplicityB. receptivityC. adaptabilityD. imprssiveness15. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII判断题1. The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India. （）2. The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone aprocess of extension of meaning. （）3. The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquestwhich brought many Latin words into the English language. （）4. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity. （）5. Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, andstylistic coloring. （）6. Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary. （）7. The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term.（）8. Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity. （）9. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times. （）10. “Radiation” shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are not成考复习资料directly related to the primary meaning. （）III简答题1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.答案I． 1-5 AADDB 6-10 BDBCA 11-15 CBADCⅡ. 1-5 TFFTF 6-10 TFFTFⅢ. 1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. Associativemeaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc…2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear(a kind of fruit)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig) Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of an animal)复习资料3I．Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The __1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” is a 5_prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle Englishlanguage of___6__ endings, and a language of __7__ endings.成考复习资料6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or__12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.___14__ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same _16_ meaning, but differ in _17_meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features.14.Radiation and ___19___ are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.__20____deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a morespecific word is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F on the answer sheet:1.Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, anddialects.2.“Radiation”shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are notdirectly related to the primary meaning.3.Borrowing is a very important source of synonyms.4. A word which has a synonym naturally has an antonym.5.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.6.Motivation explains the connection between the linguistic form and its meaning.7.Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, andstylistic coloring.8.The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms frompolysemants.9.The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarkedterm.10.If the words differ in range and intensity of meaning, the words are not identicalin denotation.11.The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the NormanConquest which brought many Latin words into the English language.ponential analysis is to break down. the conceptual sense of a word into itsminimal distinctive components.13.Celtic language made great contributions to the expansion of the Englishvocabulary.14.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.15.Shortening includes clipping and blending.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1. What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10. lexical 11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20. hyponymyⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F in the brackets:1．F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6. T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.T11.F 12. F 13. F 14. T 15. TⅢ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.un+bear+able:(1)‘bear’ is a free morpheme, and ‘un’, ‘able’are bound morphemes. inter+nation+al: ‘nation’ is a free morpheme, and ‘inter, al’ are bound morphemes.ex+prison+er: ‘prison’ is a free morpheme, and ‘ex, er’ are bound morphemes.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.1)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.2)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.3)Backformation is therefore the method of creating words by removing thesupposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes but inseparable parts of the word.4)For example, it is a common practice to add –er, -or to verb bases to formagential nouns.5)Reasonably, people make verbs by dropping the ending such as –or in editor, -arin beggar and –er in butler.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.1)Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.2)Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate fordifferent styles.3)Affective meaning expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.4)Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account ofthe meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.(1)Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are wordsidentical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit)(2)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound andmeaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)(3)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling andmeaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of animal)Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?1)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with reference to spellingand pronunciation, as both have the same orthographical form but different meanings. This creates the problem of differentiation.2)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the factthat the former refers to different lexemes which have the same form and the latter the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.3)One important criterion by which to differentiate them is ‘etymology’, i.e.,homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.4)The second principal consideration is ‘semantic relatedness’. The severalmeanings of a single polysemous lexeme are related and can be traced back to成考复习资料one central meaning. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.5)In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.。
词汇学
Chapter5 W ord MeaningIn chapter 1 we learned the concept of word-meaning. We know that a word is the combination of form and meaning. Meaning is what the form stands for. But ‘meaning’is not as simple as it seems to be. There are some related concepts which need further explanation.I：The Meaning of ‘Meaning’1: Reference:Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. The part of the word-meaning is the reference under discussion. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction.2: ConceptConcept, which is beyond language, is the result of human mind. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.3: SenseGenerally speaking, the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’. Unlike reference, ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language. It is also an abstraction.II: MotivationMotivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. The connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation. Nevertheless, English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent.1: Onomatopoeic MotivationIn modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. But such echoic words are also largely conventional, for the sounds we say in Englishmay not be the same in other languages.2: Semantic MotivationSemantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.3: Etymological MotivationThe meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.III: Types of meaningWord-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. These meanings are not all found in every word. A word may have one type of meaning or a combination of types.1: Grammatical Meaning and Lexical MeaningAs mentioned earlier, grammatical meanings refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words(nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms(forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting). Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context.2: Conceptual Meaning and Associative MeaningConceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate. Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative2.1: Connotative meaning.In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.2.2: Stylistic meaning.Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words.2.3: Affective meaning.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words as many have emotive content in themselves.2.4: Collocative meaning.This meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic FieldA word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations. The subjects that have long held the interest and attention of semanticists are polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.I: PolysemyPolysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. This is particularly true of highly developed languages like English. In modern English, an overwhelming majority of words are polysemous.1: Two Approaches to PolysemyThe problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1.1: Diachronic approach.From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.1.2: Synchronic approachSynchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time, say, Modern English. In this way, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called central meaning.2: Two Processes of DevelopmentThe development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.2.1: Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another, but call all be traced back to the central meaning.2.2: Concatenation, meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.II: Homonymy1: Based on the degree of similarity, homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones.1.1: Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.1.2: Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.1.3: Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.2: Origins of HomonymsThere are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing.2.1: Change in sound and spelling.Some homonyms are native by origin, derived from different earlier forms in Old English. The change in sound and spelling gradually made them identical in modern English.2.2: Borrowing.As a result of heavy borrowing from other languages, many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin or with those of other foreign origin.2.3: Shortening.Many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with other words in spelling or sound.3: Differentiation of Homonyms from PolysemantsPrefect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.4: Rhetoric Features of HomonymsAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, theyare often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.III: SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages. English as a highly developed language is known for its copious stock of synonyms.1: Definition of SynonymsSynonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. Reasonable as it sounds, this definition is subject to disagreement. The focal point is what is meant by meaning.2: Types of SynonymsSynonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.2.1: Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Synonyms of this type are interchangeable in every way. It is observed that absolute synonyms are rare in natural languages and some people even hold that such synonyms are nonexistent.2.2: Relative synonyms also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.3: Sources of Synonyms3.1: Borrowing.Modern English is extremely rich in synonyms, which come from different sources. The most important source is perhaps borrowing. As a result of borrowing, words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other languages.4: Discrimination of SynonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.4.1: Difference in denotation.Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning. Some words have a wider range of meaning than others.Synonyms may differ in degree of intensity.4.2: Difference in connotation.By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive coloring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.Apart from these, mention should be made of archaic and poetic terms, which are self-suggestive.4.3: Difference in application.Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.IV: Antonymy.1: Types of AntonymsAntonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. They can be classified into three major groups.1.1: Contradictory terms.These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are non-gradable.1.2: Contrary terms.Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.1.3: Relative terms.This third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child, husband/wife, predecessor/successor, and employer/employee. This type also includes reverse terms, which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality, or verbsand nouns signifying an act or state that reverse the quality, action or state of other.Some of the relative terms look similar to contradictory terms: man/woman vs. husband/wife. Y et they are not the same.2: Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms2.1: Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. Words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms.2.2: A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 2.3: Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively.2.4: Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3: The Use of AntonymsAntonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable inn defining the meanings of words.Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast.V: HyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms.Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the subordinates. But their status either as superordinate is relative to other terms.VI: Semantic FieldThe massive word store of a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, such as ‘philosophy’or ;emotions’, others smaller, such as ‘kinship’ or ‘color’. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields.Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over the neighboring words, because the neighboring words identify the semantic field and help pin down the meaning.。
如何学习和记忆英语单词
一、如何学习英语单词
2.1.1 The form of a word: *Pronunciation: To be able to read the word correctly, not just the each syllable of a word but also the stress of that word. Pronunciation is a very basic element in learning a word, because in most cases we communicate in sounds, we speak more than we write. In other words, speaking the language is the most efficient and effective means for communication. So learning of a word starts with learning the pronunciation of it.
Affective meaning
Collocative meaning
English lexicology (III)
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一、如何学习英语单词
From the above diagram, we know that the meaning of a word doesn’t actually refer to the meaning or the meanings in a dictionary. The meaning of a words includes different aspects, all these meaning forms the meaning of that word, and they should be learned as a whole. Here I want to stress that we need especially pay attention to the usage of a word, I mean, how to use a word correctly, not just the meaning is correct, but also the right form, as well as the right collocation.
英文专业词汇学考试复习资料---精品管理资料
Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words。
According to semanticists(语义学家), a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound，meaningand syntactic function（句法功能).2、 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary。
3、 Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic4、 Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English。
With the development of the language，more and more differences arose between sound and form.（1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional。
语言学习知识概论总试卷
一、单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答1. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?__________A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2. ________ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Sapir3. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme4. The word “hospitalize”is an example of __________.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending5. Constituent sentences is the term used in ___________.A. structural linguisticsB. functional analysisC. TG GrammarD. traditional grammar6. Cold and hot is a pair of ___________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converse7. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker tosome future course of action are called________.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressiveD. declaratives8. Speech variety may be used instead of _______.A. vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creoleB. standard languageC. both A and BD. none of the above9.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology10. Discovering procedures are practiced by ________.A. descriptive grammarB. TC GrammarC. traditional grammarD. functional grammar11. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade”is _________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative12. _________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing13. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred as _________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula14. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by whichwords are formed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology15. “When did you stop taking this medicine?”is an example of _________in sense relationships.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. assumptionD. implicature16. Idioms are ________.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units17. An illocutionary act is identical with________.A. sentence meaningB. the speaker’s intentionC. language understandingD. the speaker's competence18. In sociolinguistics, ______ refers to a group of institutionalized social situationstypically constrained by a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community19. ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the firstlanguage by using it naturally communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition20. In which of the following stage did Chomsky add the semantic component to his TGGrammar for the first time? __________A. The Classic TheoryB. The Standard TheoryC. The Extended Standard TheoryD. The Minimalist Program1. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the peoplepresent are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy)as ameans of controlling the forces which the belivers feel might affect their lives. Which function does it perform? __________A. interrogativeB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational2. Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? ___________A. InterchangeableB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness.3. Which of the following is not the major branch of linguistics? ___________A. PhonologyB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. Speech4._______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called_________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones6. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation? _________A. [z]B. [w]C. [h]D. [v]7.________ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending8. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words9. ________ refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Hierarchical relation10. According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ________ contain all the information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.A. deep structureB. surface structuresC. transformational rulesD. PS-rules11. ________describes whether a proposition is true or false.A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood12. “John hit Peter”and “Peter was hit by John”are the same ________.A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth13. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Semantics14. ________is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to affectsuccessful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD.Psycholinguistics15.______is defined as any regionally or socially definable human groupidentified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech community A. A raceC. A societyD. A country16.______variation of language is the most discernible and definable inspeech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. In first language acquisition children usually _________ grammatical rulesfrom the linguistic information they hear.A. useB. acceptC. generalizeD. reconstruct18. By the time children are going beyond the ______ stage, they begin toincorporate some of the inflectional morphemes.A. telegraphicB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word19. According to Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ________.A. ideational, interpersonal and textualB. ideational, informative and textualC. metalinguistic, interpersonal and textualD. ideational, interpersonal and referential20. The person who is often described as “'father of modern linguistics”is _______.A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky1. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? ___________- A nice day, isn’t it?- Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PeformativeD.Interpersonal2. Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest3. Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences amonglanguage? ___________A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics4. __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons5. Which vowel is different from the others according to the tongue positionof vowels? ___________A. [i]B. [u]C. [e]D.[a]6. Liquids are classified in the light of __________.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above7. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational8. There are _______ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six9. In English, theme and rhyme are often expressed by ________ and ________.A. subject, objectB. subject, predicateC. predicate, objectD. object, predicate10. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word ________.A. is interpreted through the mediation of conceptB. is related to the thing it refers toC. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakersD. is the image it is represented in the mind.11. “John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die”is a (n) ___________.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction12. ________ found that natural language had its own logic and concludescooperative principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones13. _______ proposed that speech acts can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky14. ______ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany15. The most recognizable difference between American English and BritishEnglish are in _____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending16. ______ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A. AcquisitionB. PositiveC. NegativeD. Interrogative17. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the _____ half of thechild’s second year.A. earlyB. lateC. firstD. second18. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics isthat it sees language in terms of ________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system19. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris20. At the _______ stage negation is simply expressed by single words withnegative meaning.A. prelinguisticsB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word1. Which of the following is the most important function of language? ___________A. Interpersonal functionB. Performative functionC. Informative functionD. Recreational function2. In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal "狗",this shows the nature of ______ of human language.A. arbitrarinessB. cultural transmissionC. displacementD. discreteness3. The study of language as a whole is often called ____________.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics4. The study of language meaning is called __________.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphology D pragmatics5. In English, there is one glottal fricative. It is _______.A. [I]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]6. The phonetic symbol for “voiced bilabial glide”is _________.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [w]7. In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and ______.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9. The sense relationship between “John plays the violin”and “John playsa musical instrument”is ________.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition10. Conceptual meaning is ________.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. associativeD. affective11. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the_______.A. declarationsB. directivesC. sociolinguisticsD. Chomsky12. The violation of one or more of the conversational _______ (of the CP) can,when the listener fully understands the speaker, create conversational implicatures, and humor sometimes.A. standardsB. principlesC. levelsD. maxim13. _______variety refers to speech variation according to the particular areawhere a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Register variety14. In a speech community people have something in common ______ -alanguage or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically15. The optimum age for SLA is _______.A. childhoodB. early teensC. teensD. adulthood16. In general, ________ language acquisition refers to children's developmentof their language of the community in which a child has been brought up.A. firstB. secondC. thirdD. fourth17. Children follow a similar ________ schedule of predictable stages along theroute of language development across cultures.A. learningB. studyingC. acquisitionD. acquiring18. The theory of _______ considers that all sentences are generated from asemantic structure.A. Case GrammarB. Stratificational GrammarC. Relational GrammarD. Generative Semantics19. _______ grammar is the most widespread and the best understoodmethod of discussing Indo-European language.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative20. Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ______.A. Prague SchoolB. Copenhagen SchoolC. London SchoolD. Generative Semantics21. The relation between form and means in human language is natural.22. Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.23. Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.24. Phonology is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25. All consonants are produced with vocal-cord vibration.26. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.27. The structure of words is not governed by rules.28. If a word has sense, it must have reference.29. “He didn't stop smoking”presupposes that he had been smoking.30. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.31. A text is best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form but ofmeaning.32. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage canvary significant from child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.33. It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operatingvocabulary of more 2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.34. “Tom hit Mary and Mary hit Tom”is an exocentric construction while“men and women”is an endocentric construction.35. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoyargued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.36. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and functional linguistics.37. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community.38. Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless, while all vowelsounds are voiceless.39. The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect oflanguage.40. An illocutionary act is identical with the speaker’s intention.21. When language is used to get information from other, it serves an informative function.22. All the English words are not symbolic.23. All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistics symbols.24. There are 72 symbols for consonants and 25 for vowels in English.25. The sound [z] is an oral voiced post-alveolar fricative.26. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.27. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.28. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.29. There is only one argument in the sentence “Kids like apples”.30. While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they donot always observe these maxims strictly.31. Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instance of commissives.32. Cohesion and coherence is identical with each other in essence.33. It has been recognized that in ideal acquisition situation, many adults canreach native-like proficiency in all aspects of a second language.34. All roots are free morphemes while not all free morphemes are roots.35. In the Classical theory, Chomsky’s aim is to make linguistics a science.This theory is characterized by three features: emphasis on prescription oflanguage, introduction of transformational rules, and grammatical description regardless of language formation.36. Generative grammar is a system of rules that in some explicit andwell-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences.37. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme.38. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand how words andphrases form sentences, and so on.39. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of thepsycholinguistics.40. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and thetheory behind his Function Grammar is systemic.21. Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.22. Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.23. General linguistics deals with the whole human language.24. Auditory phonetics investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.25. In English, there are two nasal consonants. There are [m] and [n].26. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.27. The meaning of the word we often used is the primary meaning.28. Meaning is central to the study of communication.29. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionaryact because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.30. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveyingmeaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be considered as a kind of meaning study.31. If a text has no cohesive words, we say the text is not coherent.32. The optimum age for SLA always accords with the maxim of “theyounger the better”.33. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of theirfirst language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.34. The London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functionallinguistics.35. Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show theinfluence of their neighbors.36. Band morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be usedfreely all by themselves.37. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950is also known as the Bloomfieldian Age.38. Paul Grice found that artificial language had its own logic and concludecooperative principle.39. Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is culturaltransmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.40. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’sperformance.21. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.22. Competence is more concrete than performance.23. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts forthe rules of language in general.24. The space between the vocal cords is called glottis.25. Stops can be divided into two types: plosives and nasals.26. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.27. The sentence “Tom, smoke!”and “Tom smokes”have the samesemantic predication.28. The sentence that contains the same words is the same in meaning.29. A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.30. “John has been to Asia”entails “John has been to Japan”.31. Coherence is a logical, orderly and aesthetical relationship between parts,in speech, writing, or argument.32. Language acquisition is in accordance with language learning on theassumption that there are different processes.33. SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additionallanguage after they acquired their first language.34. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options thatcome into play at some point in a linguistic structure.35. American structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emergedindependently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.36. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the soundsand sound patterns of his language.37. Phonetics has three sub-branches: acoustic phonetics, auditory phoneticsand articulatory phonetics.38. The paradigmatical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.39. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population thathas experienced some sort of social isolation, such as racial discrimination.40. Searle proposed that speech act can fall into six general categories.41. _______ is the actual realization of one's linguistic knowledge in utterances.42. Combining two parts of two already existing words is called ________ inword-formation.43. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.44. A ________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises anumber of words to form a complete statement, question or command.45. _______ studies the sentence structure of language.46. In semantic analysis, ________ is the abstraction of the meaning of asentence.47. A speech _______is a group of people who share the same language or aparticular variety of language.48. In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1knowledge. This process is called language _______.49. The development of a first or native language is called firstlanguage________.50. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in thecontext of use.41. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things andcan be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _________ or creative.42. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ___________ study.43. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _________ and the lips.44. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without___________.45. ________________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is aprocess of shortening.46. For ______________________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.47. A ___________ language is originally a pidgin that has become establishedas a native language in some speech community.48. A linguistic _____________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibitedby the “polite”society from general use.49. For the vast majority of children, language development occursspontaneously and requires little conscious _____________ on the part of adults.50. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) _________________ oriented functionallinguistics approach.41. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _______ over writing.42. ___________ is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.43. A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formedby compounding is called a ___________.44. ____________ is a science that is concerned with how words are combinedto form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.45. The ________________ relation is a kind of relation between linguistic formsin a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.46. The various meanings of a _____________ word are related to some degree.47. The pre-school years are a ____________ period for first languageacquisition.48. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on____________.49. _______________ deals with how language is acquired, understood andproduced.50. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categoriesshould be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ________________.41. Language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.42. Langue or competence is _________ and not directly observable, whileparole or performance is concrete and directly observable.43. The vocal tract can be divided into two parts: the oral cavity and the __________.44. The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to createnew words in called _____________.45. The words of English are classified into native words and __________ words.46. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the ______________attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.47. _____________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development ofability in the first language by using it naturally communicative situations.48. In first language acquisition children usually __________ grammatical rulesfrom the linguistic information they hear.49. The starting point of Chomsky's TG Grammar is his ___________ hypothesis.50. A ____________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speakerintends to do with it.51. discreteness52. competence53. triphthongs54. bound morpheme55.syntax51. design features52. performance53. minimal pair54. morpheme55. polysemy51. arbitrarinessngue53.vowel54. affixs55. reference51. language52. phonemes, phones53. backformation54.lexical semantics55.speech community56. How does a linguist construct a rule?57. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?58. Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.59. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.60. How does competence differ from performance?56. Explain the differences between langue and parole.57. Use examples to illustrate the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional constituent.58. Define the two terms: phonemes and allophones.59. What are the three types of distribution?60. How many types of linguistic knowledge does a native speaker possess? What are they?56.What are the five sub-branches of linguistics?57. What are the suprasegmental features are?58. What is the difference between cohesion and coherence?59. What is ethnic dialect?60. What is learner language and target language?56. What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?57. What are the functions of language?58.Explain the relationship between speech and writing.59. Analyze the word “disestablishment”by IC analysis:60.What does morphology study?61. What are the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in terms of both function and position?61. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.61. Define the three types of distribution respectively.61. Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.。
Unit_1（1）词汇学
Unit_1（1）词汇学Objectives :1. Learn the scientific definition of the word;2. Understand the arbitrary and conventional relationship between sound andmeaning;3. Remember the four factors that cause the differences between sound and form;4. Understand the relationship between words and vocabulary.Main points:WordSound and MeaningSound and FormV ocabularyUnit 11.1 What is a word?What is a word? This question has occupied the attention of linguists for ages. Although numerous definitions have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars still do not agree on the definition of the word.When we talk about a word, we tend to think in visual terms. In this line a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment. According to semanticists , a word is a unit of meaning. Grammarians , however, insist that a word be a free form that can function in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.Therefore, we can say that 'a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.'Words can be simple and complex, yet all must comply with these criteria. Man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. There are words which are complex such as mis.for.tune and man.age.ment. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as 'subject', 'object' and 'predictive' in a sentence. Though misfortune can be further divided as mis- and fortune, the former cannot stand aloneas a word. Similarly, management can be broken down as manage and -ment, the latter cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into black and mail, and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means the combination of the two. Black is a colour, opposite to 'white', and mail denotes 'something sent by post', yet when they are put together, the combined form means 'compel, compulsion, to make payment or action for concealment of discreditable secrets etc.' Hence blackmail is a different word.1.2 Sound and MeaningA word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. Each of the world's cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is 'no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself'. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters thatmake up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes Frau in German, femme in French and fùn? in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound [mi:t] is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night, though denoting entirely different things, yet have the same sound.1.3 Sound and FormIt is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form. In other words, the sound should be similar to the form. This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably, there have been no corresponding changes of spelling.A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. In the early days the spelling differences did not matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as it is today. As a result, no one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled. Sometimes, people deliberately changed spelling of words either to make a line even or for easier recognition. Before the printing press was brought to England, everything was written by hand. Those scribes, who made a living by writing for other people often workedin haste to meet the needs of the King, Church, and merchants. One problem was that several letters written with short vertical strokes such as i, u, v, m, w and n looked all alike. Consequently, their handwriting caused misunderstanding. To solve the problem in part, they changed the letter u to o when it came before m, n, or v. This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be written as some, come, woman, wonder, monk. At some point, too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced.In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze the spelling of words. The standardization makes spelling sacred. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more differences.Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other languages, it borrowed spelling as well. The early borrowings were assimilated and the later ones, however, do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. stimulus (L), dénouement (F), fiesta (Sp), eureka(Gr), and kimono(Jap).The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form. From time to time in history, some British and American scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success. In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns. And even those spellings that appear to be irregular may have more regularity and usefulness than we realize. In such words as hymn, condemn, bomb, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible: hymnal, condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule.1.4 V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term 'vocabulary' is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. English is one of the world's highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.Exercise:Which of the following is NOT true?A. A word is the smallest form of a language.B. A word is a sound unity.C. A word has a given meaning.D. A word can be used freely in a sentence.Answer ADecide whether the following are true or false.1. A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view.2. Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be logically related.3. The introduction of printing press resulted in a lot more differences between sound and form.4. The words a person can use in speaking and writing form his active vocabulary. Answer 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. TWhat is vocabulary?Answer V ocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.Answer Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to. Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their connection is arbitrary and conventional. For example, tree /tri:/ to 树in Englisn because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so just as Chinese people use /sh?/ to refer to the same thing. This explains why people of different languages use different sound to express the same concept. Even I the same language, the same sound can have different meanings e.g. /rait/ can mean right, rite and write.。
英语语言学概论第五章习题及答案
2017级语言学概论第五章习题请认真填写学号和姓名。
每次答题仅第一次提交有效。
个人信息：[矩阵文本题] *I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. [判断题] *对错(正确答案)2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. [判断题] *对错(正确答案)3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. [判断题] *对错(正确答案)5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. [判断题] *对错(正确答案)8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. [判断题] *对(正确答案)错II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the first letter given.11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Semantics)12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：direct)13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Reference)14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：synonyms)15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：homophones)16. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Relational)17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Componential)18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：selectional)19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：argument)20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：naming)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.21. The naming theory is advanced by （）. [单选题] *A. Plato(正确答案)B. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents （）. [单选题] *A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalism(正确答案)C. the naming theoryD. behaviourism23. Which of the following is not true? （） [单选题] *A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.(正确答案)24. “Can I borrow your bike?”（）“ You have a bike.” [单选题] *A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes(正确答案)25. （） is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. [单选题] *A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysis(正确答案)C. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. “alive” and “dead” are （）. [单选题] *A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonyms(正确答案)D. None of the above27. （） deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. [单选题] *A. Reference(正确答案)B. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. （） refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. [单选题] *A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. Homonymy(正确答案)D. Hyponymy29. Words that are close in meaning are called （）. [单选题] *A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms(正确答案)30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by （）. [单选题] *A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictions(正确答案)C. semantic rulesD. semantic features31. Which of the following is the concern of "reference"? （） [单选题] *A. It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form.B. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. It is the study of what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world.(正确答案)D. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.32. "Flat" and "apartment" are （）. [单选题] *A. dialectal synonyms(正确答案)B. stylistic synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. semantically different synonyms33. Which of the following are collocational synonyms? （） [单选题] *A. "lorry" and "truck"B. "start" and "commence"C. "rotten" and "addled"(正确答案)D. "amaze" and "astound"34. "Bow" (v) and "bow" (n) are （）. [单选题] *A. homophonesB. homographs(正确答案)C. complete homonymsD. partial homonyms35. X: John's bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. The relationship of X and Y is （）. [单选题] *A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailing YD. X presupposing Y(正确答案)36. According to the componential analysis, the words "boy" and "man" differ in the feature of （）. [单选题] *A. HUMANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT(正确答案)37. According to predication analysis, the predications of "Tom hates soup." and "It is cool." are respectively （）. [单选题] *A. no-place predication, two-place predicationB. two-place predication, one-place predicationC. two-place predication, no-place predication(正确答案)D. no-place predication, one-place predication38. Which of the following is correct? （） [单选题] *A. Superordinate is the word more specific in meaning.B. Hyponym is the word more general in meaning.C. Co-hyponyms are the hyponyms of the same superordinate.(正确答案)D. "Flower" is the co-hyponym of "rose", "morning glory", "carmination".39.The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as （）. [单选题] *A. +animate,+male,+human,-adultB. +animate,+male,+human,+adult(正确答案)C. +animate,-male,+human,-adultD. +animate,-male,+human,+adult40. One way to analyze lexical meaning is （）. [单选题] *A. predication analysisB. stylistic analysisC. componential analysis(正确答案)D. proposition analysisIV. Define the following terms.41. sense [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.)42 . reference [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience)43. homonymy [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different mean¬ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.)44 componential analysis [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro¬posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.)45. predication [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.)。
英文毕业论文
英文毕业论文篇一：英语本科毕业论文优秀范文××大学毕业设计（论文）题目Analysis of the contextual meaning of English Word 作者张芳丹层次本科专业英语学号指导教师×年×月×日××大学成人高等教育毕业论文（设计）评审表注：此表一式二份，与学籍表一起进入学员毕业档案××大学毕业设计（论文）任务书学院学生姓名：学号：专业：英语1 设计（论文）题目及专题：Analysis of the contextual meaning of English Word2 学生设计（论文）时间：自年日开始至年日止3 设计（论文）所用资源和参考资料：〔1〕Nida , E .A . Language in Culture and Society. New York : Harper Row . 1964. (the whole book) 〔2〕Ogden, C. K and Richard, I. A. The Meaning of Meaning 〔M〕. London: Rout ledge and Kegan PAUL. 1923. (the whole book) 〔3〕Saeed, J. I. Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell. 1997. (from page 53 to 132)〔4〕胡壮麟.语言学教程〔M〕.北京：北京大学出版社.2021.6 (the wholebook)〔5〕何伟.英语语篇中的时态研究. 北京大学出版社.2021.2 (from page 50 to 193)4 设计（论文）完成的主要内容：Ⅰ． Contextual Meaning and Figures of Speech 5 提交设计（论文）形式（设计说明与图纸或论文等）及要求：〔1〕要求认真、独立完成毕业论文（设计）的写作〔2〕要求按照学校规定的论文（设计）格式撰写论文（设计）〔3〕要求及时同指导老师进行沟通，按步骤完成论文（设计）的写作和答辩工作。
英语语言学填空题及答案(最新版)
Chapter one1.Linguistics is generally defined as the .2.The study of language as a whole is often called .3.The study of_ used in linguistic communication led to theestablishment of phonetics.4.The study of is known as semantics.5.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to .6. The study of is generally known as applied linguistics.7. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be .8. The description of a language at some point of time in isa synchronic study the description of a language as it through time is a diachronic.9. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is to writing.10. _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community, and refers to the realization of langue in actual use.11. Linguistic is descriptive while traditional grammer is .12. Modern linguistic regards the language as primary, not the written.13. Many of the rules of traditional grammer apply only to thelanguage.14. When the study of meaning is ,not in isdation ,but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.15. Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different of linguistic study.答案：1.scientific study of language2.general linguistics3.sounds4.meaning5.psychology6.applications7.descriptive8.history; changes9.priorngue; parole11.prescriptive12.spoken13.written14.conducted15.typesChapter Two1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the of language; if is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. The three branches of phonetics are_ , auditory phonetics and acousfic phonetics respectively.3. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in termsof _and the other is in terms of _ .4. Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language-_______.5. The different throes which can represent a phoneme in different phonetics envronments are called the _ of that phoneme.6. The assimulation rules assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a_______; thus making the two phones similate.7. The assimulation rule also accounts for the _______ of the alvedar nasal in some sound combinations.8. The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted althoughit is______.9. Language is first ______through its sounds.10. The letter [P] in terms of place of articulation______ in terms ofmanner of articulation is _______.11. _______, not phonetic identity is the ctciterion with which we operate the phonological analysis of language .12. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is founding the _______.13. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of _____and______ vowels .14. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of______.15. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a ______and a phrase consisting of the same elements.答案:1.phonic mediumbeled articulation phonetics3.manner of articulation; place of articulation4.the speech sounds5.allo phones6.sequential phoneme7.varying pronunciation8.orthographically represented9.perceived10.bilabial; stops11.phonetic similarity12.oral cavity13.tense; lox14.simultaneous distinctive featurespound nounChapter Three1.Linguists define the word as the smallest ______found inlanguage.2.Morpheme is the_______________ that carries information aboutmeaning or function.3.The root consistutes the _____ of the word and carries themajor components of its meaning .4.Morpheme are usually ______: there is no nature connectionbetween their sound and meaning.5.When _______ are conjoined to other morpheme （or words）, anew words are derived , or formed.6.Derivation is an _______ that form a word with meaning andcategory distinct from that of its bases.7.Unlike phonemes and syllables which are the elements ofsound , words_______.8.______ are the foundation building blocks of a language .9.Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of thegrammer that is concerned with ______ and ________.10.The content words of language , such as ____,_____,_____andadverbs, are sometimes called open class words.11.Affixes______ belong to a lexical category and are alwaysbound morpheme.12.Bound morphemes which are for the most part purelygrammatical makers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case are called_________.13._______, ________ and free morphemes combine are the majorways to produce new words.14.The ways word are formed are called _______.15.When two words are in the same _______, the compound willbe in this category.答案：1.free form2.smallest unit of language3.core4.arbitrary5.derivational morphemes6.affixational process7.carry meaning8.words9.word formation; word structure10.nouns; verbs; adjectives11.do not12.inflectional morphemes13.derivation; compounds14.morphological rules15.grammatical categoryChapter four1.To determine a word's category，three criteria are usually employed: , , .2. The XP rule is .3.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that .4.The S rule is5.The first, formed by the in accordance with the subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.6.questions begin with a wh- word are called .7.Corresponding to the final syntactic form of sentence which results from appropriate transformations , is called .8.If the head is a verb, then the specifier is .9.Word level categories are divided into two kinds: and .10.Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called .11. The structures which formed by joining two or more elements ofthe some type with the help of a conjunction are .12.The information about is included in the head and termed subcategorization.13.The element which specifies optionally expressible properties of hand is .14.A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another is .15.The construction in which the complement phrases is embedded is called .答案1.meaning，inflection, distribution2.XP→(specifier)X(complement)ern the formation of sentences4.S→NP VP5.XP rule , head’s6.questions7.suffice structure8.qualifier9.major lexical categories , minor lexical categories10.phrases11.coordinate structures12.a word’s complement13.modifiers14.transformation15.matrix clauseChapter five1.According to the naming theory , words are just or labeis for things .2.3.Two kinds of context are recognized :the situational context and the .4.In the English vocabulary there are two category of words:and .5.Synonyms can be divided into the ,stylistic synonyms, and collocational synonyms.6.When two words are identical in ,they are .When two words are identical in ,they are homographs.7.swperordinate is more general in meaning, but hyponyms ismore .8.three kinds of antonymy are recognized：Gradable antonymys, , and .9.There are four certain relations between sentences,theyare: , , and preswpposes.10.There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and meaning .11.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true ,if X is false,Y may be true or false, we called the relation is12.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of themeaning of the word. The various meaning of the word areto some degree. Complete homonyms are often brought into being by .13. Reference deals with the relationship between theelement and word of experience.14. held the view that “we shall know a word by thecompany it keeps15.semantics canbe simply defined as the study of . 答案：s2.referent3.linguistic context4.native words, borrowed words5.Dialectal synonyms ,emotive synonyms6.homophones, spelling7.specificplementary antonyms, relational opposites9.synonymous , inconsistence , entails10.semantic11.entails12.primary , related , coincidence13.linguistic ,non-linguistic14.J.R.Firth15.meaningWelcome To Download 欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
2024年全新七年级英语上册模拟试卷及答案(人教版)
一、选择题（每题1分，共5分）1. What is the meaning of the word "family"?A. A group of people who are related to each otherB. A group of friendsC. A group of animalsD. A group of plants2. Which of the following is a proper way to greet someone in English?A. "How are you?"B. "What's your name?"C. "Where are you from?"D. "How old are you?"3. What is the correct order of the days of the week in English?A. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, SundayB. Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, SaturdayC. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, SundayD. Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday4. Which of the following is a correct way to say "I like apples" in English?A. "I like apple"B. "I like apples"C. "I like an apple"D. "I like the apple"5. What is the meaning of the word "weather"?A. The condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and timeB. The condition of the ground at a particular place and timeC. The condition of the water at a particular place and timeD. The condition of the sky at a particular place and time二、判断题（每题1分，共5分）1. The word "family" always refers to a group of people who are related to each other. (T/F)3. The days of the week in English are always in the same order. (T/F)4. "I like apples" is a correct way to say "I like apples" in English. (T/F)5. The word "weather" refers to the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. (T/F)三、填空题（每题1分，共5分）1. The word "family" means a group of people who are______ to each other.3. The days of the week in English are always in the order of ______, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday.4. To say "I like apples" in English, you can say"______".5. The word "weather" refers to the condition of the______ at a particular place and time.四、简答题（每题2分，共10分）1. What are the different members of a family?3. Can you list the days of the week in English in order?4. How do you say "I like apples" in English?5. What is the meaning of the word "weather"?五、应用题（每题2分，共10分）1. If you want to greet someone in English, what would you say?2. If you want to say "I like apples" in English, how would you say it?3. If you want to ask someone how they are feeling in English, what would you ask?4. If you want to say "I have a big family" in English, how would you say it?5. If you want to ask someone about the weather in English, what would you ask?六、分析题（每题5分，共10分）1. Compare and contrast the meanings of the words "family" and "friends".2. Analyze the different ways to greet someone in English and their appropriate situations.七、实践操作题（每题5分，共10分）1. Write a short conversation between two people greeting each other in English.2. Write a short paragraph about your family in English.八、专业设计题（每题2分，共10分）1. 设计一个英语单词拼写游戏，包括规则和示例。
名词解释
名词解释词=The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.词根=The basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word.词缀=Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.一词多义=Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.同形异义=Homonyms are different words with the same form (spelling or pronunciation)完全同形异义=Perfect homonyms are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning.同音异形异义=Homophones are different words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.同形异音异义=Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound or meaning.同义关系=Synonymy is a relationship of “sameness of meaning” that may hold between two words.反义关系=Antonymy is a relationship of “meaning opposition” that may hold between two words.上下义关系=Hyponymy is the sense relationship that relates words hierarchically. The underlying observation is that some words have a more general meaning, while others have a more specific meaning, while referring to the same entity.问答题1. (1)What does onomatopoetic motivation mean?(2)What does semantic motivation mean?(3)Dose it contradict the statement that there is no natural connection between sound and meaning?Answer:(1)Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound.(2)Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors.(3)Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages – (for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.)2. How many kinds of meaning are there in English?Answer: There are 8 kinds of meaning in English, including grammatical meaning, lexical meaning, denotative meaning, associative meaning, connotative meaning, social (stylistic) meaning, affective meaning, collocative meaning.3. (1)What is context? (2)What role dose context play in linguistic communication? （以下答案摘自网络，回答稍冗长，请适当精简） Answer:(1)Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. And there is linguistic context, refers to the words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which a word appears. And extra-linguistic context, which refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word appears. There also is lexical context: the lexemes that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is affected or determined by the neighboring lexemes.(2)Context can function as followed: eliminating ambiguity; conveying emotional overtones; indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word.5. (1)What are the major types of synonymy?(2)(3)Explain those types with examples.Answer:(1)In general, English synonyms can be divided into two types: complete synonyms and relative synonyms.(2)Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so th at one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. Fo r example: （例子自己找）(3)Relative synonyms refers to which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. This kinds of synonyms are the same in some degree such as （例子自己找）6. (1)What are the major types of antonymy?(2)(3)(4)(5)Explain those types with examples.Answer:(1)There are four types of antonymy, including complementaries, gradable antonyms, re lational opposites and semantic incompatibles(2)Complementaries refer to pairs of words that represent an either/or relation. （例子找书去）(3) Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable.(4) The substitution of one member for the other does not change the meaning of a sentence if it is accompanied by the change of subject and object.(5) The words in a group of semantic incompatibles are in contrast to the o ther members of the group, showing a contrastingness relationship between word and word （例子找书去）7. What are the possible causes of language change?Answer:The possible causes of language change are as followed: (1) Various social causes (including the change of social evolution, social environment, social le vel, national sentiment, racial sentiment, gender differences, social values an d gobbledygook).The evolution of the language (including loanword, analogy and the simplifying of words)Supplementary Exercises for ME. Lexicology 1Part I Multiple choices.1. The definition of a word includes ___________.A. a minimal free form that can function aloneB. a unit of meaningC. a sound unityD. all of the above2. A word is _______ of a language that has a given sound and meaning andsyntactic function.A. a minimal free formB. a smallest meaningful unitC. an element which can not be further analyzedD. a grammatically minimal form3. The Indo-European language family consist of________.A. all the languages in Europe and IndiaB. all the languages in India and some languages in Europe.C. most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.D. Some of the languages of Europe and all the languages of the Near East4. The symbolic connection of a word to a particular thing is almost always ______.A. logicalB. arbitraryC. inherentD. automatic5. The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be ______.A. A highly inflected language.B. A highly developed language.C. A very difficult language.D. A language of leveled endings.6. More than one variant, which can realize some morphemes according to theposition in a word, are termed .A. phonemesB. allomorphsC. morphsD. phones7. Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships areknown as .A. morphemesB. derivational morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. suffixes8. is defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming orderivational affixes to stem. This process is also known as .A. derivation, affixationB. affixation, derivationC. derivative, affixationD. affixation, derivative9. Sometimes, the meaning of a compound can be inferred from its separateelements, for example, .A. hot dogB. red meatC. flower potD. fat head10. is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and soon while belongs to language, so is restricted to language use.A. meaning, conceptB. concept, meaningC. sense, referenceD. reference, sense11. When readers come across the word ―home‖ in reading, they may be reminded oftheir family, friends, warmth, safety, love. That is because of the ―home‖has _______.A. collocationsB. connotationsC. denotationsD. perorations12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Which group of the following are perfect homonyms?A. dear (a loved person)—deer (a kind of animal)B. bow (bending the head as a greeting)—bow(the device used for shooting)C. bank (the edge of the river)—bank (an establishment for money business)D. right (correct)—write (put down on paper with a pen)14. The part of a piece of writing or speech which surrounds a word and helps to explain its meaning is called _______.A. Linguistic contextB. Grammatical contextC. Extra-linguistic contextD. Para-linguistic context15. means through all difficulties and troubles.A. through high and lowB. through thick and thinC .from head to foot D. from start to finishPart II True or false questions.1. A rule of word-formation is usually identical with a syntactic rule.2. Word-formation rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certainextent.3. Affixes like ―-th‖ are very productive in current English.4. The chief function of prefixes is to change the word class of the stems.5. The primary function of suffixes is to change the meaning of the stem.6. Compounds are words formed by combining affixes and stems.7. ―-age, -al, -ance, -ation, -ence‖in ―linkage, dismissal, attendance, protection,existence‖ can produce largely concrete nouns by being added to verb stems.8. The meaning of a compound is usually the combination of stems.9. The free phrase has the primary stress on the first element and the secondarystress, if any, on the second.10. In both compounds and free phrases the adjective element can take inflectionalsuffixes.11. Conversion is only a change of grammatical function of a lexical item with noloss of its different range of meaning originally conveyed.12. A fully converted noun from an adjective has all the features of nouns excepttaking an indefinite article or, -(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.13. Generally, conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions can‘t be converted tonouns.14. Although blends and backformed words have already achieved popularity inEnglish, they are not advisable to be used frequently in formal writing.15. Quite a number of derivational affixes have more than one meaning.16. Simple words in English are usually non-motivated.17. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words.18. Componential analysis has no disadvantages.19. Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieving humor orirony, or to heighten dramatic effect.20. In most cases, the native term is more literary than the foreign one.Part III Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1. Morphemes are abstract______ units, which are realized in speech by discreteunits known as morph_______. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme _____ is to a phone. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. 2(2)Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs___________.2. A word is a minimal free_______ form of a language that has a given sound andmeaning and syntactic function.3. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called_empty_____ words.4. According to semantics, a word is a unit of meaning.5. Bound morphemes include boundroots and affixes6. The most productive means of word formation are compoundingonversion7. Only when a connection has been, established between the linguistic sign and areferent8. Most morphemes are realized by single words like "bird, tree, green", etc, Words9. With Norse invasion____, many Scandinavian words came into the Engli10. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic oppositionPart IV Explain the following terms with proper examples.1. Explain with examples morpheme, morph and allomorph2. Semantic fieldPart V Answer the following questions.1. What is collocative meaning? Give at least one example to illustrate you r point.2. Study the following sentence, paying special attention to the words in i talics. Ifyou find anything wrong, please explain why and then improve the sentence.The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.3. Analyzes the morphological structures of the following words and point o ut the types of the morphemes.unbearable, international, ex-prisonerAnswers for Exercise 1Part I Multiple choices.1-5 DACBA 6-10 BCBCB 11-15 BBCABPart II True or false questions.1.F2.T3.F4.F5.F6.F7.F8.F9.F 10.F 11.F 12.F 13.F 14.T15.T 16. T 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. FPart III Fill in the blanks.1. abstract, morph, phoneme, allomorphs2. free3. empty4. meaning5. bound, affixes6. affixation, compounding, conversion7. referent8. mon omorphemic9. Norse invasion 10. semantic oppositionPart IV Explain the following terms1. In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. A morpheme is free if it can stand alone, or bound if it is used exclusively alongside a free morpheme.Morphs are the actual phonetic representations of the same morpheme.An allomorph is a variant form of the same morpheme, and all the morphs of the same morpheme are grouped as being the allomorphs of a morpheme. The concep t occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without chan gingmeaning.English example:The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes: "un-", a bound morpheme; "break ", a free morpheme; and "-able", a bound morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-ab le" is a suffix. Both "un-" and "-able" are affixes.The morpheme plural-s has the morph "-s", /s/, in cats (/kæts/), but "-es", /ɨz/, in dishes (/dɪʃɨz/), and even the voiced "-s", /z/, in dogs (/dɒgz/). "-s ". These are allomorphs of the same morpheme plural -s.2. The concept is from the concept of ―field‖ in physics, referring to the clustering of a number of semantically related words. A semantic field is a s et of lexemes in a named conceptual area that interrelate and define each other in specific ways. A general description is that words in a semantic field are not synonymous, but are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon. For example, the semantic field of ―bugs‖ may include bees, spiders, moths, wasp s, flies etc. According to semantic field theory a meaning of a word is depende nt partly on its relation to other words in the same conceptual area. The kinds of semantic fields vary from culture to culture.Part V Answer the following questions.1. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by w ords before or after the word in discussion. For example, 'pretty' and 'handsom e' share the conceptual meaning of 'good looking', but are distinguished by the range of nouns they collocate with: pretty handsome.2. The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.（1）it is ambiguous（2）ambiguity caused by the structure（3）stop drinking can be understood as1）police stop drinking by themselves2）police stop people drinking（4）improvement1）The police were ordered to stop people drinking about midnight.2）The police were ordered to stop drinking by themselves about midnight.3. Morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. The morphological analysis of the three words are as follows:1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes unbearable (un+bear+ able), international (inter+nation+al), ex-prisoner(er+prison+er).2) Of the nine morphemes, only bear, nation and prison are free morphemes a s they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest un-,-able, inter-,-al, ex-and-er are bound as none of them can stand alone as words.Supplementary Exercises for ME. Lexicology 2Part I Multiple choices.1. From the phrase ― a white paper‖, we know that the meaning of the word ―paper‖here is ―document‖. This shows that the _______ context can define the me aning of a word.。
英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）
英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）Chapter one1.Linguistics is generally defined as the .2.The study of language as a whole is often called .3.The study of_ used in linguistic communication led to theestablishment of phonetics.4.The study of is known as semantics.5.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to .6. The study of is generally known as applied linguistics.7. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be .8. The description of a language at some point of time in isa synchronic study the description of a language as it through time is a diachronic.9. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is to writing.10. _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community, and refers to the realization of langue in actual use.11. Linguistic is descriptive while traditional grammer is .12. Modern linguistic regards the language as primary, not the written.13. Many of the rules of traditional grammer apply only to thelanguage.14. When the study of meaning is ,not in isdation ,but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.15. Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different oflinguistic study.答案：1.scientific study of language2.general linguistics3.sounds4.meaning5.psychology6.applications7.descriptive8.history; changes9.prior/doc/a86555740.html,ngue; parole11.prescriptive12.spoken13.written14.conducted15.typesChapter Two1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the of language; if is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. The three branches of phonetics are_ , auditory phonetics and acousfic phonetics respectively.3. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in termsof _and the other is in terms of _ .4. Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language-_______.5. The different throes which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetics envronments are called the _ of that phoneme.6. The assimulation rules assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a_______; thus making the two phones similate.7. The assimulation rule also accounts for the _______ of the alvedar nasal in some sound combinations.8. The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted althoughit is______.9. Language is first ______through its sounds.10. The letter [P] in terms of place of articulation______ in terms ofmanner of articulation is _______.11. _______, not phonetic identity is the ctciterion with which we operate the phonological analysis of language .12. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is founding the _______.13. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of _____and______ vowels .14. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of______.15. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a ______and a phrase consisting of the same elements.答案:1.phonic medium/doc/a86555740.html,beled articulation phonetics3.manner of articulation; place of articulation4.the speech sounds5.allo phones6.sequential phoneme7.varying pronunciation8.orthographically represented9.perceived10.bilabial; stops11.phonetic similarity12.oral cavity13.tense; lox14.simultaneous distinctive features/doc/a86555740.html,pound nounChapter Three1.Linguists define the word as the smallest ______found inlanguage.2.Morpheme is the_______________ that carries information aboutmeaning or function.3.The root consistutes the _____ of the word and carries themajor components of its meaning .4.Morpheme are usually ______: there is no nature connectionbetween their sound and meaning.5.When _______ are conjoined to other morpheme （or words）, anew words are derived , or formed.6.Derivation is an _______ that form a word with meaning andcategory distinct from that of its bases.7.Unlike phonemes and syllables which are the elements ofsound , words_______.8.______ are the foundation building blocks of a language .9.Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part ofthegrammer that is concerned with ______ and ________.10.The content words of language , such as ____,_____,_____andadverbs, are sometimes called open class words.11.Affixes______ belong to a lexical category and are alwaysbound morpheme.12.Bound morphemes which are for the most part purelygrammatical makers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case are called_________.13._______, ________ and free morphemes combine are the majorways to produce new words.14.The ways word are formed are called _______.15.When two words are in the same _______, the compound willbe in this category.答案：1.free form2.smallest unit of language3.core4.arbitrary5.derivational morphemes6.affixational process7.carry meaning8.words9.word formation; word structure10.nouns; verbs; adjectives11.do not12.inflectional morphemes13.derivation; compounds14.morphological rules15.grammatical categoryChapter four1.To determine a word's category，three criteria are usually employed: , , .2. The XP rule is .3.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that .4.The S rule is5.The first, formed by the in accordance with the subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.6.questions begin with a wh- word are called .7.Corresponding to the final syntactic form of sentence which results from appropriate transformations , is called .8.If the head is a verb, then the specifier is .9.Word level categories are divided into two kinds: and .10.Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called .11. The structures which formed by joining two or more elements ofthe some type with the help of a conjunction are .12.The information about is included in the head and termed subcategorization.13.The element which specifies optionally expressible properties of hand is .14.A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another is .15.The construction in which the complement phrases is embedded is called .答案1.meaning，inflection, distribution2.XP→(specifier)X(complement)/doc/a86555740.html,ern the formation of sentences4.S→NP VP5.XP rule , head’s6.questions7.suffice structure8.qualifier9.major lexical categories , minor lexical categories10.phrases11.coordinate structures12.a word’s complement13.modifiers14.transformation15.matrix clauseChapter five1.According to the naming theory , words are just or labeis for things .2.3.Two kinds of context are recognized :the situational context and the .4.In the English vocabulary there are two category of words:and .5.Synonyms can be divided into the ,stylistic synonyms, and collocational synonyms.6.When two words are identical in ,they are .When two words are identical in ,they are homographs.7.swperordinate is more general in meaning, but hyponyms ismore .8.three kinds of antonymy are recognized：Gradable antonymys, , and .9.There are four certain relations between sentences,theyare: , , and preswpposes.10.There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and meaning .11.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true ,if X is false,Y may be true or false, we called the relation is12.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of themeaning of the word. The various meaning of the word are to some degree. Complete homonyms are often brought into being by .13. Reference deals with the relationship between theelement and word of experience.14. held the view that “we shall know a word by thecompany it keeps15.semantics canbe simply defined as the study of . 答案：/doc/a86555740.html,s2.referent3.linguistic context4.native words, borrowed words5.Dialectal synonyms ,emotive synonyms6.homophones, spelling7.specific/doc/a86555740.html,plementary antonyms, relational opposites9.synonymous , inconsistence , entails10.semantic11.entails12.primary , related , coincidence13.linguistic ,non-linguistic14.J.R.Firth15.meaningWelcome T o Download欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
《英语词汇学》重要术语中英文对照
1. Native words 本族词Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words.2. Loan words 借词Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.3. Slang words 俚语Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.4. Function words 功能词Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else.5. Content words 实义词Content words are usedtoname objects, qualities, actions, processes or states,and have independent lexical meaning.6. Free forms 自由形式Forms which occur as sentences are free forms.1. Morphemes 语素Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.2. Allomorphs 语素变体position or adjoining sounds.3. Free morpheme 自由语素Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.5. Root 词根Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.6. Affix 词缀Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.8. Derivational affix 派生词缀Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning handcan derive a word when it is added to another morpheme.9. Prefixes 前缀Prefixes are affixes added before words.10. Suffixes 后缀Suffixes are affixes added after words.1. Word-formation rules 构词规则Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of alanguage may create new words.2. Stem 词干Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.3. Base 词基Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.4. Compounding 合成法Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit.5. Derivation 派生法Derivation or affixation is a word-formation process by which new words arecreated by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.6. Conversion 转化法Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.7. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the addition of a prefix to the base.8. Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation refers to the addition of a suffix to the base.1. Initialism 首字母连写词Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase and it is pronounced letter by letter.2. Acronyms 首字母拼音词Acronyms are word formed from the initial letters of the name of anorganization or a scientific term, and they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.3. Clipping 截短法The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.4. Blending 拼缀法Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its fullform or both of which are not in their full forms.5. Back-formation 逆成法Back-formation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.6. Reduplication 重叠法Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition of one word or of two almost identical words with achange in the vowels or of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants.7. Neoclassical formation 新古典词构成法Neoclassical formation is the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek.1. Conventionality 约定俗成It is the characteristics of relation between the sound-symbol and its sense:there is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that meaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other.2. Motivation 理据Motivation refers to the direct connection between word-symbol and its sense.3. Echoic/ onomatopoeic words 拟声词Echoic words or onomatopoeic words are words motivated phonetically whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.4. Morphological motivation 语素结构理据A word is morphologically motivated if a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.5. Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors and it isusually provided by the figurative usage of words.6. Grammatical meaning 语法意义Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.7. Inflectional paradigm 词形变化The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its inflectional paradigm. Nouns are declined, verbs are conjugatedandgradable adjectives have degrees of comparison.8. Denotative meaning 外延意义The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary.9. Connotative meaning 内涵意义Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or aphrase suggests in one ’s mind.10. Social or stylistic meaning 社会意义Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.11. Affective meaning 情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudesof the speaker or writer.12. Componential analysis 语义成分分析The conceptual meaning or denotative meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such ananalysis is called componential analysis.1. Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy happens when more than one meaning is attached to a word.2. Radiation 词义辐射Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every directionlike rays.3. Concatenation 语义的连锁、联结Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and theprimary meaning.4. Homonymy 同音异义、同形异义Homonymy is the relation between pairs or groups of word which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike or both.5. Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形异义词Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.6. Homophones 同音异义词Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.7. Homographs 同形异义词Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.8. Phonetic convergence 音变的汇合Phonetic convergence is the kind of phenomenon where two or more wordswhich once were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation.9. Semantic Divergence 词义分化When two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them, the word has undergone the process of semantic divergence.1. Synonyms 同义词A synonym may be defined as a word having the same meaning as anotherword: as one of two or more words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use.2. Complete synonyms 完全同义词Two words are totally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaningand interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.3. Relative synonyms 相对同义词Relative synonyms are words that are not fully identical but may differ in shades of meaning, in emotional colouring, in level of formality, in collocation, and in distribution.4. Antonymy 反义关系In its general sense, antonymy refers to all types of semantic oppositeness.5. Contraries/gradable antonyms 相对性反义词Contraries or contrary terms display such a type of semantic contrast that theycan be handled in terms of gradability, that is, in terms of degrees of the quality involved.6. Complementaries/contradictory terms 互补性反义词Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition sothat the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other.7. Conversives/converses/relational opposites 换位性反义词Conversives represent such a type of binary semantic opposition that there is an interdependence of meaning, or say, one member of the pair presupposes the other.8. Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.9. Superordinates 上义词The general term in a hyponymy pair is called a superordinate linguistically.10. Hyponyms 下义词The specific term in a hyponymy pair is called the hyponym or subordinate.11. Semantic field 语义场Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field arejoinedtogether by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.1. Context 语境Context in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that come immediately before andafter any wordin an act of communication. But, in broadersense, it may cover the whole passage and sometimes the whole book in which a word occurs, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.2. Linguistic context 语言语境Linguistic context is lexical, grammatical and verbal context in its broad sense.3. Extra-linguistic context 语言之外的环境Extra-linguistic context refers not only tothe actual speech situation in whichawordis usedbut alsotothe entire cultural backgroundagainst which a word, or anutterance or a speech event is set.4. Lexical context 词汇语境Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemousword.5. Grammatical context 语法语境In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word.6. Verbal context 言语语境The verbal context, in its broadest sense, may cover an entire passage, or evenan entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.7. Ambiguity 歧义Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or groupof sentences with morethan one possible interpretation or meaning.8. Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义Lexical ambiguity is caused by polysemy.9. Structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or aphrase.1. Change of word meaning 语义变化When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning. Broadly speaking, change of meaningrefers tothe alteration of the meaningof existingwords as wellas the addition of new meaning to establish words.2. Restriction of meaning 语义专门化Restriction of meaningor specialization of meaningmeans that a wordof widemeaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.3. Extension of meaning 词义扩展化Extension of meaning or generalization means the widening of a word ’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.4. Degeneration of meaning 词义降格There are two main forms of degeneration or pejoration.One refers to the process where words once respectable or neutral may shift toa less respectable, oreven derogatory meaning. The other refers to the weakeningof meaningresultingfrom habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.5. Elevation of meaning 词义升格It refers to the process that the meaning of a word goes uphill.6. Metaphor 暗喻Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing is applied to another.7. Metonymy 转喻It is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.1. Idiom 习语An English idiomis a groupof words with a special meaningdifferent fromthe meanings of its constituent words. It is a combination of two or more words whichare usually structurally fixedandsemantically opaque, andfunction as a single unitof meaning.2. Phrase idioms 惯用短语All phrase idioms have a noun, verb, adjective, preposition or an adverbas thecentral word and correspond to the familiar parts of speech, and are capable of a given syntactic function.3. Clause idioms 从句成语Clause idioms or subject-less clause patterns contain objects and / or complements.4. Sentence idioms 句子成语The two major types of sentence idioms are proverbs or sayings and typical conversational expressions.5. Proverbs 谚语Proverbs are sentences accepted by the people and handed down to the present day because they express some obvious truth or familiar experience in aconcise and witty style.。
英语综合教程2 Unit1 TaxtA翻译
Para 3
As humans, we learn some of the ways of our culture by being taught by our teachers or parents. We learn more of the ways of our culture by growing up in it. We see how other people in our culture do things, and we do them the same way. We even learn how to think and feel in this way.
Para 6
Ideas of what is beautiful differ from one culture to another. The Flathead Indians of North America used to bind the heads of babies between boards so they would have long sloping foreheads. In the Flathead culture, long sloping foreheads were beautiful. Other cultures might think that they are strange-looking and unattractive. Many people cut scars into their bodies or tattoo themselves so that others in their culture will think they are beautiful. Objects are inserted in holes in the nose, lips, and ears in a number of different cultures. In many twentieth-century societies, rouge, lipstick, eye shadow, perfume, and hair spray are all used to increase attractiveness.
名词解释27783
名词解释词=The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.词根=The basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word.词缀=Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.一词多义=Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.同形异义=Homonyms are different words with the same form (spelling or pronunciation)完全同形异义=Perfect homonyms are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning.同音异形异义=Homophones are different words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.同形异音异义=Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound or meaning.同义关系=Synonymy is a relationship of “sameness of meaning”that may hold between two words.反义关系=Antonymy is a relationship of “meaning opposition”that may hold between two words.上下义关系=Hyponymy is the sense relationship that relates words hierarchically. The underlying observation is that some words have a more general meaning, while others have a more specific meaning, while referring to the same entity.问答题1. (1)What does onomatopoetic motivation mean?(2)What does semantic motivation mean?(3)Dose it contradict the statement that there is no natural connection between sound and meaning?Answer:(1)Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound.(2)Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors.(3)Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages –(for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.)2. How many kinds of meaning are there in English?Answer: There are 8 kinds of meaning in English, including grammatical meaning, lexical meaning, denotative meaning, associative meaning, connotative meaning, social (stylistic) meaning, affective meaning, collocative meaning.3. (1)What is context? (2)What role dose context play in linguistic communication? （以下答案摘自网络，回答稍冗长，请适当精简）Answer:(1)Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. And there is linguistic context, refers to the words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which a word appears. And extra-linguistic context, which refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word appears. There also is lexical context: the lexemes that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is affected or determined by the neighboring lexemes.(2)Context can function as followed: eliminating ambiguity; conveying emotional overtones; indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word.5. (1)What are the major types of synonymy?(2)(3)Explain those types with examples.Answer:(1)In general, English synonyms can be divided into two types: complete synon yms and relative synonyms.(2)Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change i n meaning. For example: （例子自己找）(3)Relative synonyms refers to which denote different shades of meaning or diff erent degrees of a given quality. This kinds of synonyms are the same in some de gree such as （例子自己找）6. (1)What are the major types of antonymy?(2)(3)(4)(5)Explain those types with examples.Answer:(1)There are four types of antonymy, including complementaries, gradable anton yms, relational opposites and semantic incompatibles(2)Complementaries refer to pairs of words that represent an either/or relation. （例子找书去）(3) Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable.(4) The substitution of one member for the other does not change the meaning of a sentence if it is accompanied by the change of subject and object.(5) The words in a group of semantic incompatibles are in contrast to the other members of the group, showing a contrastingness relationship between word and word （例子找书去）7. What are the possible causes of language change?Answer:The possible causes of language change are as followed: (1) Various social ca uses (including the change of social evolution, social environment, social level, nati onal sentiment, racial sentiment, gender differences, social values and gobbledygoo k).The evolution of the language (including loanword, analogy and the simplifying of words)Supplementary Exercises for ME. Lexicology 1Part I Multiple choices.1. The definition of a word includes ___________.A. a minimal free form that can function aloneB. a unit of meaningC. a sound unityD. all of the above2. A word is _______ of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A. a minimal free formB. a smallest meaningful unitC. an element which can not be further analyzedD. a grammatically minimal form3. The Indo-European language family consist of________.A. all the languages in Europe and IndiaB. all the languages in India and some languages in Europe.C. most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.D. Some of the languages of Europe and all the languages of the Near East4. The symbolic connection of a word to a particular thing is almost always ______.A. logicalB. arbitraryC. inherentD. automatic5. The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be ______.A. A highly inflected language.B. A highly developed language.C. A very difficult language.D. A language of leveled endings.6. More than one variant, which can realize some morphemes according to the position in a word, are termed .A. phonemesB. allomorphsC. morphsD. phones7. Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as .A. morphemesB. derivational morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. suffixes8. is defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming orderivational affixes to stem. This process is also known as .A. derivation, affixationB. affixation, derivationC. derivative, affixationD. affixation, derivative9. Sometimes, the meaning of a compound can be inferred from its separateelements, for example, .A. hot dogB. red meatC. flower potD. fat head10. is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and soon while belongs to language, so is restricted to language use.A. meaning, conceptB. concept, meaningC. sense, referenceD. reference, sense11. When readers come across the word ―home‖in reading, they may be reminded oftheir family, friends, warmth, safety, love. That is because of the ―home‖has_______.A. collocationsB. connotationsC. denotationsD. perorations12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Which group of the following are perfect homonyms?A. dear (a loved person)—deer (a kind of animal)B. bow (bending the head as a greeting)—bow(the device used for shooting)C. bank (the edge of the river)—bank (an establishment for money business)D. right (correct)—write (put down on paper with a pen)14. The part of a piece of writing or speech which surrounds a word and helps to explain its meaning is called _______.A. Linguistic contextB. Grammatical contextC. Extra-linguistic contextD. Para-linguistic context15. means through all difficulties and troubles.A. through high and lowB. through thick and thinC .from head to foot D. from start to finishPart II True or false questions.1. A rule of word-formation is usually identical with a syntactic rule.2. Word-formation rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certainextent.3. Affixes like ―-th‖are very productive in current English.4. The chief function of prefixes is to change the word class of the stems.5. The primary function of suffixes is to change the meaning of the stem.6. Compounds are words formed by combining affixes and stems.7. ―-age, -al, -ance, -ation, -ence‖in ―linkage, dismissal, attendance, protection,existence‖can produce largely concrete nouns by being added to verb stems.8. The meaning of a compound is usually the combination of stems.9. The free phrase has the primary stress on the first element and the secondarystress, if any, on the second.10. In both compounds and free phrases the adjective element can take inflectionalsuffixes.11. Conversion is only a change of grammatical function of a lexical item with noloss of its different range of meaning originally conveyed.12. A fully converted noun from an adjective has all the features of nouns excepttaking an indefinite article or, -(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.13. Generally, conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions can‘t be converted tonouns.14. Although blends and backformed words have already achieved popularity inEnglish, they are not advisable to be used frequently in formal writing.15. Quite a number of derivational affixes have more than one meaning.16. Simple words in English are usually non-motivated.17. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words.18. Componential analysis has no disadvantages.19. Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieving humor orirony, or to heighten dramatic effect.20. In most cases, the native term is more literary than the foreign one.Part III Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1. Morphemes are abstract______ units, which are realized in speech by discreteunits known as morph_______. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme _____ is to a phone. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. 2(2)Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs___________.2. A word is a minimal free_______ form of a language that has a given sound andmeaning and syntactic function.3. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called_empty_____ words.4. According to semantics, a word is a unit of meaning.5. Bound morphemes include boundroots and affixes6. The most productive means of word formation are compoundingonversion7. Only when a connection has been, established between the linguistic sign and areferent8. Most morphemes are realized by single words like "bird, tree, green", etc, Words9. With Norse invasion____, many Scandinavian words came into the Engli10. A ntonyms are classified on the basis of semantic oppositionPart IV Explain the follo wing terms with proper examples.1. Explain with examples morpheme, morph and allomorph2. Semantic fieldPart V Answer the following questions.1. What is collocative meaning? Give at least one example to illustrate your poi nt.2. Study the following sentence, paying special attention to the words in italics. Ifyou find anything wrong, please explain why and then improve the sentence.The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.3. Analyzes the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.unbearable, international, ex-prisonerAnswers for Exercise 1Part I Multiple choices.1-5 DACBA 6-10 BCBCB 11-15 BBCABPart II True or false questions.1.F2.T3.F4.F5.F6.F7.F8.F9.F 10.F 11.F 12.F 13.F 14.T15.T 16. T 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. FPart III Fill in the blanks.1. abstract, morph, phoneme, allomorphs2. free3. empty4. meaning5. bound, affixes6. affixation, compounding, conversion7. referent8. monomor phemic9. Norse invasion 10. semantic oppositionPart IV Explain the following terms1. In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit t hat has semantic meaning. A morpheme is free if it can stand alone, or bound if it is used exclusively alongside a free morpheme.Morphs are the actual phonetic representations of the same morpheme.An allomorph is a variant form of the same morpheme, and all the morphs of t he same morpheme are grouped as being the allomorphs of a morpheme. The con cept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without cha ngingmeaning.English example:The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes: "un-", a bound morpheme; "brea k", a free morpheme; and "-able", a bound morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-able " is a suffix. Both "un-" and "-able" are affixes.The morpheme plural-s has the morph "-s", /s/, in cats (/kæts/), but "-es", /ɨz/, in dishes (/dɪʃɨz/), and even the voiced "-s", /z/, in dogs (/dɒgz/). "-s". These are allo morphs of the same morpheme plural -s.2. The concept is from the concept of ―field‖in physics, referring to the cluster ing of a number of semantically related words. A semantic field is a set of lexeme s in a named conceptual area that interrelate and define each other in specific ways. A general description is that words in a semantic field are not synonymous, but are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon. For example, the sema ntic field of ―bugs‖may include bees, spiders, moths, wasps, flies etc. According t o semantic field theory a meaning of a word is dependent partly on its relation to other words in the same conceptual area. The kinds of semantic fields vary from c ulture to culture.Part V Answer the following questions.1. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its colloc ation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by words befor e or after the word in discussion. For example, 'pretty' and 'handsome' share the c onceptual meaning of 'good looking', but are distinguished by the range of nouns t hey collocate with: pretty handsome.2. The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.（1）it is ambiguous（2）ambiguity caused by the structure（3）stop drinking can be understood as1）police stop drinking by themselves2）police stop people drinking（4）improvement1）The police were ordered to stop people drinking about midnight.2）The police were ordered to stop drinking by themselves about midnight.3. Morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. The mor phological analysis of the three words are as follows:1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes unbearable (un+bear+ able), international (inter+nation+al), ex-prisoner(er+prison+er).2) Of the nine morphemes, only bear, nation and prison are free morphemes a s they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest un-,-able, inter-,-al, ex-and-er are bound as none of them can st and alone as words.Supplementary Exercises for ME. Lexicology 2Part I Multiple choices.1. From the phrase ―a white paper‖, we know that the meaning of the word ―paper‖here is ―document‖. This shows that the _______ context can define the meani ng of a word.Welcome To Download !!!欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
英语词汇学_Unit_04_Word_meaning
They show a close relation of sound and meaning. Many onomatopoeic words imitate natural sounds.
Onomatopoeic words
woof
Quack
hiss
miaow
More Onomatopoeic words
Ogden & Richards
3．刺激 (stimuli) — 词语 (words) — 反应 (responses)
Bloomfield 布龙菲尔德
Semantic triangle
Semantic triangle (Ogden & Richards)
The motivation of words 词Байду номын сангаас理据
Morphologic motivation 形态
Morphologic motivation means that the meaning of some words can be inferred from the meaning of the affixes, roots, or other parts of the words.
Metonymy (借代) Synecdoche (提喻)
Metonymy (借代)
1) use a person‟s name to refer to the things related
He read Shakespeare.
The kettle is boiling
2) use a container to refer to what is inside
英文编辑考试题目及答案
英文编辑考试题目及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The correct spelling of the word "definitely" is:A. definatelyB. definetlyC. definitelyD. defently答案：C2. Which of the following is the correct use of the semicolon?A. I need to buy eggs; milk; bread.B. I need to buy eggs, milk, bread.C. I need to buy eggs; milk, bread.D. I need to buy eggs, milk; bread.答案：C3. The phrase "irregardless" is:A. CorrectB. IncorrectC. Rarely usedD. Informal答案：B4. Which of the following sentences is grammatically correct?A. She is one of the most talented singers who sings in thechoir.B. She is one of the most talented singers who sing in the choir.C. She is one of the most talented singers who sang in the choir.D. She is one of the most talented singers who sings in the choir.答案：B5. The word "affect" is used as:A. A nounB. A verbC. An adjectiveD. An adverb答案：B6. Which of the following is the correct form of the past tense for "to lead"?A. leadedB. ledC. leededD. ledd答案：B7. The correct use of the word "fewer" is in the sentence:A. There are fewer people in the meeting room today.B. There are less people in the meeting room today.C. There are fewer people in the meeting room today.D. There are less people in the meeting room today.答案：A8. The word "compliment" is:A. A nounB. A verbC. An adjectiveD. An adverb答案：A9. Which of the following is the correct use of the word "literally"?A. I literally jumped out of my seat when I heard the news.B. I was literally shocked when I heard the news.C. I could literally see the excitement in his eyes.D. I was literally speechless when I heard the news.答案：A10. The correct use of the word "your" is in the sentence:A. You should take your coat off.B. You should take you coat off.C. You should take your's coat off.D. You should take your coat of.答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. The word "____" should be used to describe a person who isvery careful with money.A. frugalB. extravagantC. carelessD. indifferent答案：A2. The correct spelling of the word meaning "to make something more attractive" is "____".A. embellishB. embelishC. embelishD. embellish答案：A3. The word "____" is used to describe a situation where two things are very different.A. analogousB. antonymousC. synonymousD. heterogeneous答案：D4. The word "____" is used to describe a person who is very talkative and likes to gossip.A. loquaciousB. reticentC. taciturnD. verbose答案：A5. The correct spelling of the word meaning "to make something more complex" is "____".A. complicateB. comlicateC. complacateD. complicate答案：A6. The word "____" is used to describe a person who is very careful and precise in their work.A. meticulousB. carelessC. slipshodD. haphazard答案：A7. The word "____" is used to describe a situation where something is done in a very careful and controlled way.A. cautiouslyB. recklesslyC. hastilyD. thoughtlessly答案：A8. The correct spelling of the word meaning "to make something more clear or understandable" is "____".A. elucidateB. eludicateC. elucidateD. eludicate答案：A9. The word "____" is used to describe a person who is very quiet and does not speak much.A. loquaciousB. reticentC. verboseD. taciturn答案：B10. The word "____" is used to describe a situation where something is done in a very hurried and careless way.A. cautiouslyB. recklesslyC. hastilyD. meticulously答案：C。
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My definition of the word “Family”
Name: Ryan Student Number: 100111129 A family is usually a group of people who are related to each other, especially parents and their children. When people talk about a family, they sometimes mean children, and sometimes mean their ancestors. Also, you can use family to describe things that are designed to be used or enjoyed by both parents and children. Whatever the real meaning is, nowadays, when people talk about the word, they can always produce a good imagination：the house brushed into ivory-white, happy and loving parents, naughty and lovely children and a obedient dog. Perhaps this scene is the most appropriate way to define the word “family”.
However, for me, the definition of the “family” is different. L et us take the word apart, take out each letter, and you will find out that the word can be a very interesting one. “F” can be regarded as father. He will always be a straight and tall image of the family. No matter what the difficulties are, he always uses his strong body to protect his own family and create a safe, comfortable environment for them. “M” stands for mother. Like all mothers, her tiredness let her body is no longer upright, but the body contains infinite tolerance and warmth. She is the core to maintain the regularity of the entire family. Just like the letter “M”, her position can’t be replaced. “i” represent myself. As a child, I always hide
behind father and mother. Enjoying the warmth and happiness they bring to me. However, I firmly believe that one day I will grow into an uppercase “I”, with my hands stretched to prop up the entire family. “L” stands for love. Love is an indispensable part of a family. Love unites the family together. With love, the whole family will become more harmonious. With the love, the family can stayed happily with each other.
Now look at this word again, “Father and Mother I Love You”. Isn’t it the most appropriate expression to the meaning of the word “Family”? This is the simplest definition of a family in emotionality. For me, away from home, no matter how far, as long as there is yearn accompanies around, I will always feel the love come from my family, and I will say “Father and Mother I Love You”. This is how I define the word “family”.。