语言学基本概念复习要点(1)
语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点语言学概论复习提要一、语言学的对象和任务1.语言学的对象和任务（1）研究对象：语言。
（2）主要任务：研究语言的本质、结构和规律，使对语言的认识上升到理性阶段。
2.语言学简史（1）语文学阶段。
语言学三大发源地：古代中国、古代印度和古代希腊。
公元前4世纪，印度学者波尼尼的《梵语语法》或称《波尼尼语法》。
古希腊学者亚里士塔尔库斯的《希腊语法》。
早在公元前4世纪，被中国古代人们尊崇为十三经之一的《尔雅》就已初具规模，它是世界上第一部物类与义类的词典，比西方早了两千多年。
到东汉时期又出现了世界第一部字典《说文解字》，比西方的字典早了一千五、六百年。
古代中国的语文学通称小学，包括文字学、训诂学和音韵学，是中国古代语言学研究成就的集中体现。
语文学与现代语言学的区别：第一，从研究对象看，古代语言学只重视书面语言，把古代书面语作为语言的研究对象，而对当时社会普遍使用的口语不予重视。
第二，从研究任务看，古代语言学并不把描写语言的规律作为主要任务，只重视为流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解，目的是为了让人们能够读通、读懂古代的经典。
换言之，它还没有发展成为一门独立的学科，而只是经学的附庸。
（2）历史比较语言学阶段。
19世纪初，西方语言学者开始运用历史比较法研究语言本身，产生了历史比较语言学。
在初创阶段，英国的威廉·琼斯最先发现希腊语和拉丁语、梵语有惊人的相似处，于是大胆地提出了“印欧语假设”，成为历史比较语言学的先驱。
德国的施列格尔也看到梵语和欧洲许多语言有着不可否认的共同点，第一个提出“比较语法”，是历史比较语言学的草创者。
历史比较语言学摆脱了过去从属经学的附庸地位，标志着语言学已经成为一门真正独立的学科。
历史比较语言学由于涉及多种语言，这为普通语言学的创立奠定了基础。
19世纪中叶，从理论上研究人类语言一般规律的普通语言学诞生。
奠基人是德国的洪堡特和瑞士的索绪尔。
洪堡特被公认为普通语言学的第一个奠基者，他的许多语言学观点被后代学者不断继承和发展。
《英语语言学》复习重点(1)
《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习重点一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，重点研究语音的产生、结构、运动和感知等方面。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.国际音标的掌握，包括元音、辅音和音节等。
2.发音器官的构造和功能，比如舌头、喉头、声带等的作用。
3.音位与音素的区别，音位是语言中的最小语音单位，音素是语音的实际表现。
4.音变规律，比如浊音化、清音化、辅音的鼻化等。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和规则的学科，包括句法学、词法学等分支。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.语法的基本概念，包括句子、短语、词类等。
2.句法分析的方法，包括基于短语结构的上下位关系分析和基于依存关系的句法分析。
3.句子成分的分类与功能，包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语等。
4.语法关系的表示，包括句法树和依存关系图等。
三、语义学语义学是研究词义和意义的学科，包括词义学、语用学等分支。
在复习时，需要关注以下内容：1.语义的基本概念，包括词义、句义、语篇意义等。
2.词义的分类，包括编码词义和概念词义等。
3.语义关系的表示，包括隐性关系和显性关系等。
4.语义义原的掌握，比如用来描述词义的最小单位，可以用来解释多义、歧义、同义等现象。
四、语用学语用学是研究语言在特定情境中的使用和理解的学科，包括语用规则、言语行为等方面。
1.言语行为的分类，包括表示、指示、陈述、询问等。
2.言语行为的成分，包括言辞、语境、意图等。
3.语用规则的掌握，比如礼貌原则、言外之意等。
4.言语行为的实现方式，包括直接言语行为和间接言语行为等。
以上仅为语言学概论期末复习的一些重点内容，学生可以结合教材和课堂笔记进行更深入的学习和理解。
此外，复习时可以参考相关的案例和实例，加深对语言学原理的理解和应用。
语言学复习重点第一章
语言学复习重点第一章第1章语言和语言学(本章主要讨论什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及什么是语言学，语言学研究的范围是什么)1.1语言的本质——什么是语言？单句小结，语言是一种用于人类交流的任意发声符号系统。
人类特有的，用于交流)语言是系统的(强调:语言的双重性)解释:语言是系统化的。
二元性:每种语言被组织成两个基本系统:一个声音系统和一个手段系统。
语言是象征性的(强调:图标，索引，这是我第一次能够做到这一点。
但是没有办法，PPT这么说，我认为符号的理解应该是人们用符号来交流。
这是因为:，现代语言学之父，索绪尔:指南是符号学的一个分支。
语言作为人类交流的特殊手段)语言学家感到厌烦，决定对这些混乱的符号进行分类。
所以有:图标索引符号3。
语言是任意的解释:手段和声音之间没有自然的联系。
词和宾语，词的形式和意义。
索绪尔也提出，意义和意义之间没有自然的联系。
但是，换句话说，发明这个词的人可以随意发明它，而你不能随意使用它。
简而言之，你不能把桌子叫做猪。
4 .语言主要是有声的(语言是从一开始说的)有五个理由可以这样说:①儿童在学会阅读和写作之前学会说话(2)儿童在成长过程中自己学习语言(3)在人类历史上，有先说后写(4)写作是以语言为基础的(5)人们说得多写得少(5)。
语言是人类特有的(语言是人类独有的)解释:因为，人类语言具有以下特征:(1)置换199 (2)生产力或创造力:人类有能力生产和理解。
③文化传播:学习作为人类语言的一个因素比动物交流更重要。
4结构复杂性语言的结构复杂无界动物交流系统是封闭的。
当他还是个孩子的时候，他不知道该做什么。
语言不仅是一种心理现象，也是一种社会事实。
语言功能分为两类，一类是通用功能，一类是元功能，元功能(注:通用功能是专用的，特殊应用；元函数涵盖更广泛的更抽象的函数) 1。
一般功能:指个人对语言的具体使用英寸列出了7种一般功能:①生理/表达/情绪功能心理学\ \表达\ \情绪功能:这种功能没有交际目的。
胡壮麟语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点一．定义1 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 define featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.3 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history and focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.4 Langue & paroleLangue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole is particular realizations of langue5 Competence and performanceAn ideal language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules in his language is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.6 descriptive and prescriptive7 phonetic transcriptionA phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.8 phonemePhoneme is a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.9 allophones[p, ph] are two different phones (音子) and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. (Phonetic similarity, complementary distribution)10 assimilationassimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundassimilation refers to the phonological process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts11 distinctive featuresdistinctive features are those phonologically relevant properties, that is, the features which can distinguish meaning, for example, voicing, place and manner of articulation are all principal distinctive features of consonants.12 morphemesthe smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.(Free vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.; Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Root vs. affix morphemes: a root morpheme can be a bound one or a free one. An affix morpheme can be a inflectional one or a derivational one.Inflectional vs. Derivative morphemes:Inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item. Derivative morpheme provides lexical information to the existing lexical item）Root: A “root”is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Affix: “affix”is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are naturally bound and they are limited in number in a language.Stem(词干): A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in a word.Base(词基）: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; any root or stem can be termed a base13 positional relationPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. syntagmatic, horizontal or chain relations.14 Relation of SubstitutabilityThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.15Construction and ConstituentConstruction：the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between them.(Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group)A constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.IC analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups or phrases, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.16 categoryThe term category refers to the defining properties of the general units of different word classes as well as their syntactic functions17 agreementAgreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship should agree with one another in terms of some categories二．简答1 Design Features of Language:Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement2 Functions of language❖referential (to convey message and information),❖poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),❖emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),❖conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),❖phatic (to establish communion with others)❖metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).-----JocobsonMetafunctions of Language❖ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.4 Functional Grammar⏹Theoretical approach to the description and explanation of linguistic phenomena based ontheir various functions.⏹basic assumption: linguistic phenomena cannot be explained without examining theirfunctionIt offers an alternative to (post) structuralism attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally(i.e. assuming the autonomy of syntax)5 5.1 The Prague School⏹Prague Linguistic Circle:⏹Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson(1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).⏹The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics andsemiotics in the 1930's.⏹Three important points:⏹Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.⏹L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated inisolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with thecoexisting elements in the same language system.⏹L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions ortasks for the community using it.5.1.1 Prague School Phonology⏹N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).⏹Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & langue.⏹Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.⏹Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.⏹Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of thephoneme.Trubetzkoy’s contributions⏹Defined the sphere of phonological studies.⏹Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.⏹Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.5.1.2 Functional Sentence Perspective⏹FSP is a theory about analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.⏹Principle: the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to thewhole.5.1.3 Communicative dynamism⏹J. Firbas⏹Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.⏹CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD isthe effect contributed by a linguistic element. For example,5.2 The London School⏹ B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).⏹J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).⏹M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.⏹All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of L.5.2.1 Malinowski’s theories⏹Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”.⏹The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which itoccurs.⏹Three types of situational context:⏹situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;⏹narrative situations;⏹situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communion.5.2.2 Firth’s theoriesa.语言观Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life.⏹L is a means of participation in social activities.⏹L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting andliving.⏹L is both inborn and acquired.⏹The object of linguistic study is L in use.⏹The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establishcorresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.⏹The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, explain theirrelations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between theseelements and human activities in the environment of language use.b. 意义观Meaning is use. five parts of its analysis:⏹the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;⏹the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;⏹the morphological relations of each word;⏹the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;⏹the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.In sum, he emphasizes three kinds of meaning: collocational meaning, referential meaning, and contextual meaningc. 语境观contextual analysis: situational context and linguistic context⏹Internal relations of the text:⏹syntagmatic relations in structure⏹paradigmatic relations in system⏹Internal relations of the context of situation:⏹relations between text and non-linguistic elements⏹analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the situationd. Prosodic analysis (韵律分析): prosodic phonology⏹Since any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptionsare insufficient.⏹It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, thefeatures of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.⏹prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, andaspiration.⏹prosodic analysis is advantageous in categorising data and revealing the relations betweenthem compared with phonemic analysis一．论述1 TG grammarA brief introduction to generative grammar⏹Generative grammar: a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assignsstructural descriptions to sentences. It aims to reveal the unity of particular grammars anduniversal grammars as well as human cognitive systems. To achieve this goal, a grammarshould achieve observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy.⏹Different from Bloomfield’s data-oriented discovery procedure, he insists on theHypothesis-deduction method.Five stages of development⏹The Classical Theory⏹The Standard Theory⏹The Extended Standard Theory⏹The Revised Extended Standard Theory⏹The Minimalist Program4.1 Early theories (1957)4.1.1 Innateness hypothesis: the starting point of TG grammarLanguage is somewhat innate, and children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.Children are endowed with a universal knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories and study of language can shed light on the nature of the human mind.LAD consists of three parts: hypothesis maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure.⏹Evidences: children learn mother tongue very fast and with little effort; similar stagesexperienced by them (babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-wordutterance, developing grammar, near-adult grammar, and full competence); learn the totalgrammar during limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.⏹target: to reveal linguistic universals4.2 The classical theorySyntactic Structures (1957)⏹Three features: emphasis on generative ability of language, introduction of transformationalrules and grammatical description regardless of meaning.⏹finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar.4.2.1 Phrase structure grammar⏹ A system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules are:generative, simple (represented by symbols and formulae), explicit (to state everythingprecisely), exhaustive (to cover all linguistic fact) and recursive (can be repeatedly applied to generate an infinite number of sentences)⏹more generative, stronger powerPhrase structural rules are also called rewritten rules, and the generative process of a sentence is that of rewriting one symbol into another.(NP(Det(the)N(man)) VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))4.2.2 Transformational grammar⏹Linguistic competence : phrase structure grammar that consists rules governing idealizedsentence formation, and transformational grammar that enables us to manipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types.⏹Every sentence has a surface structure (a post-transformational stage) and a deep structure (apre-transformational stage)Deep structure and surface structure⏹Deep structure: the abstract structure and the propositional core. The underlying structure thatspecifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements as well as themeaning of constituents.⏹Surface structure: the actually produced structure and the directly observable actual form. Anabstract sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. Transformation⏹the relationship between deep structure and surface structure.⏹responsible for the generation of many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrasestructure rules, and thus contribute to the open-endedness and creativity of languages.⏹structural analysis (SA) and structural change (SC)⏹SA shows which relevant structural properties phrase markers must have for thetransformations to apply and specifies the input. (structural description SD)⏹SC describes the effect of the transformation and specifies what the output structure will be.⏹Transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Substitution andpermutation are derived from them.4.3 The standard theory (1965)⏹Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)⏹three components: syntactic (base component including categories and lexicon, andtransformational components), semantic (makes semantic interpretations on the deepstructure), phonological (phonological interpretation on the surface structure).⏹Category component is somewhat similar to the re-writing rules, but with featurespecifications for the words.⏹N ◊ [+N, ±Common]⏹[+Common] ◊ [±Count]⏹[+Count] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[-Common] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[+Animate] ◊ [±Human]⏹[-Count] ◊ [±Abstract]⏹verbs are subcategoriezed according to the context they occur in. eat [+V,+--NP, +--#]⏹words with the same feature specifications are in a paradigmatic relation and can occur in thesame specific context. Sincerity may frighten the boy.⏹transformations can’t alter the meaning⏹selection restriction⏹restrictions on transformations⏹the symbol S is introduced, which means that a sentence can be embedded⏹order of the rules4.4 The Extended Standard Theory⏹the first revision of the Standard Theory (the EST): the principle that the transformation rulecan’t change meaning cannot be held with the passive transformation. E.g. I have been taught physics by Einstein. Surface structure also has some bearing on semantic interpretation.⏹The second revision (the REST): all the necessary information for semantic interpretation canbe captured by the surface structure with the help of the notion trace.Beavers built damsDams are built t by beavers4.5 the Theory of Government and Binding⏹In 1981, Lectures on Government and Binding⏹ A Rule system with four components: lexicon, syntax (categorical component andtransformational component), phonetic form and logical form. The transformationalcomponent has one rule: move α: any element may be moved to another place, or moregenerally changed in some way, as long as the relevant conditions are satisfied.⏹ A principle system which specifies these conditions: bound theory, θtheory, bindingtheory, government theory, case theory and control theory, among which we only focus ongovernment and binding theory here.The minimalist program:⏹ a universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states and particular grammars studythe states of acquisition.Particular language exposureUniversal Grammar Particular Grammar4.5 Main features of TG Grammar⏹The development of TG reflects a process of constantly minimalising theories and controllingthe generative powers.⏹rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization,emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers, emphasis on linguisticuniversals.Systemic-functional grammar⏹Two components and inseparable parts:⏹systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a system network, meaning potential.⏹functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of languageform.5.2.3.1Systemic grammar⏹System: a set of mutually exclusive options that can appear in a linguistic structure.⏹characteristics (entry conditions): options have a common area of meaning and grammaticalenvironment; mutually exclusive; finite; interdependent relationships between terms ofdifferent systems.⏹Delicacy is a scale on which we can arrange systems according to the fineness of thedistinction.⏹ A system is simultaneous with another if they are independent of each other but have the sameentry conditions. Their terms can combine freely to enable us to make more delicatedistinctions in meaning.⏹SG: a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specificationof the relationships between choices.⏹realization relationships between various levels: semantics (meaning)lexicogrammar (form)phonology(substance)⏹features of SG:a. emphasizes the sociological aspectsb. L is a form of doing rather than knowingc. distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behaviord. emphasizes particular languagee. explains L in terms of clines (continuum)f. empirical: observation from texts and by means of statistical techniquesg. The category of the system is the core.5.2.3.2 Functional grammar⏹Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a contentunknown to the hearer⏹Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations⏹Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent andunified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Ideational functionExperiential function: six processes of transitivity⏹ A process, in principle, mainly consists of three components:(1)the process itself(2)participants in the process;(3)circumstances associated with the process.⏹L can express experiential function by building a mental picture of reality to interpret or makesense of what goes on around us or inside us..a Material process: process of doing⏹Actor—the one who does something⏹Goal—the one who receives the action⏹Dispositive type: the lion caught the tourist.⏹Creative type: they wrote a letter.Transitivity analysis of John built a house.Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new houseb.Mental process: process of sensing⏹The human conscious participant is called the Senser and the other one called Phenomenon.The three sub-processes of the mental process: feeling, perceiving and thinking are labeled in more general terms: 1. PERCEPTION (seeing, hearing, smelling), 2. AFFECTION (liking,fearing, etc. ) and 3. COGNITION (thinking, knowing, understanding).⏹John likes the house.Senser :JohnProcess: mental: affection: likesPhenomenon: the housec. Relational process: process of being⏹two parts are related in a certain way, indicated by verbs like be, become, turn, etc.d. Behavioral Processes⏹processes of physiological and psychological behaviors, like smiling, breathing, coughing, etc.⏹The participant: one participant called Behaver, typically a conscious beinge. Verbal process: a process of saying⏹Apart from the Sayer, there are other three participants in a verbal process: (1) RECEIVER,(2)VERBIAGE, (3) TARGET. The first two are oblique participants, that is, they are in theoblique case (间接格).⏹The RECEIVER is the participant to which the saying is directed.He didn’t tell me the truth.f. Existential Process⏹It represents that something exists or happens. The thing that exists is labeled Existent Interpersonal function⏹embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.⏹realized by mood and modality.Mood⏹the role selected by the speaker in the speech situation an that he assigns to the addressee. Two speech roles: giving and demanding.Contents of giving/demanding: goods-services/information⏹In sum, we have four moods: offer, command, statement and question P.314⏹Mood includes two parts: subject and finite.⏹Subject : N, NP or clause⏹Finite elements: Aux and M to express tense or modality, one part of VP.⏹ResidueTextual function⏹to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text rather thana random list of sentences.⏹related to the theme-rheme structure⏹two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguisticstheory.⏹SG aims to explain the internal relations in L as a system of meaning potential. FG functionsto reveal that L is a means of interaction. SG has a functional component, and the theorybehind his FG is systemic.⏹innovation: relate his FG to its structure. The three metafunctions are related respectively tothree systems: transitivity, mood and theme.A brief summary: formalism vs. functionalism⏹Formalism: Structural grammar & TG grammar which pays more attention to structures.⏹Functionalism: functional grammar which emphasizes systems and relates them to functionsplayed by L.Semantics1 The conceptualist (referential) theory●The conceptualist theory treats meaning as concept or reference to cope with problems of thenaming theory.●any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.2 Types of meaningLeech’s seven types of meaningGeoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning.●Conceptual meaning●Associative●Connotative meaning●Social meaning●Affective meaning●Reflected and meaning●Collocative meaning●Thematic meaning3 marked and unmarkedUnmarked forms: more usual, easy to learn, broader in meaning, non-metaphoricalMarked forms: less frequently used.4 Antonymya: gradable antonymy (semantic polarity and semantic relativity; continuum; markedness)good ----------------------- bad●Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can beasked with how.●graded against different norms●one member of a pair, usually the one for the higher degree, serves as the cover term orunmarked term. E.g. How long…, lengthb: Complementary antonymy. These antonyms divide a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and there is no intermediate ground between the two. A yes or no question, not a choice between more or less.●alive : dead male : femaleFeatures: no comparative or superlative degrees. absolute norm, no cover termc: converse antonymy （关系反义词）: the two members of the pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities in reciprocal social roles. X presuppose Y.buy : sell lend : borrow husband : wife smaller: bigger反义词有不稳定性，针对具体语义特征而言。
语言学基础知识点
语言学基础知识点语言学是对人类语言的系统性研究，涉及语言的结构、使用和习得等方面。
它是一门复杂而精密的学科，需要掌握一系列基础知识点。
本文将介绍语言学的基础知识点，包括语言分类、语音学、语法学和语义学等内容。
一、语言分类语言是人类与世界沟通交流的工具，按照语言之间的关系，可以将语言分为以下几类：1. 语系分类：语系是指由共同祖源的语言所构成的系统，常见的语系有汉藏语系、印欧语系、阿尔泰语系等。
2. 语族分类：语族是指由同一远古时期的原始语所发展而来的一组语言，常见的语族有汉藏语族、印欧语族、阿尔泰语族等。
3. 语支分类：语支是指在一个语族内具有一定程度关系的一组语言，比如在汉藏语族中，汉语是其中的一个语支。
4. 语言类型分类：根据语言的语法结构，可以将语言分为屈折语、孤立语、辅助语等类型。
二、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，包括音位、音韵和音系等内容。
1. 音位：音位是指在一种语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
不同语言的音位差异很大，比如汉语有四个声调，而英语则没有。
2. 音韵：音韵是指研究语音的组织和规律的学科，包括音位的组合、音变规律等。
3. 音系：音系是指一个语言中所有音位的总体组织结构，可以通过音标来表示。
不同语言的音系差异很大，比如英语和法语的音系就有很大的不同。
三、语法学语法学是研究句子结构和组织的学科，包括句法、词法和语用学等内容。
1. 句法：句法是研究句子结构的学科，包括短语结构、句子成分等。
不同语言的句法结构也有很大差异，比如汉语的主谓宾结构，英语的主谓宾结构。
2. 词法：词法是研究词的形态和构词规律的学科，包括词的分类、词性等。
不同语言的词法规律也有所不同，比如汉语的词性很多，英语的词性相对简单。
3. 语用学：语用学是研究语言使用的学科，包括语境和语用的关系、指称和概括等。
语用学关注的是语言的真正意义和用途。
四、语义学语义学是研究词义和句义的学科，包括词义学和句义学等内容。
1. 词义学：词义学是研究词的意义和用法的学科，包括词义的构成、词汇关系等。
语言学纲要笔记,复习资料[1]
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导言1、语言学的三大发源地P1中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
2、传统语文学的构成部分P1文字、音韵。
训诂是我国传统语文学的构成部分，统称“小学”。
3、语言的构造P2语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分4、语言交际的五个阶段P3编码——发送——传递——接收——编码5、语言学的概念以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。
第一章语言的社会功能1、语言与言语的关系？言语是利用语言进行交际的行为和结果。
言语是个人的，语言是社会的；言语是具体的，语言是抽象的；言语是有阶级性的，语言是全民性的。
语言制约着言语，指导人们进行言语实践；语言存在于言语之中，存在于人们的交际过程之中，存在于言语行为和言语作品之中。
语言不能够脱离言语，言语也不能脱离语言，它们是不可分离的。
语言（language）和言语（parole）的区别是现代语言学奠基人索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出的重要概念。
其区别表现在：第一，从运用角度来说，语言是社会共有的交际工具，相对稳定，语言是不自由的，有规则的，处于相对静止状态，语言是一个封闭的系统；言语是对语言的具体运用和由此产生的言语作品，是自由结合的，处于运用状态，言语始终是开放的。
第二，从表现形式看，语言是个音义结合的符号系统，人们要遵照这个系统的规则来使用它，是社会的，有共同性，也就是说语言属于全体社会成员；言语是人们运用语言的过程和结果，除了具有社会的因素外，还具有个人的因素，而且还要受某种特定语境的影响，从某种程度上来说，言语属于讲话者个人。
第三，语言的各个部分是有限的，抽象的；但言语是无限的，具体的。
联系表现在：第一，从历史上看，言语事实在先，规则在后，因此言语是第一性的，语言是第二性的。
哪里有言语，哪里就有语言；哪里没有言语，哪里就没有语言。
语言是存在于言语之中的，语言是从言语中抽象概括出来的模式，抽象的语言是不存在的，语言都是以言语的形式存在着的。
第二，语言来源于言语，又反作用于言语。
汉语言文学《语言学概论》复习要点
《语言学概论》复习要点重点名词概念：语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务二、语言学在科学体系中的地位三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同，语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。
四、语言学流派各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。
关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，不作考试要求。
第一章言语的社会功能本章须明确两个大的要点：语言的社会功能，即交际工具和思维工具；语言是一种社会现象。
主要名词概念：语言、社会、社会现象第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是人类社会的交际工具1. 语言的交际功能：语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具，也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。
2. 语言是一种社会现象：语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系，没有人类社会，就没有语言，人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。
所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。
不同的民族有不同的语言，不同的地域有不同的语言，同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响，而离开了人类社会，就无所谓语言可言了。
总之，语言就是一种社会现象，同社会的关系非常密切，其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。
语言不是自然现象，一方面，语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系，社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化，也就是说，语言的发展变化是受制于社会的；另一方面，从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象，而是社会约定俗成的，没有必然的本质的联系，如果语言是自然现象，世界上的语言应该一样的，没有区别的，而实际上世界上的语言多种多样，而且许多语言中还有方言，这说明语言决不是自然现象。
3. 语言是一种特殊的社会现象：语言不但是社会现象，而且是一种特殊的社会现象。
语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点《语言学概论》复习要点导言重点名词概念：语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务二、语言学在科学体系中的地位三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同，语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。
四、语言学流派各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。
关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，不作考试要求。
第一章言语的社会功能本章须明确两个大的要点：语言的社会功能，即交际工具和思维工具；语言是一种社会现象。
主要名词概念：语言、社会、社会现象第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是人类社会的交际工具1．语言的交际功能：语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具，也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。
2．语言是一种社会现象：语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系，没有人类社会，就没有语言，人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。
所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。
不同的民族有不同的语言，不同的地域有不同的语言，同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响，而离开了人类社会，就无所谓语言可言了。
总之，语言就是一种社会现象，同社会的关系非常密切，其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。
语言不是自然现象，一方面，语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系，社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化，也就是说，语言的发展变化是受制于社会的；另一方面，从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象，而是社会约定俗成的，没有必然的本质的联系，如果语言是自然现象，世界上的语言应该一样的，没有区别的，而实际上世界上的语言多种多样，而且许多语言中还有方言，这说明语言决不是自然现象。
3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：语言不但是社会现象，而且是一种特殊的社会现象。
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
一、语音学要点
1. 发音器官与音素
•发音器官包括声门、舌头、唇等部位，能够产生不同音素。
•音素是语言中的最小音位单位，分为元音和辅音等。
2. 声调与音节
•声调是语言中一个音节的音高变化。
•音节是一个完整的语音单位，包含元音和辅音。
3. 音变与语音规则
•音变是一种音素发音的变化规律。
•语音规则是对语言中音素发音的稳定规范。
二、语法学要点
1. 词类与句子成分
•词类包括名词、动词、形容词等，是构成句子的基本单位。
•句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语等，构成句子的结构要素。
2. 句法关系与语法规则
•句法关系指不同句子成分之间的关系。
•语法规则是组织句子成分的规律，保证句子构成符合语言习惯。
3. 语法意义与语法功能
•语法意义是句子结构所表达的含义。
•语法功能是句子中成分在语言交际中所承担的作用。
三、总结
以上是语言学中语音学与语法学的要点内容，通过学习这些基本知识，可以更好地理解语言的结构和功能。
细致的复习与实践可以帮助我们提高语言表达和沟通能力，在日常生活和学习工作中更加游刃有余。
语言学概要复习重点
语言学概要复习提纲一、导言一、语言学的对象和任务（一）语言学的对象和任务1.定义：语言学是研究语言现象和规律的科学。
2.研究对象：语言。
语言学概论的研究对象：整个人类的语言。
3.主要任务：研究语言的性质、作用、结构和规律，使对语言的认识上升到理性阶段。
4.语言的基本理解语言的性质：是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
语言的结构：是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的要素：语音、语义和词汇、语法。
（二）语言学简史（语文学与语言学）1.语文学阶段(1)三大发源地：①印度②希腊-罗马③中国(2)语文学的作用语文学三大发源地的语言研究各有侧重，共同特点是都注重实用性，与当时社会的需求紧密关联，都形成了丰硕的研究成果，为语言学的诞生奠定了坚实的基础。
（3）语文学与语言学的区别①研究对象不同②研究任务不同因此，语言学是一门独立的学科，语文学只是经学的附庸。
2．语言学阶段(1)历史比较语言学产生时间:19世纪初社会背景:资产阶级革命的成功特点:用历史比较法研究语言奠基人：拉斯克、葆朴、格林等。
历史地位:摆脱了过去从属经学的附庸地位，标志着语言学走上独立发展的道路。
(2)结构主义语言学基础:历史比较语言学时间:19世纪中叶奠基人:德国的洪堡特和瑞士的索绪尔索绪尔被尊称为“现代语言学之父”，他死后由其学生编辑出版的《普通语言学教程》具有划时代的作用。
索绪尔提出的主要理论是：①区分“语言”、“言语”和“言语活动”。
②明确了语言学的研究对象：“语言学的唯一的、真正的对象就是语言和为语言而研究语言。
③论证了语言的符号性：语言符号是由“能指”和“所指”所构成的。
④提出了组合关系和聚合关系。
(3)转换生成（形式）语言学创始人：乔姆斯基（《句法结构》）主要观点：认为语言描写和分析的目的不在于分类，而在于建立一种理论，在于研究人的语言生成能力，即怎样用有限的成分和规则生成无限的句子。
理论构成：主要包括生成规则和转换规则两部分。
①生成规则包括一套短语结构规则和词汇插入规则。
语言学复习资料 (1)
语言学纲要的复习资料第一章1、三大发源地（）（）（）2、语言学是（）世纪成为独立学科，其标志是（）的出现3、现代语言学的标志是瑞士语言学家（）4（）、被誉为“世界上最完备的语法书”5、我国传统语言学包括（）（）（）6、结构主义的三大分支（）（）（）7、语言的分类一般从两个方面进行分类①（）②（）8、美国结构主义的代表人物（）著作（）9、与理论语言学相对的是（）与外部语言学相对的是（）与具体语言学相对的是（）（二）判断题1、世界上使用人口最多的语言是英语，使用范围最广的是汉语（）2、语言学主要研究古代的口语和书面语（）3、历史比较语言学的出现标志着语言学成为一门独立的学科（）4、第一个对语言进行谱系分类的是德国语言学家（）1、下列说法正确的是【D】A 语言是一种心理现象B 语言是一种具有阶级性的特殊的社会现象C 没有语言，利用文字照样可以进行交际D 在语言的辅助性交际工具中，文字是最重要的。
2、一个英国小孩从小在中国长大，结果他只会讲汉语而不会英语【C】社会具有阶级性3、任意性特点说明了【D】语言是一种特殊的社会现象。
4语言符号层级性的核心是【A】以少聚多5、语言成分按线性次序组合起来【B】组合关系6、下列说法不正确的是【D】语言符号不可以拆卸拼装，不具有生命力7、{组合关系}选不足，改革8、人类语言和动物的交际方式【B】有着根本的区别9、思维不依赖与语言【✘】10、下列观点属于探索语言起源的是【BCD】11、原始语言特点说法正确的是【ABC】12、下列组合关系和聚合关系表述正确的是【ACDE】A 语言成分的聚合类下限于词类。
B 组合关系体现为聚合类的线性序列C 聚合关系是在组合关系中体现出来的D 组合关系可以体现为互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。
13、下列语言符号与现实现象之间的关系表述正确的是【BDE】判断题14、符号的形式和意义是具有一般性【✔】15、语言是丰富人的心理现实的重要途径【✔】16、现实中的句子是无穷的，所以自合关系也是无限的【✘】17、音位和音位组合构成的语素【✘】18、语言符号可以拆卸拼装，重复使用【✔】19、符号和自己所代表的事物之间具有必然的联系【✘】20、语言与言语之间的关系是一般与个别的关系【✔】21、书刊的话语不是人际互动功能【✘】22、语言在文字的基础上产生人类最重要的交际工具(✘)23.现代社会沟通方式很多，语言重要性日渐衰落{✘}24.工人有工人语言，农民有农民语言。
最新语言学基础知识常考点
最新语言学基础知识常考点1. 语言与其要素- 语言的定义：语言是人类交流和表达思想的工具，通过语言可以传递信息、表达感情和展示文化。
- 语言的要素：语音、语法、词汇、语义和语用是语言的基本要素。
2. 语音学- 语音学的研究对象：语音学研究的是语言中声音的产生、传播和感知。
- 国际音标：国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，用于记录各种语音音素。
- 语音特征：音调、音长、音位和音素是语音学中常考的重点。
3. 语法学- 语法学的定义：语法学是研究语言的句子结构、词类和句类等方面的学科。
- 句子的成分：句子由主语、谓语、宾语和其他修饰成分组成。
- 句类的分类：陈述句、疑问句、感叹句和祈使句是常见的句类。
4. 词汇学- 词汇学的研究内容：词的构成、词义和词的使用是词汇学的主要研究内容。
- 词类：名词、动词、形容词和副词是常见的词类。
- 词汇资源：词典、同义词、反义词和词根是扩展词汇资源的重要工具。
5. 语义学- 语义学的定义：语义学研究的是词、短语和句子的意义。
- 词义的关系：近义词、反义词和义原关系是词义上常考的要点。
- 上下文与语义：词义可以根据上下文的不同产生细微的变化。
6. 语用学- 语用学的研究内容：语用学研究的是语言在实际交际中的使用规律。
- 言语行为：陈述、疑问、命令和请求等是常见的言语行为类型。
- 礼貌原则：在交际过程中，遵循礼貌原则可以提高交际效果。
以上是最新语言学基础知识常考点的简要介绍，希望对您有所帮助。
> 请注意：以上内容为总结和概述，更详细、准确的语言学知识需要参考相关教材和权威资料。
语言学概论复习重点整理
语言学概论复习重点整理语言学是研究语言的科学，是人类学科中的重要分支之一。
它探讨语言的构成、发展、使用、习得等方面的问题。
在语言学的学习中，有几个重点需要重点关注和复习，包括语言的定义与特点、语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。
一、语言的定义与特点语言可以定义为人类交流思想和感情的工具，它具有符号性、产生性、传递性和交际性等特点。
符号性是指语言以音、形、色、势等形式来表达，具有特定的语音、文字等符号。
产生性是指语言是人类天生具备的能力，可以随意创造和组合新的语言表达。
传递性是指语言是为了交流而产生的，可以传递信息和意义。
交际性是指语言是社会交往的工具，是人类社会生活的基础。
二、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、组织、传播和知觉等问题。
语音由音段和音素组成，音段是语言中的基本音单位，而音素则是语音学上对音段的理论抽象。
语音学重点研究了语音的发音和声音的特征，包括元音、辅音、音节结构、音位等内容。
三、语法学语法学研究语言的结构和规则，包括句子的构成、词汇的分类和句子的句法规则等。
语法学可以分为句法学、词法学和语法规则等方面的研究。
句法学研究句子的结构和组成，包括词语的层次、短语的组成和句子的句法规则。
词法学研究词汇的构成和分类，包括名词、动词、形容词等的形态学特点和语义学特征。
四、语义学语义学研究语言的意义和语义关系，研究词汇的意义、句子的意义和语义关系的表达方式等。
语义学包括词汇语义学和句子语义学两个方面的内容。
词汇语义学研究词汇的意义和词汇之间的关系，包括语义原理、词汇关系等。
句子语义学研究句子的意义和句子之间的关系，包括句子的逻辑关系、语义角色等。
五、语用学语用学研究语言使用的实际情况，分析语言使用者之间的交际行为和交际行为产生的效果等。
语用学主要研究语言的使用环境、语言行为的目的、语言行为的影响等方面的问题。
例如，研究语言中的礼貌用语、谈话中的暗示和推理、言语行为的意义和效果等。
六、其他相关内容除了以上几个重点内容外，还有一些其他与语言学相关的内容也值得复习和关注。
语言学复习要点
语言学的复习要点（一）1、Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.2、Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3、Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing4、Design features”refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.（1）Arbitrariness :the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relational to their meaning（2)Daulity:the property of having two levels of structures.(3)Creativity:it refers to the property that language enables language user to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentence.(4)Displacement:human language enable their user to symbolize object,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.5、Informative function：Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.6、Interpersonal function：he interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.people establish and maintain their status in a society.7、Performative function：The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.8、Emotive function：The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.9、Phatic communion：Phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language10、Recreational function11、Phonetics：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.12、Phonology: studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.13、Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning —morphemes and word-formation processes.14、Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word.15、Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.16、Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.17、Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.（二）1、Phonetics mainly deals with the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds.2、Phonology explores the patterns that govern the combination of sounds, i.e, it studies how speech sounds are grouped together to convey meaning in linguistic communication3、phone (音素，语音)—the phonetic segment and unit is called a phone4、Phoneme—a sound segment with distinctive value. It is the smallest unit of sound in a language to distinguish words.5、allophones (音位变体)—the different phones that represent the one phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme.6、minimal pair/minimal set：For two words (pronunciation concerned), if they are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then they are minimal pairs(最小对立体).If more than two sound combinations are involved, then they are minimal sets(最小对立组).7、Distinctive features：It is this phonetic feature [±voiced] that distinguishes the two words.8、General rule1：In English, a vowel is nasalized before a word-final or syllable-final nasal consonant.9、General rule 2：In English, a voiceless stop is aspirated when it occurs word initially or syllable initially.10、（1）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to be in phonemic contrast.（2）If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they occur in different phonetic contexts but not contrast meanings. Then, the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.11、phonological rules：The patterning of phonemes in a language is rule-governed. The phonological rules determine how phonemes are combined to form permissible words in a language for communication.12、Distinctive features that occur in units larger than sound segments, such as the syllables, words, phrases and sentences, are called suprasegmental features (超音段特征).（三）1、Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.2、The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful unit of language3、A syllable is a phonetic and phonological unit. In PHONETICS, a syllable is defined as a chest pulse. In PHONOLOGY, a syllable is defined by the way in which VOWELS and CONSONANTS combine to form various sequences. In a word, the definition of a syllable is related with pronunciation and has nothing to do with meaning. A morpheme may be represented by one syllable, like boy and dog, or by two or more syllables.The syllabic structure of a word and the morphemic structure ofa word don’t always correspond4、Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves5、Affix: Collective term for bound formatives or word-forming elements that constitute subcategories of word classes. Affixes are classified according to their functions and then their placement on the stem.6、Derivational morphemes —the morphemes which change the meaning, or grammatical class of words, e.g. Inflectional morphemes —the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.7、Prefix: Morphemes that occur only before other morphemes. (Bound morphemes that precede the stem.)Suffix: Morphemes that only occur after other morphemes. (Bound morphemes that are attached finally to free morpheme constructions)8、A root is the basic form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left, whether free or bound, when all the affixes are removed. It carries the main component of meaning in a word.9、A stem is a form that is of concern only with inflectional morphology, i.e. only inflectional affixes (but not derivational affixes) can be added to it. (Bauer 1983:20) A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It is the form that the morphological operation applies to.10、There are two kinds of root morphemes: free root morphemes that can stand bythemselves and bound root morphemes that can not stand by themselves and whose number is relatively limited11、A word can be defined the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently. It is different from a morpheme in that a word can constitute by itself a complete utterance while a morpheme cannot sometimes.12、A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg13、Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, egOpen-class words: New members can be added, eg14、Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.15、Derivation: refers to the process of how new words are formed.16、Compound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single word.17、Orthographically: a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate word.18、Syntactically: the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.19、Semantically: the meaning of the compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.20、Phonetically: the stress of a compound a word always fall on the first element, while the second element receives second stress.21、Invention: technological and economic activities22、Blending: a new word is formed by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word23、Back-formation: A shorter word is derived by deleting a supposed affix from an already existing longer word.24、Analogy: words are created in imitation of other words. It is also called reanalysis.(四）1、Syntax (句法学) is a branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.2、A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.3、Tense: indicating time related to the time of utterance.4、Aspect: the internal temporal structure of a verb.5、Concord: the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.6、Government: a word of a certain class governs the form of others. Usually the verb or the preposition determines the form of pronoun after it.7、Positional relation, or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words ina language. This positional relation is also called horizontal relation or chain relation8、endocentric construction向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents9、exocentric construction 离心结构refer to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole10、Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.11、.yntax categories (句法范畴) A syntax category is a word or phrase that performa particular grammatical function.12、Subordination structures the structures in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent.13、Conjoining: Refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.14、Embedding: refers to the means by which one clause is included into another sentence (main/matrix clause) in syntactic subordination.15、Cohesion:It refers to relations of meaning exist within text, and defines it as a text.16、Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.17、Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information18、A transformation is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another. It can be inversion (倒置), insertion (插入) or other kinds of movement.(五）1、Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.2、Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real , physical world.3、Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.（1）Absolute or complete synonyms are words identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. words that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances.（2）Relative or near synonyms may differ in different ways.4、Dialectal synonyms（方言同义词）Synonyms belonging to different dialects of the language5、Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)Words having the same cognitive meaning but having different stylistic meanings6、Synonyms differing in emotive or evaluative meaning7、Semantically different synonyms These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean8、Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects9、Stylist synonyms----synonyms differing in style10、Antonymy--- is used for oppositeness of meaning.words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms11、Complementaries (互补反义词) = binary antonyms the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.12、Contraries (相对反义词) = gradable antonyms there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.13、Converses (逆反反义词) = relational opposites exhibit the reversal of the relationship between the two items.14、Polysemy--- the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning.15、Homonymy --- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.（1)Homophones when two words are identical in sound（2)Homograph when two words are identical in spelling(3)Complete Homonyms when two words are identical in both sound and spelling 16、Hyponymy (上下义关系) is the sense relation between a more general word, a inclusive word and a more specific word.17、(1) Synonymy (同义关系)(2) inconsistency (自相矛盾)(3) Entailment (蕴涵)(4) Presupposition (预设)(5) X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)(6) X is semantically anomalous (反常的)(7) Implicature (含意)18、Synonymy (同义关系) :X is synonymous with Y19、inconsistency (自相矛盾) :X is inconsistent with Y20、Entailment (蕴涵): X entail Y21、Presupposition (预设)X presupposes Y22、Semantic components (语义成分) or semantic features (语义特征) are the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of words may be described as a combination of semantic components or features.23、There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning24、Predication analysis (述谓结构分析) is a way to analyze sentence meaning, proposed by the British linguist G. Leech. (P81)Predication (述谓结构) is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) (变元) and predicate (谓词).An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.25、Predication (述谓结构) is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) (变元) and predicate (谓词).An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.(六）1、Pragmatics:A general definition: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfully communication.2、If we think a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually used.3、Sentence meaning: abstract, detextulazied .Utterance meaning: concrete, and context-dependent4、Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is5、Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.6、Conclusion:The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.All sentences can be used to do things.7、A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.8、illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act preformed in saying something.9、A perloutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; It is the consequence of , or the change brought about by the utterance10、Directives指令类: are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.11、commissives承诺类: committing the speaker himself to some course of action. When speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation.12、Expressives表达类: expressing feelings and attitude towards an existing state.13、declarations: bringing about immediate change by saying something.(七)1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2、Culture：3、Language determines culture (linguistic determinism)Culture determines language (culture determinism)4、（1）Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.（2）Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.（3）Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture (or consolidating it over time)（4）Culture affects language.5、Benjamin Lee Whorf studied at Yale University under Edward Sapir and became interested in Sapir's ideas. He was influenced by the work of 18th-century German philosophers John Gottfried von Herder and Wilhelm von Humbolt, who theorized, based on their study of European languages, that language had a bearing on how people viewed the world.6、Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.7、Linguistic relativity: Similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualisation of the world will be. (modified hypothesis)。
语言学概论高频考点(1)
00541语言学概论高频考点（1）语言和民族的关系?有人说：“一个民族使用一种语言。
”请你谈谈对这种观点的看法。
语言和民族有密切关系，多数情况下一个民族使用同一种语言，语言因此成为民族的重要标志。
但语言不是识别民族的可靠标志。
现代社会中，同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一种语言的现象到处存在。
“语言”和“言语”具有怎样的区别？区别“语言”和“言语”对语言学和现代汉语研究有什么意义？（1）“语言”是社会的，是言语活动中社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分，是一个有规律可循的抽象的均质的系统。
“言语”则是个人的，是言语活动中具有个人特色的部分，不是全社会共同使用的，因此是异质的。
（2）“语言”是主要的，而“言语”是次要的、从属的和偶然的。
（3）区分了“语言”和“言语”，就纯化了语言学的研究对象，把研究对象限制在一个内部均质的系统范围内，这就使语言学成为一门现代意义上的真正科学。
区分“语言”和“言语”对现代汉语的研究也有重大意义，要求研究者从相对均质的语料中去寻找具体语言的内部一致规律。
“孤立语没有丰富的形态变化，各种结构意义主要由词序和虚词等手段来体现。
口语和书面语的关系。
（1）口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。
（2）书面语是文字产生以后才出现的语言的另一种存在形式，它在口语的基础上产生，是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
（3）语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的，口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
口语和书面语中基本的语言成分也就是基本的语汇和语法结构在大多数情况下是基本一致的。
举例说明语言符号的“能指”和“所指”以及二者关系的特性。
（1）语言符号的“能指”，也就是能够指称某种意义的成分；给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语，称为“所指”，也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体，所指的意义内容。
语言学概论复习大纲(1-6)
语言学概论复习大纲（1-6章）（注：在所涉及内容不变的条件下，题型可以相互变换。
请大家认真复习，灵活掌握。
答案均可在书中找到依据。
）第一章语言的社会功能一、填空：1. 人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有（语言），这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
2. 语言是特殊的社会现象的含义是语言具有（全民性），没有（阶级性）。
3. 语言和说话的关系可以这样理解：语言是（社会的全民共有的），说话是个人的；语言是抽象的，说话是（具体）的。
二、判断：1. 语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
T2. 文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
3. 语言具有自然属性，是自然现象。
4. 语言在任何时候、任何地方都具有重要作用。
5. 语言就是思维，思维就是语言。
6. 从语言和说话的关系来说，我们在现实生活中不可能找到一匹马，只能找到一匹具体的具有某种色彩、某种体态等等特征的马。
7. 在现代社会，文字比语言更重要。
三、简答：1. 每个人说话都是自由的，但不能把“我看书”说成“书看我”，不能把“失去生命”这个意思说成（huó）“活”，这是为什么？语言是社会现象而不是个人现象。
虽然每个人说话是自由的，可以根据需要选择不同的词语表达自己的思想，但是有一点则是大家都必须遵守的，那就是运用词语组成句子，必须遵循全社会统一的规则，选择什么样的语音形式代表某个意义，也得全社会约定俗成，不能个人任意更改。
否则，语言就不成其为交际工具了，别人也就无法听懂你的话，社会将乱成一锅粥。
只要想象一下，一个不会外语的人到国外生活所遇到的窘迫尴尬，就知道遵循规则的重要性了。
（紧扣语言的社会性回答，同时说明语言不是个人现象。
）2. 任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是无限的，那么人类为什么能在有限的时间内掌握语言呢？这主要是因为：①词语组合的规则是十分有限的，掌握一个规则，可以类推出无限多的句子，例如学会说“我吃饭”，掌握了“主-动-宾”这个格式，就可以造出“我看报”、“他打球”、“你唱歌”之类的句子来。
语言学纲要(重点笔记)
语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言：是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是人类的思维工具。
•2、语言学：以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。
•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一，主要内容：语言在社会中的地位和作用；语言的结成体系（语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞）；语言的发展变化；语言的应用。
•学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。
•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学：主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称，一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。
中国由于古代文献丰富，文字比较特殊，语文学比较发达，广义的语文学也应该包括语言学，也就是语言学和文字学的总称，但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类，所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学，成为语言学的一个分支。
•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点：不是重于理论，而是基于观察。
所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。
词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论，句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系，也是经常讨论的问题之一。
•贡献：A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。
认为语言有两种，一是具体场合说的话，一是抽象的语言原则。
B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。
认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁，语音描写分三部分：发音过程、语音的组成成分（元音，辅音）、语音在音位结构中的结合。
C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。
潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。
•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就：他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。
《语言学纲要》3知识重点 (1)
语音学
1、语音：人类发音器官发出的，代表一定语义的声音是语音
2、音质：一个声音区别于其他声音的特质，由多种因素决定
3、发音部位：发辅音时，气流受阻的部位较发音部位
4、发音方法：发辅音时，气流克服阻碍的方式叫发音方法
5、音位：一定语言或方言中，能够区别意义的最小语音类型单位
6、音位变体：构成一个音位的几个因素叫做该音位的音位变体
7、条件变体：一定语言中各有一定的出现场合，同属一个因为的两个或两个以上的音
位变体叫自由变体
8、音质音位：以音素为材料构成的音位是音质音位，也叫音段音位。
9、自由变体：能够出现在相同环境里而不区别意义的两个或两个以上的音位变体叫自
由变体
10、非音质音位：由音高、音强、音长构成的音位是非音质音位，也叫超音段音
位
11、语流音变：语流中的某个音，由于受到前后音的影响或说话快慢、强弱等因
素的影响而在发音上产生某种变化，这种现象叫语流音变
12、音素：人类语音从音质角度划分出来的最小单位
二、填空
1、国际音标的三个突出优点是：标音准确、标音完备、形体简单。
2、元音有三类：舌尖元音、舌面元音、卷舌元音。
3、广义语音学的分支学科有：声学语音学（音响学）、发音语音学（发音学）、听觉语音学。
4、语音同其他声音一样，具有音高、音强（重）、音质、音长四要素。
5、常见的附加音有颚化音、唇化音、舌根化、鼻化音、清化音、儿化音等。
《语言学概论》词义复习要点
《语言学概论》词义复习要点第一节词汇和词义一、词义就是一个词所代表的意义。
它是以一定的语音形式固定下来的，人们对某一客观事物现象的本质特征的概括反应和对现实现象的主观评价。
词汇根据使用情况分类：基本词和一般词一、1基本词：是一种语言的词汇的核心部分，具有全民常用、稳固、有构词能力的特点。
（如：人、山、水等。
）一、2基本词的特点：1全民常用性。
（如：人、看、手这些词不分阶级和阶层，全民使用。
）2稳固性。
千百年来很少变化。
（如：人、山、火等。
）3构词能力强。
（如地、水、可构成地震、地球、水杯、山水等。
）一、3基本词特点之间的关系：这三个特点：相互影响，它的全民常用性要求它保持稳定，同时也被用来构成新词，构词能力强使基本词汇在使用上更为普遍，这又强化了全民常用性。
一、4一般词：是语汇中除去基本词以外的那部分词，具有变化快、数量多的特点。
一、5一般词的分类：新词、古词（文言词、历史词）、方言词、行业语、外来词(借词)。
二、词义的概括性：词义是对现实现象的概括反映，不是反映个别的具体事物的特征，而是反映同类事物现象的共同特征。
（如：苹果这个词的意义，不是表示具体的红苹果、绿苹果、大苹果、小苹果，而是对各种颜色、味道、形态的苹果的共同特征的概括。
）二、1词义概括性的表现形式：一般性、模糊性、全民性。
二、2、如何理解词义的一般性？词义是对客观现实现象的高度概括，是以千千万万的同类事物现象中抽象出拉的，它放弃了个别事物的特点，而保留了所概括对象的共同特征。
虽然一个词在具体语境中总是与个别的具体的事物联系在一起，但词义总是有一个所指的范畴。
这一特点是语言作为人类交际工具这一本质特点所决定的。
二、3、什么是词义的模糊性？词义为什么有模糊性特点？词义的模糊性指经过概括而形成的词汇意义，本身往往没有明确的外延。
即词义指称的对象只是一个大体的范围，没有明确的边界。
词义的模糊性产生的根源在于客观事物的复杂性，比如时间，实际上是连续的，没有起点也没有终点，我们认识时间，只有对这种现实现象进行大致的切分，例如“凌晨、早晨、上午、中午、下午、傍晚”等词的意义，其界线实际上是模糊的。