Computational_Linguistics_11
中国计算机学会推荐国际学术会议和期刊目录AB
IFIP International Conferences on Networking
International Conference on Network Protocols International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Internet Measurement Conference International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing International Workshop on Quality of Service
3 4 5 6
Eurocrypt
ESORICS CSFW RAID
7 8 9 10 11
NDSS DSN
ISOC Network and Distributed System Security Symposium The International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks Theory of Cryptography Conference USENIX Security Symposium Workshop on Information Hiding
Annual Computer Security Applications Conference
CRYPTO 会议简称
ACSAC
B类
序号 1
2
ASIACRYPT
Annual International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security Annual International Conference on the Theory and Applications of Cryptographic Techniques European Symposium on Research in Computer Security IEEE Computer Security Foundations Workshop International Symposium on Recent Advances in Intrusion Detection
general linguistics 普通语言学简介
Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。
包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。
这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakerissues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. V owel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。
计算语言学
计算语言学计算语言学（computationallanguagetry）是20世纪80年代后期发展起来的一门语言学新分支。
它将语言的自然属性与功能性计算结合在一起，它从信息论的观点出发，用计算机去处理语言的各种特征和规律，因此也称为信息处理语言学。
目前，这一领域已经成为国际上语言学研究中的一个热点。
因为随着语言理解技术的不断改进，需要处理的信息越来越多，计算机的速度、容量等指标也不断提高，因此对语言理解算法的研究也逐渐引起了人们的重视。
对于计算机而言，从本质上看，它就是一种代码，如同程序员所编写的源程序一样。
但是，计算机是由人来控制的，它可以依据人的指令对数据进行加工和运算，实现特定的功能。
也就是说，计算机只能按照人事先确定的方式来执行，无法根据客观实际情况来作出相应的改变。
1、认知主义和行为主义。
语言学中一般把计算语言学分成两大派别：认知主义和行为主义。
认知主义的主要观点是：语言是知识系统的一部分，语言是我们从事交际活动的工具。
语言是在人脑中表示意义的符号系统，是外界事物的概括的反映，并借助词的形式表现出来。
行为主义的主要观点是：语言是人类交际过程中约定俗成的，符号形式能够描述人们所指的客观世界的思维过程。
人们使用语言来进行交际，是通过手势或面部表情表达他们的内心思想感情的。
他们把人的语言看作是一种人造的符号系统，其作用仅仅是向外部世界传递信息。
2、神经科学和心理语言学。
20世纪70年代以后，计算机和信息论的研究蓬勃兴起，并与人类语言学的研究产生了紧密的联系。
人们逐步发现，计算机的行为模式直接来自人的行为模式，即直接来自于大脑的某些脑区。
人脑的某些脑区被称之为高级认知中心，具有推理、解决问题、记忆和逻辑判断等功能，其主要功能是对外界事物的知觉、学习、记忆、存贮和对事物的归类，并做出适当的行为反应。
计算机是电子设备，电子设备在很大程度上都是按照人们事先制定的程序设计的，这样就保证了整个计算机的操作必须严格按照人们事先确定的规则来执行。
Quizforlinguistics-习题整理含答案
Quiz for linguistics:Chapter 1: Linguistics and Language语言和语言学1. Which of the following is the most important function of language?a. Interpersonal functionb. Performative functionc. Informative functiond. Recreational function2. ______ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc..a. Phonologyb. Phoneticsc. Morphologyd. Pragmatics3. ______ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.a. Performativeb. Interpersonalc. Phaticd. Metalingual4. ______ means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.a. Creativityb. Dualityc. Arbitrarinessd. Displacement5. By ______ it means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.a. arbitrarinessb. dualityc. creativityd. displacement6. ______ distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual production of speeches.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Gilmand. Brown7. ______ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.a. Competenceb. Performancec. Eloquenced. Action8. ______ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.a. Psycholinguisticsb. Sociolinguisticsc. Anthropological linguisticsd. Computational linguistics9. ______ studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.a. Pragmaticsb. Semanticsc. Syntaxd. Phonetics10. ______ is a branch of linguistics concerned in principle with the physical representation of language or linguistic processes in the brain.a. Anthropological linguisticsb. Psychological linguisticsc. Computational linguisticsd. Neurolinguistics11. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is ______ (大纲样题)a. morphologyb. general linguisticsc. phonologyd. semantics12. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年真题)a. language functionb. sentence structuresc. textual organizationd. word formation13. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language? (2005年真题)a. arbitrarinessb. productivityc. cultural transmissiond. finiteness14. The distinction between parole and langue was made by ______. (2006年真题)a. Hallidayb. Chomskyc. Bloomfieldd. Saussure15. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年真题)a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics16. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? (2008年真题)a. Arbitrarinessb. Displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity17. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is ______.(2009年真题)a. corpus linguisticsb. sociolinguisticsc. theoretical linguisticsd. pysholinguistics18. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “Highway Closed” on a highway serves ______. (2010年真题)a. an expressive function.b. an informative function.c. a performative function.d. a persuasive function.19. ______ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind. (2011年真题)a. Semanticsb. Pragmaticsc. Cognitive linguisticsd. Sociolinguistics20. Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as ____a. paroleb. languagec. systemd. langue语音学1. ______ is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.a. Acoustic phoneticsb. Articulatory phoneticsc. Auditory phoneticsd. Pragmatics2. When ______ is produced, complete closure of the articulators is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth.a. fricativeb. stopc. affricated. lateral3. In the production of vowels, air is ______ as is the case with consonants.a. not obstructedb. obstructedc. semi-obstructedd. half-obstructed4. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the ______ grammarian Otto Jespersen in 1886.a. Englishb. Americanc. Danishd. French5. The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in the ______ by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones and his colleagues at University of London.a. 1910sb. 1920sc. 1930sd. 1940s6. To be specific, ______ deals with how speech sounds are produced.a. articulatory phoneticsb. acoustic phoneticsc. auditory phoneticsd. phonological phonetics7. All the following are the description of [P] EXCEPT ______.a. stopb. bilabialc. alveolard. consonant8. If a single movement from one element to a second element of the tongue is involved, the combine vowels are called ______.a. monophthongsb. triphthongsc. cardinal vowelsd. diphthongs9. The most famous cardinal vowel system put forward by Daniel Jones defines ______ primary cardinal vowels.a. 7b. 8c. 9d. 1010. The followings belong to affricates EXCEPT ______.a. [ts]b. [l]c. [D]d. [tr]11. According to the part of the tongue which is raised, the vowels can be divided into the following three kinds, EXCEPT for ______.a. frontb. middlec. centrald. back12. A vowel is different from a consonant in English because of _______. (2011年真题)a. absence of obstructionb. presence of obstructionc. manner of articulationd. place of articulation13. If the air stream meets with no obstruction when a sound is pronounced, it is a(n) ______.a. voiced consonantb. voiceless consonantc. voweld. explosive14. The internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is ______.a. I.P.Ab. I.A.P.Sc. I.S.Sd. S.S.I.P音位学1. ______ refers to two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.a. Ahonemeb. A minimal pairc. Allophoned. Free variation2. Phonology is the study of ______.a. how speech sounds are madeb. the sound system of languagesc. speech sounds are transmittedd. how speech sounds are received3. The following are the principle suprasegmental features EXCEPT _______.a. syllableb. stressc. toned. phoneme4. Which aspect does NOT belong to the phonological process?a. A set of sounds to undergo the processb. A set of sounds produced by the processc. The length of the sounds in the processd. A set of situations in which the process applies5. ______ refers to the sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language.a. Phoneb. Allophonec. Phonemed. Morpheme6. The open syllable refers to the syllable that has no ______.a. codab. onsetc. nucleusd. rhyme7. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. Which of the following is tone language?a. Englishb. Chinesec. both English and Chinesed. Neither English nor Chinese8. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a ______.a. minimal pairb. complementary distributionc. phonemic contrastd. minimal set9. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature in English phonology?a. aspirationb. plosivenessc. bilabialityd. voicelessness1. ______ is a unit that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.a. Phonemeb. Morphemec. Lexemed. Phone2. The words such as dog, nation and close are ______.a. affixesb. free morphemesc. bound morphemesd. compounds3. The words such as “smog” and ”brunch” are called ______.a. abbreviationb. acronymc. back-formationd. blending4. For example, the word bead originally means “prayer”, but later it refers to “the prayer bead”, and finally “small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood”. It is called ______.a. meaning shiftb. broadeningc. narrowingd. borrowing5. “Kodak” is a/an ______.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clipping6. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are ______.a. grammatical wordsb. lexical wordsc. both grammatical words and lexical wordsd. neither grammatical words nor lexical words7. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are ______.a. open-class wordsb. closed-class wordsc. both open-class words and closed wordsd. neither open-class nor closed-class words8. In terms of ______, words can be divided into closed-class words and open-class words.a. meaningb. variabilityc. qualityd. membership9. _____ refers to any morphemes or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.a. affixb. rootc. stemd. suffix10. In the following words foot/feet, goose/geese, the affixes belong to ______.a. suffixb. infixc. prefixd. root11. Which of the following is NOT a compound word? （大纲样题）a. Landladyb. Greenhousec. Upliftd. Unacceptable12. The word holiday originally meant “holy day”; but now the word signifies “any day on which we don’t have to work”. This is an example of ______. （大纲a. meaning shiftb. widening of meaningc. narrowing of meaningd. loss of meaning13. The word “m otel” comes from “motor + hotel”. This is an example of ______ in morphology. (2010年全真)a. backformationb. conversionc. blendingd. acronym14. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年全真）a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics1. ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentence.a. Morphologyb. Syntaxc. Phoneticsd. Semantics2. Which one of the following does NOT belong to English cases?a. Nominativeb. Accusativec. Genitived. Dative3. When a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of category, it is referred to as _____.a. generationb. governmentc. transformationd. negation4. ______ refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.a. C-commandb. Immediate constituent analysisc. Deep structured. Communicative dynamism5. ______ is a general term for verbal category that distinguish the status of events, etc. in relation to specific period of times, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past, or future.a. tenseb. timec. moodd. aspect6. The relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc., e.g. between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts is called ______.a. syntagmatic relationb. paradigmatic relationb. positional relation d. relation of subsitutablity7. In English, theme and rheme are expressed by ______.a. subject and objectb. subject and predicatec. predicate and objectd. object and predicate8. Classical Creek and Arabic have a third number: ______, something like the English “both”.a. singleb. pluralc. duald. trial9. Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is ______, which is proposed by J. Firbas.a. C-commandb. immediate constituent analysisc. deep structured. communicative dynamism10. Those constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant and the other constituents being modifiers, are ______.a. endocentric constructionsb. exocentric constructionsc. deep structured. surface structure11. What type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.”? (2008年真题)a. a simple sentenceb. a coordinate sentencec. a complex sentenced. none of the above12. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年真题)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic13. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年全真)a. language functions.b. sentence structures.c. textual organization.d. word formation.语义学1. More specifically, _____ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.a. pragmaticsb. semanticsc. syntaxd. phonology2. In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL or FORM refers to ______.a. the linguistic elements (words, phrases)b. the object in the world of experiencec.conceptd. idea3. The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called ______.a. dialectal synonymsb. collocational synonymsc. stylistic synonymsd. complementary antonymy4. The word “table” has at least the six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called ______.a. polysemyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy5. The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of _____.a. synonymyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy6. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called _____. (2009年真题)a. dialectb. idiolectc. pidgind. register7. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ______. (2008年真题)a. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy8. The word tail once referred to the “tail of a horse”, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal”. This is an example of ______.(2007年真题)a. widening of meaningb. narrowing of meaningc. meaning shiftd. loss of meaning9. The word “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______. (2006年真题)a. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms10. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are ______.a. homophonesb. homographsc. complete homonymsd. allophones语用学1. Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how ______ influences the interpretation of meanings.a. wordb. contextc. sentenced. language form2. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher ______.a. Herbert Paul Griceb. Dan Sperberc. Deirdre Wilsond. John Langshaw Austin3. A(n) _____ is using a sentence to perform a function.a. Locutionary Actb. Illocutionary Actc. Perlocutionary Actd. In-locutionary Act4. The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature, proposed by Oxford philosopher ______.a. J. Austinb. Hallidayc. Herbert Paul Griced. Saussure5. The following maxims are the Cooperative Principles Except ______.a. quantity maximb. quality maximc. distance maximd. relation maxim6. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of Implicature?a. calculabilityb. cancellabilityc. non-detachabilityd. changeability7. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of ______.a. relevanceb. coordinationc. agreementd. reciprocity8. The notion of ______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language?a. communicationb. contextc. speech act theoryd. words9. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ______. (2009年真题)a. an illocutionary actb. a perlocutionary actc. a locutionary actd. none of the above10. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of ______. (2006年真题)a. referenceb. meaningc. antonymyd. context11. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005年真题)a. John Searleb. John Austinc. Noam Chomskyd. M.A.K Halliday12. The force of a/an ______ act is identical with the speaker’s intention.a. illocutionaryb. locutionaryc. perlocutionaryd. Prelocutionary其他1. The definition “the act of using, or promoting the use of several languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers”refers to _____. (2011年全真)a. pidginb. creolec. multilingualismd. bilingualism2. ______ refers to the learning and development of a language. (2010年全真)a. Language acquisitionb. Language comprehensionc. Language productiond. Language instruction3. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of differentlanguages for purposes of trading is called ______. (2009年全真)a. dialect.b. idiolect.c. pidgin.d. register.4. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年全真)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic5. With the ______, Latin words were added into the vocabulary of the language spoken in Britain.a. invasion of the Romansb. Christianization of Britainc. Scandinavian invasiond. Norman Conquest现代语言学理论和流派1. The Prague School is best known for its contribution to the distinction between phonetics and ______.a. soundb. phonemec. phonologyd. phone2. The founder of the London School is the British linguist ______.a. J. R. Firthb. Hallidayc. Bloomfieldd. Sapir3. Firth insisted that the object of linguistics is language ______.a. in oral useb. in actual usec. in booksd. in media4. The following function of adult’s language EXCEPT ______ are put forward by Halliday.a. the ideational functionb. the interpersonal functionc. the informative functiond. the textual function5. The principle representative of American descriptive linguistics is ______.a. L. Bloomfieldb. Chomskyc. Sapird. Saussure6. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is ______.a. Firthb. Saussurec. Hallidayd. Chomsky7. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ______.a. functionb. meaningc. signsd. system8. ______ is the founder of Transformational Generative Grammar.a. Noam Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured.Brown9. The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist ______ in the beginning of the 20th century.a. Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured. Fillmore10. A representative of the Contextualism was ______, the leading British linguist of the period. He held the view that “We shall know a word by the company it keeps”.a. Ogden and Richardsb. J. R. Firthc. Bloomfieldd. Leech11. Bloomfield further strengthened the contextualist view and drew on ______ when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.a. sociologyb. behaviorist psychologyc. anthropologyd. physiology12. ______ means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contrast of language data in the process of their L1 acquisition.a. Language facultyb. Language acquisition devicec. Universal grammard. Argument of poverty stimulus。
python 基础练习题
Advanced computation linguistics1. Collect the most frequent words in 5 genres of Brown Corpus:news, adventure, hobbies, science_fiction, romanceTo collect most frequent words from the given genres we can follow the following steps:>>> import nltk>>> from nltk.corpus import brown>>> brown.categories()['adventure', 'belles_lettres', 'editorial', 'fiction', 'government', 'hobbies','humor', 'learned', 'lore', 'mystery', 'news', 'religion', 'reviews', 'romance', 'science_fiction']>>> news_text = brown.words(categories=['news','adventure','hobbies','science_fiction','romance'])>>> from nltk.probability import FreqDist>>> fdist=FreqDist([w.lower() for w in news_text])>>> voca=fdist.keys()>>> voca[:50]['the', ',', '.', 'and', 'of', 'to', 'a', 'in', 'he', "''", '``', 'was', 'for','that', 'it', 'his', 'on', 'with', 'i', 'is', 'at', 'had', '?', 'as', 'be', 'you', ';', 'her', 'but', 'she', 'this', 'from', 'by', '--', 'have', 'they', 'said','not', 'are', 'him', 'or', 'an', 'one', 'all', 'were', 'would', 'there', '!', 'out', 'will']>>> voca1=fdist.items()>>> voca1[:50][('the', 18635), (',', 17215), ('.', 16062), ('and', 8269), ('of', 8131), ('to',7125), ('a', 7039), ('in', 5549), ('he', 3380), ("''", 3237), ('``', 3237), ('was', 3100), ('for', 2725), ('that', 2631), ('it', 2595), ('his', 2237), ('on', 2162), ('with', 2157), ('i', 2034), ('is', 2014), ('at', 1817), ('had', 1797), ('?', 1776), ('as', 1725), ('be', 1610), ('you', 1600), (';', 1394), ('her', 1368), ('but', 1296), ('she', 1270), ('this', 1248), ('from', 1174), ('by', 1157), ('--', 1151), ('have', 1099), ('they', 1093), ('said', 1081), ('not', 1051), ('are', 1019), ('him', 955), ('or', 950), ('an', 911), ('one', 903), ('all', 894), ('were', 882), ('would', 850), ('there', 807), ('!', 802), ('out', 781), ('will',775)]This means that the frequency of word “the” is more than others.2. Exclude or filter out all words that have a frequency lower than 15 occurrencies. (hint using conditional frequency distribution)By adding functionalities on the first task of collecting words based on their frequency ofoccurrences, we can filter words which has frequency occurrence of >=15.>>> filteredText= filter(lambda word: fdist[word]>=15,fdist.keys())>>> voca=fdist.keys()>>> filteredText[:50] /*first 50 words*/['the', ',', '.', 'and', 'of', 'to', 'a', 'in', 'he', "''", '``', 'was', 'for','that', 'it', 'his', 'on', 'with', 'i', 'is', 'at', 'had', '?', 'as', 'be', 'you', ';', 'her', 'but', 'she', 'this', 'from', 'by', '--', 'have', 'they', 'said','not', 'are', 'him', 'or', 'an', 'one', 'all', 'were', 'would', 'there', '!', 'out', 'will']>>> filteredText[-50:] /*last 50 words*/['musical', 'naked', 'names', 'oct.', 'offers', 'orders', 'organizations', 'parade', 'permit', 'pittsburgh', 'prison', 'professor', 'properly', 'regarded', 'release', 'republicans', 'responsible', 'retirement', 'sake', 'secrets', 'senior','sharply', 'shipping', 'sir', 'sister', 'sit', 'sought', 'stairs', 'starts', 'style', 'surely', 'symphony', 'tappet', "they'd", 'tied', 'tommy', 'tournament', 'understanding', 'urged', 'vice', 'views', 'village', 'vital', 'waddell', 'wagner', 'walter', 'waste', "we'd", 'wearing', 'winning']3. Then exclude or filter out all stopwords from the lists you have created.(hint using conditional frequency distribution)To filter the stop words we have to define tiny function using the word net library for 'english' language.>>> from nltk.corpus import stopwords>>> stopwords.words('english')['i', 'me', 'my', 'myself', 'we', 'our', 'ours', 'ourselves', 'you', 'your', 'yours', 'yourself', 'yourselves', 'he', 'him', 'his', 'himself', 'she', 'her', 'hers', 'herself', 'it', 'its', 'itself', 'they', 'them', 'their', 'theirs', 'themselves', 'what', 'which', 'who', 'whom', 'this', 'that', 'these', 'those', 'am','is', 'are', 'was', 'were', 'be', 'been', 'being', 'have', 'has', 'had', 'having', 'do', 'does', 'did', 'doing', 'a', 'an', 'the', 'and', 'but', 'if', 'or', 'because', 'as', 'until', 'while', 'of', 'at', 'by', 'for', 'with', 'about', 'against', 'between', 'into', 'through', 'during', 'before', 'after', 'above', 'below', 'to', 'from', 'up', 'down', 'in', 'out', 'on', 'off', 'over', 'under', 'again', 'further', 'then', 'once', 'here', 'there', 'when', 'where', 'why', 'how', 'all', 'any', 'both', 'each', 'few', 'more', 'most', 'other', 'some', 'such', 'no','nor', 'not', 'only', 'own', 'same', 'so', 'than', 'too', 'very', 's', 't', 'can', 'will', 'just', 'don', 'should', 'now']>>> def content_fraction(text):... stopwords= nltk.corpus.stopwords.words('english')... content = [w for w in text if w.lower() not in stopwords]... return len(content) / len(text)...>>> content_fraction(nltk.corpus.reuters.words())0.65997695393285261>>> filterdText = filterStopword(freqDist)>>> filterdText[:50][',', '.', "''", '``', '?', ';', '--', 'said', 'would', 'one', '!', 'could', '(', ')', ':', 'time', 'like', ' back','two', 'first', 'man','made', 'Mrs.', 'new', 'get', 'way', 'last', 'long', 'much', 'even', 'years', 'good', 'little', 'also', 'Mr.', 'see','right', 'make', 'got', 'home', 'many', 'never', 'work', 'know','day' , 'around', 'year', 'may', 'came', 'still']>>> freqDist[:50][',', 'the', '.', 'of', 'and', 'to', 'a', 'in', "''", '``', 'was', 'for', 'that', 'he', 'on', 'with', 'his', 'I', 'it','is', 'The', 'had', '?','at', 'as', 'be', ';', 'you', 'her', 'He', '--', 'from', 'by', 'said', 'h ave', 'not','are', 'this', 'him', 'or', 'were', 'an', 'but','would', 'she', 'they', 'one', '!', 'all', 'out ']From the result in filterdText words like 'the', 'it', 'is' and so on does not existcompared to the same number of output with stop words.>>> len(freqDist)2341>>> len(filterdText)2153We can further check that how many stop-words have been removed from the freqDist15 using len( ) function.4. Create a new list of lemmas or roots by normalizing all words by stemmingfor create the normalized list of lemmas we apply the Porter Stemmer nltk functionality.>>> file = open('filterdText.txt')>>> text = file.read()>>> textTokens = nltk.word_tokenize(text)Now we do stemming>>> p = nltk.PorterStemmer ( )>>> rootStemming = [p.stem(t) for t in textTokens]>>> textTokens[:100]['!', '&', "'", "''", "'em", '(', ')', ',', '--', '.', '1', '10', '100', '11', '12', '13', '14', '15', '16', '17', '18', '1958', '1959','1960', '1961', '2', '20', '200', '22', '25', '3', '30', '4', '5', '50', '6', '60 ', '7', '8', '9', ':', ';', '?', 'A.', 'Actually','Af', 'Ah', 'Aj', 'Alexander', 'Also', 'Although', 'Americ a', 'American', 'Americans','Among', 'Angeles','Anne', 'Anniston', 'Another', 'April', 'Association', 'Augu st', 'Austin', 'Avenue', 'B', "B'dikkat", 'B.','Barton', 'Beach', 'Belgians', 'Besides', 'Bill', 'Billy', 'B lue', 'Board', 'Bob','Bobbie', 'Boston', 'Brannon','British', 'C.', 'Cady', 'California', 'Catholic', 'Cath y', 'Center', 'Central', 'Charles', 'Charlie', 'Chicago','Christian', 'Church', 'City', 'Class', 'Clayton', 'Club', 'Co.', 'Coast','Cobb', 'College']This function can display sorted non normalized sample outputs for comparison>>> rootStemming[:100]['!', '&', "'", "''", "'em", '(', ')', ',', '--', '.', '1', '10', '100', '11', '12', '13', '14', '15', '16', '17', '18', '1958', '1959','1960', '1961', '2', '20', '200', '22', '25', '3', '30', '4', '5', '50', '6', '60 ', '7', '8', '9', ':', ';', '?', 'A.','Actual', 'Af','Ah', 'Aj', 'Alexand', 'Also', 'Although', 'America', 'American', 'American', 'Among','Angel', 'Ann','Anniston', 'Anoth', 'April', 'Associ', 'August', 'Austin','Avenu', 'B', "B'dikkat", 'B.','Barton', 'Beach','Belgian', 'Besid', 'Bill', 'Billi', 'Blue', 'Board', 'Bob ', 'Bobbi', 'Boston', 'Brannon','British', 'C.', 'Cadi','California', 'Cathol', 'Cathi','Center','Central','Charl','Charli','Chicago','Christian', 'Church', 'Citi','Class', 'Clayton', 'Club', 'Co.', 'Coast', ' Cobb', 'Colleg']This can sorted stemmed sample output for comparison5. Create a new list of lemmas or roots by normalizing all words by lemmatizationAfter importing the file we need to lemmatize, which is the same step as the previous one:and using the same rawText>>> wnl = nltk.WordNetLemmatizer()>>> rootLemmatize = [wnl.lemmatize(t) for t in textTokens]>>> rootLemmatize[:100] / *the first 100 sorted lemmatized lemmas for comparison*/['!', '&', "'", "''", "'em", '(', ')', ',', '--', '.', '1', '10', '100', '11', '12', '13', '14', '15', '16', '17', '18', '1958', '1959','1960', '1961', '2', '20', '200', '22', '25', '3', '30', '4', '5', '50', '6', '60 ', '7', '8', '9', ':', ';', '?', 'A.', 'Actually','Af', 'Ah', 'Aj', 'Alexander', 'Also', 'Although', 'Americ a', 'American', 'Americans','Among', 'Angeles','Anne', 'Anniston', 'Another', 'April', 'Association', 'Augu st', 'Austin', 'Avenue', 'B', "B'dikkat", 'B.','Barton', 'Beach', 'Belgians', 'Besides', 'Bill', 'Billy', 'B lue', 'Board', 'Bob','Bobbie', 'Boston', 'Brannon','British', 'C.', 'Cady', 'California', 'Catholic', 'Cath y', 'Center', 'Central', 'Charles', 'Charlie', 'Chicago','Christian', 'Church', 'City', 'Class', 'Clayton', 'Club','Co.','Coast','Cobb', 'College']We end this task by writing the out put of the lemmatized lemmas or rootwords to the file '(rootLemmatize.txt').6. Use the most frequent lemmas to find semantic similarities using WordNet.To find synsets with related meanings we have to traverse the WordNet network. knowing which word is semantically related is useful for indexing a collection of texts. For example a search for a general term like 'England' will match for specific terms like 'UK'.Top 100 frequent lemmas:>>> file = open('filterdText.txt') /*from 'filterdText' we get the words*/>>> tmp = file.read()>>> from nltk.tokenize import RegexpTokenizer /*remove punctuations*/>>>>>> tokenizer = RegexpTokenizer(r'\w+')>>> textSimilarity = tokenizer.tokenize(tmp)>>> freqDistSimilarity = FreqDist([w.lower() for w in textSimilarity]) /* extract the first 100 frequent lemmas to new list*/>>> for word in textSimilarity:... freqDistSimilarity.inc(word)>>> tmpFDS = freqDistSimilarity.keys()[:100] /* first 100 most frequent lemmas*/>>> freqDistSimilarity.items()[:50][('s', 64), ('t', 60), ('re', 24), ('d', 22), ('you', 20), ('ll', 18), ('m', 14), ('he', 12), ('let', 12), ('man', 10), ('p',10), ('we', 10), ('I', 8), ('i', 8), ('ve', 8), ('won', 8), ('year', 8), ('B', 6), ('a', 6), ('actually', 6), ('also', 6),('although', 6), ('among', 6), ('another', 6), ('association', 6), ('b', 6), ('beach', 6), ('bill', 6),('blue', 6),('board', 6), ('center', 6), ('central', 6), ('church', 6), (' city', 6), ('class', 6), ('club', 6), ('college', 6), ('come', 6), ('committee',6) ,('council',6),('county',6),('court',6),('day',6),('department',6),('district', 6), ('don', 6), ('earth', 6), ('education', 6), ('even', 6), ('every', 6)]>>> def pathSimilarity(word1,word2, s=wnet.path_similarity): /*path similarity between two words*/... synSets1= wnet.synsets(word1)... synSets2= wnet.synsets(word2)... pointSimilarity = []... for synSet1 in synSets1:... for synSet2 in synSets2:... pointSimilarity.append(s(synSet1,synSet2))... if len(pointSimilarity)==0:... return 0... else:... return max(pointSimilarity)>>> tmpFDS[30:35] /*arbitrary path similarity test for 5 lemmas*/['center', 'central', 'church', 'city', 'class']>>> for word1 in tmpFDS[30:35]:... for word2 in tmpFDS[30:35]:... print word1+' == '+word2+' -->', pathSimilarity(word1,word2)center == center --> 1.0center == central --> 0.25center == church --> 0.25center == city --> 0.166center == class --> 0.5central == center --> 0.2central == central --> 1.0central == church --> 0.083central == city --> 0.111central == class --> 0.083church == center --> 0.25church == central --> 0.2church == church --> 1.0church == city --> 0.166church == class --> 0.2city == center --> 0.166city == central --> 0.111city == church --> 0.166city == city --> 1.0city == class --> 0.25class == center --> 0.5class == central --> 0.166class == church --> 0.2class == city --> 0.25class == class --> 1.0Because of the different sizes of synset for the lemmas we can get different path similarity . An independent path similarity test on the synonym sets also proves the same hypothesis.We continue the analysis with the rest of the lemmas by calling the pathSimilarity( ) function with the provided arguments. From above results we can say that the root word 'class' and'center' has a better semantic similarity.。
语言学笔记
语言学笔记I Introduction1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the systematic/scientific study of language.study: investigate, examine, not learnscientific: based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure, the way in which it is studied.language(zero article): It implies that it studies not any particular language, but languages in general.What is the relationship between data & theory?▲In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data is hardly valid; data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.The process of study may be as follows:1) Certain linguistics facts are found to display some similarities, so generalizations are made about them.2) On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for the facts. These hypotheses are tested by further observations.3) A theory is constructed about how language works.2. What is a linguist? What is the main task for him?A person who studies linguistics. He does not need to be able to use a large number of languages for communication purposes, but he should have a wide experience of different types of languages. His task is not to learn to use any particular language, but to study how each language is constructed, how it is used by its speakers, and how it is related to other languages. He is alsoconcerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from one social class to another, how it changes from one historical period to the next, and how children acquire their mother tongue. To sum up, his task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. To make his analysis as scientific as possible, he is usually guided by 4 principles.▲Consistency (一致性): there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.▲Economy (经济性) : other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a long or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible ones which can account most fully for all facts.▲Objectivity(客观性): a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalization.▲Exhaustiveness(穷尽性): to gather all the materials relevant to one‘s investigation and give them an adequate explanation.3. What are the scopes of linguistics?▲Phonetics: the study of human speech sound▲Phonology: the sound pattering▲Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed▲Syntax: the arrangement of sentences▲Sem antics: the study of meaning▲Pragmatics: the study of how speakers use sentences to effect successful communication▲Psycholinguistics: the relationship between language & the mind▲Historic linguistics: the study of language change▲Sociolinguistics: the relationship between language & society▲Applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories & principles to language teaching( narrow sense)▲Anthropological linguistics▲Neurological linguistics▲Mathematical linguistics▲Computational linguisti cs4. What are some important distinctions in linguistics?(重要区别)①Synchronic linguistics (共时语言学):the study of a language system at one particular point in time （研究特定时间的语言体系）Diachronic (historical)linguistics (历时语言学):an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period time（研究语言在一段时期内怎样变化）In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.e.g. The sound system of Modern British English②Prescriptive vs. descriptive( 规定性与描写性)▲The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are.▲Do/Don‘t say X. (prescriptive)▲People do/ don‘t say X. (descriptive)Look at the following pairs of sentences:▲It is I. It is me.▲Who did you speak to?▲Whom did you speak to?▲I haven‘t done anything.▲I haven‘t done nothing.▲③Speech & writing5. Why do modern linguistics regardthe spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language?▲1) linguistic evolution; ( historically)▲2) daily communication; (function)▲3)acquisition of the mother tongue; ( genetically)▲4) features of human speech (authentic)▲④Langue & parole(语言与言语)Who made the distinction between langue and parole? And when?▲F. de Saussure ( a Swiss linguist) in the early 20th century.▲― if we could embrace the sum of word-images stored in the minds of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language( langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.( ------Saussure 1959:13-14 ) ▲―如果我们能了解所有个人头脑中的语言形象，我们就能知道形成语言的社会因素。
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. 5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions,one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i] rice [rʌis]rise [ra i z]by [ba i] type [tʌip]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i] wife [wʌif]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌik]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in thedialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。
计算语言学
计算语言学计算语言学（computerlanguagestudy），是20世纪50年代初期形成的一门新兴学科，它以当时非常先进的数理逻辑和集合论为基础，借助电子计算机这一工具而得到迅速发展。
1。
计算语言学研究对象及内容计算语言学是从理论上研究各种计算问题所用的语言及其相关问题的学科。
其中主要有两个方面：①理论语言学，研究语言规律及其应用; ②应用语言学，研究各类计算问题的语言实现方法及实际问题解决。
2。
计算语言学研究的目的主要是：计算机设备的开发；计算机程序语言和操作系统的设计；计算机程序自动化、智能化、人工智能化等的研究；计算机在教育、科技、经济领域中的应用。
它是语言学的一个分支学科，主要研究各类计算问题的语言实现方法及其程序系统的描述、设计、分析、研制、使用与评价等。
3。
计算语言学的学科性质与学科体系计算语言学是一门多层次的综合学科。
它是一门由几十种甚至上百种语言组成的巨大语言体系。
它不仅包括一般程序设计语言（如FORTRAN， COBOL等），还包括像数据结构、数据库语言、图形处理语言、计算机算法等专业计算语言。
同时，计算语言学又是由几十个语言组成的独立的学科群。
它们可以根据需要加以分类、整理或组织。
按照语言功能划分为语法语言学和语义语言学两大部分。
4。
计算语言学的发展历史与前景计算语言学在美国产生于20世纪50年代末60年代初。
60年代后期，在西欧一些国家发展很快。
在我国，尽管起步较晚，但也引起了人们的重视。
特别是80年代中期，国家“七五”重点攻关项目“计算机辅助汉语教学软件系统”的研究与开发成功，标志着我国计算语言学的研究进入了一个新阶段。
5。
计算语言学在社会上的应用5。
计算语言学在社会上的应用计算语言学已经广泛地应用于各种计算机应用系统，成为社会最为关注的热门课题之一。
有关单位正在不断推出各种与计算机有关的计算语言学的应用软件。
它们使计算机应用系统的普及推广更加深入。
在一定意义上说，计算机本身就是一个不错的信息处理工具，能够完成某些运算与控制。
Computational_Linguistics_01计算语言学概论
名称
授课时间授课地点助教
平时成绩期末笔试
计算语言学是一门交叉学科。
计算语言
语言障碍
终极目标当前目标
建立形式化的适于计算机处理的语言模研制分析、生成以及处理语言的各种算
规则方法举例
计算语言学的研究方法
用上述规则分析句子“the boy saw the girl with a telescope”
All grammar leak (Sapir 1921)
一般而言，很多基于规则的系统不能满
融合规则驱动和数据驱动的方法
著名的例子
联机机器翻译网站
联机
信息检索系统Google
文本数据结构化
文本分类（自动判别文本的类别）音字转换（汉字整句输入法）
拼写检查和自动勘校系统。
语言学的学科分类
语言学的学科分类1.语言学的宏观分类依据不同的分类标准，我们可以提出不同的语言学学科分类方案。
1.1一般与个别的分类标准一普通语言学(General Linguistics，o6wee 月3BIKO3HaHUe)和具体语言学(Specific Linguistics, KOHKpeTHoe 月3BIKO3HaHUe)1.2内部和外部的分类标准一内部语言学(Internal Linguistics, BHyTpeHH朋nHHFBHCTHKa)和外部语言学(External Linguistics, BHemH^aHKHEBHCTHKa)1.3动态和静态的分类标准一历时语言学(Diachronic Linguistics,gnaxpOHKHecKaa RUHrBucTUKa)和共时语言学Synchronic Linguistics,CHHXpOHHHeCKa^ HUHFBUCTUKa)1.4同一和异一的分类标准--比较语言学(Comparative Linguistics,CpaBHUTenbHaa RUHrBUCTUKa )和对比语言学Contrastive Linguistics,COHOCTaBUTenEHaa RUHrBUCTUKa)1.5理论与实践的分类标准--理论语言学(Theoretical Linguistics,TeOpeTUHeCKaa RUHrBUCTUKa)和应用语言学(Applied Linguistics,npUKRagHaa RUHrBUCTUKa)2.语言学的微观分类2. 1研究语音和文字的系列2.1.1语音学(phonetics, ^OHeTUKa)2.1.2音位学(音系学)(phonology，^OHOROFUa)2.1.3重音学(accentology, aKqeHTOROrUa)2.1.4表音法(graphics, rpa^UKa)2.1.5正音法(orthoepy，Op^OanUa)2.1.6正字法或拼写法(orthography，Op^Orpa^Ua)2.2研究语法的系列2.2.1词法学或形态学(morphology，MOp^OROFUa)2.2.2句法学(syntax，CUHTaKCUC)2.2.3构词法(word formation，CROBOO6pa3OBaHUe)2.2.4标点法(punctuation，nyHKTyauUa)2.3研究词汇的系列2.3.1词汇学(lexicology，ReKCUKOROrUa)2.3.2成语学(idiom study，$pa3eOROFUa)2.3.3词典学(lexicography，ReKCUKOrpa^Ua)2.3.4 专名学(onomastics, OHOMacTUKa)2.4研究语言历史的系列2.4.1语言史(linguistic history, ucTOpux 只3BiKa)2.4.2古代语言(ancient language, gpeBHu宜只3BIK)2.4.3语源学(etymology，3TUMonoruG2.4.4方言学(dialectology，guaReKTonoruG2.5综合学科系列2.5.1语义学(semantics，ceMaHTUKa)2.5.2语用学(pragmatics，nparMaTUKa)2.5.3修辞学(stylistics & rhetoric，CTunucTUKa)2.5.4教学法(pedagogy & methodology，MeToguKa)2.5.5翻译(translation，nepeBog)2.5.6伴随语言学(paralinguistics，napanuHrBucTUKa)2.6边缘学科系列2.6.1社会语言学(sociolinguistics，coquonuHrBucTuKa)2.6.2符号语言学(semiotic linguistics, ceMuoTunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.3心理语言学(psycholinguistics，ncuxonuHrBucruKa)2.6.4神经语言学(neurolinguistics，He宜ponuHrBucruKa)2.6.5人类语言学(anthropolinguistics，aHTpononuHrBucruKa)2.6.6哲理语言学(philosophical linguistics，^unoco^cKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.7认知语言学(cognitive linguistics，KorHuTuBHaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.8数理语言学(mathematical linguistics，MareMaTunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.9计算语言学(computational linguistics，KoMnb^TepHaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.10工程语言学(engineering linguistics，uH^eHepHaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.11地理语言学(geographical linguistics，reorpa^unecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.12文化语言学(cultural linguistics，KynbTypHaa RUHEBUCTUKU)2.6.13模糊语言学(fuzzy linguistics, gu^^y3Haa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.14生态语言学(ecololinguistics, SKonorunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.15生物语言学(biolinguistics, 6uonorunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.16病理语言学(clinical linguistics, naronuHrBucruKa)2.6.17生理语言学 (physiological linguistics, $u3uonorunecKaa nuHrBucruKa) 2.6.18民族语言学(ethnolinguistics, 3THonuHFBucruKa)2.6.19声学语言学(acoustic linguistics, aKycrunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.20宇宙语言学(cosmical linguistics, KocMonuHrBucruKa)2.6.21化学语言学(chemical linguistics, xuMunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)2.6.22参量语言学 (parametric linguistics, napaMerpunecKaa nuHrBucruKa)。
linguistics的分类
linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。
它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。
它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。
它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。
4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。
它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。
它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。
它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。
7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。
它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。
8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。
它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。
9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。
它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。
这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。
不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。
细粒度实体分类的研究进展
细粒度实体分类的研究进展刘波(韩山师范学院数学与统计学院 广东潮州 521041)摘要：细粒度实体分类是自然语言处理中一项重要的基础任务，实体的类别信息为实体链接、关系抽取、事件抽取等下游任务提供帮助。
近年来，基于深度学习的细粒度实体分类研究成为热点，该文从处理数据噪声、对类别层级建模、少样本学习和其他一些方法进行了综述性介绍，并介绍了常见的数据集和评测方法，并对未来的研究方向进行了展望。
关键词：自然语言处理 细粒度实体分类 深度学习 信息抽取中图分类号：TP391.1文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2023)11-0167-04 Research Progress of Fine-Grained Entity ClassificationLIU Bo(School of Mathematics and Statistics, Hanshan Normal University, Chaozhou, Guangdong Province,521041 China)Abstract:Fine-grained entity classification is an important basic task in natural language processing, and the cat‐egory information of entities provides help for downstream tasks such as entity linking, relation extraction and event extraction. In recent years, the research on fine-grained entity classification based on deep learning has be‐come a hot topic. This paper gives an overview of dealing with data noise, category-level modeling, few-sample learning and some other methods, introduces common datasets and evaluation methods, and prospects future re‐search directions.Key Words: Natural language processing; Fine-grained entity classification; Deep learning; Information extraction细粒度实体分类任务是给定一个实体和包含这个实体的上下文预测这个实体可能的类别集合。
语言学练习题 Chapter 2 Linguistics
Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1)syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2)langue vs parole3)competence vs performance4)descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5)theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6)deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7)synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8)macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9)Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because it cantell us how to speak correct language.2)( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user‘s underlyingknowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concretesituations.3)( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4)( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5)( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language developmentthrough time.6)( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they canbe improved.7)( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions‖ what is a language‖ and ―How does alanguage work‖.8)( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows thearbitrary nature of languages.9)( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and a systemof meaning.10)( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must belearned a new by each speaker.11)( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas.12)( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite setof sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13)( ) Hall iday‘s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance14)( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development of language.15)( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal andsituational constraints.16)( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students is basicallydescriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‗ communicative skills.17)( ) Saussure‘s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics18)( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.19)( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of a language over aperiod of time.21)( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance andlinguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of thelanguage.22)( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of a particularlanguage.23)( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.26)( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27)( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29)( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about how a sentence isformed.32)( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a language at aparticular point of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ______ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is knowns as ________.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. langue C speech D. writing4) Which of the following is not the major brach of linguistics?A. phonologyB. pragmaticsC. syntax D speech5) ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. Comparative linguistics.7）________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons8) The study of language as a whole is often called ---.A. general linguisticsB. sociolingyusticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics9) The study of language meaning is called--.A. syntaxB. semantics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The description of a language at some point in time is a – study.A synchronic B. diachronic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.2) is the actual realization of one‘s linguistic knowledge in utterances.3) Modem linguistic is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language israther than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.5) Saussure put forward two important concepts, refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all members of a speech community.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure‘ s langue and Chomsky‘ s .7) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)(4)8) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internal structureof sentences.10) In Saussure‘s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) and signif ied(concept) is .11) is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics ofits users.12) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure.The distinction between competence and performance is made by the Americanlinguist .13) The writing system.of English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapanese as ___writing system.14) According to John Lyons, ___ linguistics_ deals with language in general and _linguistics is concerned with one particular language.15) In de Saussure‘s term, _____ refers to the system of language and _____ refers to thespeaker‘s speech.16) _____ is the science that deals with the sound system.17) Syntax studies two kinds of rules: _____ rules and rules18) Langue or competence is ______ and not directly observed, while parole or performanceis _____ and directly observable.19) A ________ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.20) ___ ___ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about the sounds and sound patternsof his language.21) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about how a word is formed.22) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about whether a sentence isgrammatical or not.23) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about the meaning of language,including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.24) ______ is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25) ______ examines word formation and the internal structure of words.5. Answer the following questions.1) What is the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics?2) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics? Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely?3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptivegrammar.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language?5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differences between ―competence‖ and ―performance‖?7) What is the major difference between Saussure‘s distinction of langue and parole andChomsky‘s distinction of competence and performance? what should be studies inlinguistics in your opinion and why?8) Expla in ―speech and writing‖, and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1）syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or ―strings‘ as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination. It refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence. Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers‖ parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole isa mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist oughtto do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1)According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‘s performance does not always match or equal h is supposed competence.(2)Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‘s language parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language throughthe Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled‖ On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects of a language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system from two aspects — lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9）Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics.Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19th century, linguistics comes to be an independent discipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by means of comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)(F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because itcan tell us how to speak correct language.2)(T) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user‘sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language inconcrete situations.3)(F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. (中国矿业大学，2004)4)(T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. (中国矿业大学，2004)5)(F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language developmentthrough time. (中国矿业大学，2004)6)(T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with howthey can be improved. (中国矿业大学，2004)7)(T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions‖ what is a language‖ and ―Howdoes a language work‖. （南京师范大学，2002）8)(F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which showsthe arbitrary nature of languages. （中国矿业大学，2002）9)(T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and asystem of meaning. （中国矿业大学，2002）10)(T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic systemmust be learned a new by each speaker. （中国矿业大学，2002）11)(F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas. （中国矿业大学，2002）12)(F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending aninfinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality. （中国矿业大学，2002）13)(F) Halliday‘s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole andperformance14)(T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development oflanguage.15)(T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personaland situational constraints.16)(T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students is basicallydescriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‗ communicativeskills.17)(F) Saussure‘s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historicallinguistics.18)(T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories tolanguage teaching and learning.19)(F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)(T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of alanguage over a period of time.21)(F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in anutterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the samesub-system of the language.22)(F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of aparticular language.23)( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)(F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)(F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for therules of language in general.26)(T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27)(T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)(T) All the English words are not symbolic.29)(F) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)(T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)(F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about ho w a sentenceis formed.32)(F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)(F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a language at aparticular point of time.3. Multiple choice1) – 5): BCBDC 6) – 10): DBABA4. Word completion1) Langue 2) Performance3) descriptive 4) diachronic5) langue 6) competence7) (1) consistency (2) economy (3) objectivity (4) exhaustiveness8) Morphology 9) syntax10) arbitrary 11) socialinguistics12) Chomsky 13) syllabic14) general, descriptive 15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics?The former deals with language in general, i.e. the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between synchronic.and diachronic linguistics? Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely?(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present)as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure‘s most centralideas expressed in the form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees languageas a living whole;existing as a ―‗state‖ at a particular moment in time; the latt er sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to know.something about X and Y. Correspondingly,a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated asSanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set of chessmen is like a state of language. ―The respective valu e of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms.‖ On the other hand, the value of each piece also;depends on the convention--the setof rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language.A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of language change. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next. This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language. The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with language changes. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before. Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state. Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of the speech community. Although prescriptivism is still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a language community the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ①The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in chara cter, e.g. ―you should never use a double-negative‖;―you should not split the infinitive‖ etc.People realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority, stipulated ―standards!‘. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is or is not correct in English. ②Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. The related social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will lead to artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. While prescriptivists would prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), it is very difficult to claim that everyone who uses ―was‖ is wrong, especially as.they are the majority in spoken language. While ther e are still traditionalist grammarians claiming that they are right and half the population is wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it as formal register. ③The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved over the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language?The four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis‘of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be ―inelegant‖ or ―substandard‖. Nor should he conceal facts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified; not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of different data based on the same set of principles. It is the insistence on these principles, particularly objectivity that gives linguistics the status of a science.5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.(1) Most linguistic analysis today is focused on speech rather than writing. Everything considered, speech is believed to be more representative of human language than writing. In spite of the common features they share, they differ because they are transmitted in different channels. This is one major difference between linguists today and the grammarians of the 19th century;(2) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is hugely prescriptive. Many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary, religious) written language. Grammarians often use logical and aesthetic criteria to judge the correctness of sentences and lay down rules for ―correct‖ behavior. Linguists today, however, have made a special point of guarding against prescriptivism. They believe that whatever occurs in natural speech should be described ir/their analysis.(3) Another difference is the priority of synchronic descriptions over the traditional diachronic studies. Modem linguistics holds that unless the various states of a language am successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.6) What are the main differences between ―competence‖ and ―performance‖?(1) This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.A language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(2) Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recoguizegrammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. For。
Quizforlinguistics-习题整理含答案
Quiz for linguistics:Chapter 1: Linguistics and Language语言和语言学1. Which of the following is the most important function of language?a. Interpersonal functionb. Performative functionc. Informative functiond. Recreational function2. ______ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc..a. Phonologyb. Phoneticsc. Morphologyd. Pragmatics3. ______ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.a. Performativeb. Interpersonalc. Phaticd. Metalingual4. ______ means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.a. Creativityb. Dualityc. Arbitrarinessd. Displacement5. By ______ it means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.a. arbitrarinessb. dualityc. creativityd. displacement6. ______ distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual production of speeches.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Gilmand. Brown7. ______ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.a. Competenceb. Performancec. Eloquenced. Action8. ______ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.a. Psycholinguisticsb. Sociolinguisticsc. Anthropological linguisticsd. Computational linguistics9. ______ studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.a. Pragmaticsb. Semanticsc. Syntaxd. Phonetics10. ______ is a branch of linguistics concerned in principle with the physical representation of language or linguistic processes in the brain.a. Anthropological linguisticsb. Psychological linguisticsc. Computational linguisticsd. Neurolinguistics11. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is ______ (大纲样题)a. morphologyb. general linguisticsc. phonologyd. semantics12. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年真题)a. language functionb. sentence structuresc. textual organizationd. word formation13. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language? (2005年真题)a. arbitrarinessb. productivityc. cultural transmissiond. finiteness14. The distinction between parole and langue was made by ______. (2006年真题)a. Hallidayb. Chomskyc. Bloomfieldd. Saussure15. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年真题)a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics16. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? (2008年真题)a. Arbitrarinessb. Displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity17. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is ______. (2009年真题)a. corpus linguisticsb. sociolinguisticsc. theoretical linguisticsd. pysholinguistics18. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “Highway Closed”on a highway serves ______. (2010年真题)a. an expressive function.b. an informative function.c. a performative function.d. a persuasive function.19. ______ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind. (2011年真题)a. Semanticsb. Pragmaticsc. Cognitive linguisticsd. Sociolinguistics20. Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as ____a. paroleb. languagec. systemd. langue1. ______ is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.a. Acoustic phoneticsb. Articulatory phoneticsc. Auditory phoneticsd. Pragmatics2. When ______ is produced, complete closure of the articulators is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth.a. fricativeb. stopc. affricated. lateral3. In the production of vowels, air is ______ as is the case with consonants.a. not obstructedb. obstructedc. semi-obstructedd. half-obstructed4. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the ______ grammarian Otto Jespersen in 1886.a. Englishb. Americanc. Danishd. French5. The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in the ______ by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones and his colleagues at University of London.a. 1910sb. 1920sc. 1930sd. 1940s6. To be specific, ______ deals with how speech sounds are produced.a. articulatory phoneticsb. acoustic phoneticsc. auditory phoneticsd. phonological phonetics7. All the following are the description of [P] EXCEPT ______.a. stopb. bilabialc. alveolard. consonant8. If a single movement from one element to a second element of the tongue is involved, the combine vowels are called ______.a. monophthongsb. triphthongsc. cardinal vowelsd. diphthongs9. The most famous cardinal vowel system put forward by Daniel Jones defines ______ primary cardinal vowels.a. 7b. 8c. 9d. 1010. The followings belong to affricates EXCEPT ______.a. [ts]b. [l]c. [D]d. [tr]11. According to the part of the tongue which is raised, the vowels can be divided into the following three kinds, EXCEPT for ______.a. frontb. middlec. centrald. back12. A vowel is different from a consonant in English because of _______. (2011年真题)a. absence of obstructionb. presence of obstructionc. manner of articulationd. place of articulation13. If the air stream meets with no obstruction when a sound is pronounced, it is a(n) ______.a. voiced consonantb. voiceless consonantc. voweld. explosive14. The internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is ______.a. I.P.Ab. I.A.P.Sc. I.S.Sd. S.S.I.P1. ______ refers to two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.a. Ahonemeb. A minimal pairc. Allophoned. Free variation2. Phonology is the study of ______.a. how speech sounds are madeb. the sound system of languagesc. speech sounds are transmittedd. how speech sounds are received3. The following are the principle suprasegmental features EXCEPT _______.a. syllableb. stressc. toned. phoneme4. Which aspect does NOT belong to the phonological process?a. A set of sounds to undergo the processb. A set of sounds produced by the processc. The length of the sounds in the processd. A set of situations in which the process applies5. ______ refers to the sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language.a. Phoneb. Allophonec. Phonemed. Morpheme6. The open syllable refers to the syllable that has no ______.a. codab. onsetc. nucleusd. rhyme7. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. Which of the following is tone language?a. Englishb. Chinesec. both English and Chinesed. Neither English nor Chinese8. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a ______.a. minimal pairb. complementary distributionc. phonemic contrastd. minimal set9. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature in English phonology?a. aspirationb. plosivenessc. bilabialityd. voicelessness1. ______ is a unit that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.a. Phonemeb. Morphemec. Lexemed. Phone2. The words such as dog, nation and close are ______.a. affixesb. free morphemesc. bound morphemesd. compounds3. The words such as “smog” and ”brunch” are called ______.a. abbreviationb. acronymc. back-formationd. blending4. For example, the word bead originally means “prayer”, but later it refers to “the prayer bead”, and finally “small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood”. It is called ______.a. meaning shiftb. broadeningc. narrowingd. borrowing5. “Kodak” is a/an ______.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clipping6. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are ______.a. grammatical wordsb. lexical wordsc. both grammatical words and lexical wordsd. neither grammatical words nor lexical words7. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are ______.a. open-class wordsb. closed-class wordsc. both open-class words and closed wordsd. neither open-class nor closed-class words8. In terms of ______, words can be divided into closed-class words and open-class words.a. meaningb. variabilityc. qualityd. membership9. _____ refers to any morphemes or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.a. affixb. rootc. stemd. suffix10. In the following words foot/feet, goose/geese, the affixes belong to ______.a. suffixb. infixc. prefixd. root11. Which of the following is NOT a compound word? （大纲样题）a. Landladyb. Greenhousec. Upliftd. Unacceptable12. The word holiday originally meant “holy day”; but now the word signifies “any day on which we don’t have to work”. This is an example of ______. （大纲样题）a. meaning shiftb. widening of meaningc. narrowing of meaningd. loss of meaning13. The word “motel”comes from “motor + hotel”. This is an example of______ in morphology. (2010年全真)a. backformationb. conversionc. blendingd. acronym14. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年全真）a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics句法学1. ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentence.a. Morphologyb. Syntaxc. Phoneticsd. Semantics2. Which one of the following does NOT belong to English cases?a. Nominativeb. Accusativec. Genitived. Dative3. When a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of category, it is referred to as _____.a. generationb. governmentc. transformationd. negation4. ______ refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.a. C-commandb. Immediate constituent analysisc. Deep structured. Communicative dynamism5. ______ is a general term for verbal category that distinguish the status of events, etc. in relation to specific period of times, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past, or future.a. tenseb. timec. moodd. aspect6. The relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc., e.g. between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts is called ______.a. syntagmatic relationb. paradigmatic relationb. positional relation d. relation of subsitutablity7. In English, theme and rheme are expressed by ______.a. subject and objectb. subject and predicatec. predicate and objectd. object and predicate8. Classical Creek and Arabic have a third number: ______, something like the English “both”.a. singleb. pluralc. duald. trial9. Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is ______, which is proposed by J. Firbas.a. C-commandb. immediate constituent analysisc. deep structured. communicative dynamism10. Those constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant and the other constituents being modifiers, are ______.a. endocentric constructionsb. exocentric constructionsc. deep structured. surface structure11. What type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.”? (2008年真题)a. a simple sentenceb. a coordinate sentencec. a complex sentenced. none of the above12. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年真题)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic13. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年全真)a. language functions.b. sentence structures.c. textual organization.d. word formation.语义学1. More specifically, _____ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.a. pragmaticsb. semanticsc. syntaxd. phonology2. In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL or FORM refers to ______.a. the linguistic elements (words, phrases)b. the object in the world of experiencec.conceptd. idea3. The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called ______.a. dialectal synonymsb. collocational synonymsc. stylistic synonymsd. complementary antonymy4. The word “table”has at least the six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called ______.a. polysemyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy5. The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of _____.a. synonymyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy6. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called _____. (2009年真题)a. dialectb. idiolectc. pidgind. register7. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ______. (2008年真题)a. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy8. The word tail once referred to the “tail of a horse”, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal”. This is an example of ______.(2007年真题)a. widening of meaningb. narrowing of meaningc. meaning shiftd. loss of meaning9. The word “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______. (2006年真题)a. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms10. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are ______.a. homophonesb. homographsc. complete homonymsd. allophones1. Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how ______ influences the interpretation of meanings.a. wordb. contextc. sentenced. language form2. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher ______.a. Herbert Paul Griceb. Dan Sperberc. Deirdre Wilsond. John Langshaw Austin3. A(n) _____ is using a sentence to perform a function.a. Locutionary Actb. Illocutionary Actc. Perlocutionary Actd. In-locutionary Act4. The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature, proposed by Oxford philosopher ______.a. J. Austinb. Hallidayc. Herbert Paul Griced. Saussure5. The following maxims are the Cooperative Principles Except ______.a. quantity maximb. quality maximc. distance maximd. relation maxim6. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of Implicature?a. calculabilityb. cancellabilityc. non-detachabilityd. changeability7. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of ______.a. relevanceb. coordinationc. agreementd. reciprocity8. The notion of ______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language?a. communicationb. contextc. speech act theoryd. words9. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ______. (2009年真题)a. an illocutionary actb. a perlocutionary actc. a locutionary actd. none of the above10. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of ______. (2006年真题)a. referenceb. meaningc. antonymyd. context11. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005年真题)a. John Searleb. John Austinc. Noam Chomskyd. M.A.K Halliday12. The force of a/an ______ act is identical with the speaker’s intention.a. illocutionaryb. locutionaryc. perlocutionaryd. Prelocutionary1. The definition “the act of using, or promoting the use of several languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers” refers to _____. (2011年全真)a. pidginb. creolec. multilingualismd. bilingualism2. ______ refers to the learning and development of a language. (2010年全真)a. Language acquisitionb. Language comprehensionc. Language productiond. Language instruction3. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called ______. (2009年全真)a. dialect.b. idiolect.c. pidgin.d. register.4. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年全真)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic5. With the ______, Latin words were added into the vocabulary of the language spoken in Britain.a. invasion of the Romansb. Christianization of Britainc. Scandinavian invasiond. Norman Conquest现代语言学理论和流派1. The Prague School is best known for its contribution to the distinction between phonetics and ______.a. soundb. phonemec. phonologyd. phone2. The founder of the London School is the British linguist ______.a. J. R. Firthb. Hallidayc. Bloomfieldd. Sapir3. Firth insisted that the object of linguistics is language ______.a. in oral useb. in actual usec. in booksd. in media4. The following function of adult’s language EXCEPT ______ are put forward by Halliday.a. the ideational functionb. the interpersonal functionc. the informative functiond. the textual function5. The principle representative of American descriptive linguistics is ______.a. L. Bloomfieldb. Chomskyc. Sapird. Saussure6. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is ______.a. Firthb. Saussurec. Hallidayd. Chomsky7. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ______.a. functionb. meaningc. signsd. system8. ______ is the founder of Transformational Generative Grammar.a. Noam Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured.Brown9. The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist ______ in the beginning of the 20th century.a. Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured. Fillmore10. A representative of the Contextualism was ______, the leading British linguist of the period. He held the view that “We shall know a word by the company it keeps”.a. Ogden and Richardsb. J. R. Firthc. Bloomfieldd. Leech11. Bloomfield further strengthened the contextualist view and drew on ______ when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.a. sociologyb. behaviorist psychologyc. anthropologyd. physiology12. ______ means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contrast of language data in the process of their L1 acquisition.a. Language facultyb. Language acquisition devicec. Universal grammard. Argument of poverty stimulus。
会议投稿时间总汇
会议投稿时间总汇以下是一些常见的学术会议的截稿日期和录用通知日期：ACL 2024（全称：Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics）：截稿日期为2023年1月20日，录用通知日期为2023年5月1日。
CVPR 2024（全称：IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition）：截稿日期为2023年11月18日，录用通知日期为2024年2月27日。
SIGKDD 2024（全称：ACM Special Interest Group on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining）：截稿日期为2023年2月2日，录用通知日期为2023年5月16日。
WWW 2024（全称：ACM the Web Conference）：截稿日期为2023年10月12日，录用通知日期为2024年2月1日。
SIGMOD 2024（全称：ACM SIGMOD/PODS International Conference on Management of Data）：截稿日期为2023年1月（4月、7月、10月）/15（round1、2、3、4），录用通知日期为2023年5月（8月、11月、次年2月）/23。
ICDE 2024（全称：IEEE International Conference on Data Engineering）：截稿日期为2023年7月28日和12月3日，录用通知日期为2023年10月16日和次年1月19日。
ACM MM 2024（全称：ACM Multimedia）：截稿日期为2023年5月4日，录用通知日期为2023年7月25日。
MobiCom 2024（全称：ACM International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking）：截稿日期为2023年8月19日和3月17日。
计算语言学(2024)
造性。
18
2024/1/29
05
CATALOGUE
语音识别与合成
19
语音识别的原理
声学建模
将输入的语音信号转换为声学特 征向量，如梅尔频率倒谱系数（ MFCC），以描述语音的声学特
性。
2024/1/29
语言建模
构建语言模型来描述词与词之间的 概率关系，常用的有N-gram模型 和神经网络语言模型。
2024/1/29
12
句法分析
句子结构分析
确定句子中词汇之间的结构关系，如主谓宾、定状补 等。
依存关系分析
分析句子中词汇之间的依存关系，如动词与其宾语、 形容词与其修饰的名词等。
短语结构分析
识别并分析句子中的短语结构，如名词短语、动词短 语等。
2024/1/29
13
语义理解
词汇语义
理解词汇在特定上下文中的含义和用法。
1 2
个性化语言处理技术的发展
随着个性化需求的不断增长，计算语言学将更加 注重个性化语言处理技术的研究和应用，如个性 化推荐、情感分析等。
多模态语言处理的深度融合
未来计算语言学将更加注重多模态语言处理的深 度融合，实现文本、语音、图像等多种信息的联 合处理和应用。
语言智能的进一步提升
3
随着计算语言学技术的不断发展，语言智能将得 以进一步提升，实现更加自然、高效的人机交互 和智能应用。
基于规则的翻译
通过预设的语法和词汇规则进行翻译，这种方法需要大量的手工编 码规则。
基于统计的翻译
利用大量的双语语料库进行统计学习，构建翻译模型。这种方法可 以自动从语料库中学习翻译规则，避免了手工编码的繁琐。
基于神经网络的翻译
通过深度学习技术，构建大规模的神经网络模型进行翻译。这种方法 可以自动学习语言的复杂特征，并实现更加准确的翻译。
第二字节编码范围为0x400x7E与0xA10xFE
15
Lecture in Alibaba Inc.
Hua-Ping Zhang/2003-11
网络资源
• ACL主页： • NLP新闻组：comp.ai.nat-lang • LDC： • 中文自然语言处理开放平台：
Hua-Ping Zhang/2003-11
语言在不同层面的歧义性 II
• 语法层面
– 词法歧义
• 词性兼类：工作（动名兼类），在（动副兼类） • 词语切分歧义：乒乓球拍卖完了，鱼在长江中
游
– 句法歧义
• 结构歧义：张三和李四的朋友 • 组合关系歧义：观赏鱼
12
Lecture in Alibaba Inc.
7
Lecture in Alibaba Inc.
Hua-Ping Zhang/2003-11
语言、思维与客观世界思维自然语言 Nhomakorabea客观世界
没有不合理的语言，只有不合理的理论
机器一思考，人类就开始发笑；人类一思考，上帝就开始发笑；
8
Lecture in Alibaba Inc.
Hua-Ping Zhang/2003-11
语言在不同层面的歧义性
• 语音层面：多音字，同音词
– 施氏食狮史（赵元任） 石室诗士施氏，嗜狮，誓食十狮。氏时时 适市视狮，十时，适十狮适市，是时，适 施氏适市，施氏视是十狮，拭矢试，使是 十狮逝世，适石室，石室湿，氏使侍拭石 室，石室拭，始食是十狮尸，始识是十狮 尸，实十石狮尸，试释是事。
11
Lecture in Alibaba Inc.
• Introduction to computational linguistics
• Chinese Character encoding system
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Latent Semantic Analysis
奇异值分解定理 若������ × ������的矩阵������的秩是������，那么可对������进 行如下的奇异值分解(Singular Value Decomposition, SVD)： ������ = ������Σ������ ������ 其中������和������的含义如前述，且： (1) ������������ ������ 的特征值为������1 , ������2 , … , ������������ ，等于������ ������ ������的特征值
计算词项-文档矩阵的������秩逼近(令������ = 2)
得到如下的������2 (在2维话题空间中的词项-文档矩阵)
Latent Semantic Analysis
在原始词项空间中
������������������ ������2 , ������3 =
0×1+1×0+1×0+0×0+0×0 ������2 × |������3 |
此时，逼近的误差为:
������ 2 ������=������+1 ������������
Latent Semantic Analysis
LSA的核心在于将秩������的词项-文档矩阵������进行SVD 分解，并寻求词项-文档矩阵的������秩逼近������������ 在实际问题中：������ ≈ min(������, ������)，������通常很大，此时 可以选择一个较小的������，即������ ≪ ������. 此时我们可以说，在进行潜在语义分析之前，文 档被隐含表示成������维空间中的向量，而在潜在语义 分析之后，文档被表示为������维空间中的向量，也就 是潜在语义空间中的向量，向量的维数缩减为������维 维数 ������ 可以被解释为隐含在文档集合中的话题数量， 因此LSA可以被视作一种话题模型
自然语言处理中的话题模型
常宝宝 北京大学计算语言学研究所 chbb@
概要
Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) Probabilistic Topic Model Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (pLSA) Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)
Latent Semantic Analysis
Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA)一般译作潜在语义分析， 有时候也称作Latent Semantic Indexing(LSI，潜在语义索 引) LSA的提出者是Scott Deerwester、Susan T. Dumais等人， 发表的时间是1990年 LSA的基础是向量空间模型(vector space model) LSA的基础理念是，基于词项在文档集合中的共现特性， 表达词项的潜在意义 LSA将文档表示映射到潜在语义空间，从而更好地衡量 文本之间的相关性 LSA也常被视作一种维数缩减技术，因为它把文档从高 维的词项空间映射到低维潜在语义空间，去除了噪音
令������为������ × ������的矩阵，������为������维非0向量，若有： ������������ = ������������ 则称������是方阵������的特征值，������称作方阵������的特征向量
Latent Semantic Analysis
������阶方阵的特征值的个数最多为������������������������(������) 主特征向量：最大特征值所对应的特征向量 特征方程 ������ − ������������������ ������ = 0 求解方程 ������ − ������������������ = 0的解，可得到方阵的所有特征值(一 元������次方程，解可以是复数) 例： 30 0 0 ������ = 0 20 0 0 0 1 特征值：������1 = 30、������2 = 20、������3 = 1
Latent Semantic Analysis
对如下的词项-文档矩阵进行潜在语义分析 ������ = ������Σ������ T
矩阵������(SVD词项矩阵)
Latent Semantic Analysis
矩阵Σ (奇异值矩阵)
矩阵������ T (SVD文档矩阵)
Latent Semantic Analysis
������ ������
������ − ������������
������
=
������=1 ������=1
������������������ − ������������������������
2
Latent Semantic Analysis
SVD可以用来解决低秩逼近问题，给定秩������的矩阵������ (1)构造������的SVD分解，有������ = ������Σ������ T (2)将Σ中对角线上������ − ������个最小的奇异值置为0，得到Σ������ (3)计算������������ = ������Σ������ ������ T ，将������������ 作为������的近似矩阵
=0
在潜在语义空间中
������������������ ������2 , ������3 =
0.52×0.28+0.36×0.16+0.72×0.36+0.12×0.20+ −0.39 ×(−0.08) ������2 ×|������3 |
= 0.939119
������2 和������3 在潜在语义空间中具有很大相似性，这与我们的直观感觉相符， 尽管二者中没有出现重叠的词项，但boat和ship是同义词，二者话题 是相近的
T
因此 ������ 篇文档组成的集合可以表示称为一个 ������ × ������ 的矩阵 ������ ， 称作词项-文档矩阵(term-document matrix)，矩阵的行对应 着词项，矩阵的列对应着文档。
Latent Semantic Analysis
向量空间模型通过计算文档向量间的相似度来衡量两个 文档之间的相关性，常用的相似度为(夹角)余弦相似度 ������1 ∙ ������2 ������������������ ������1 , ������2 = ������1 × |������2 | 例如:
Latent Semantic Analysis
SVD图示(������ > ������及������ < ������) SVD截断表示
Latent Semantic Analysis
例: 2 3 0 1 1 3 0 × 1/ 2 −1/ 2 0 1 = 1 6 1 2 × 0 1 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 0 1 6 −1 2 低秩逼近(low-rank approximation): 寻求矩阵 ������ 的近似矩阵 ������������ ， 且矩阵������������ 的秩为������，并且������ ≤ ������ 所谓������������ 逼近������，指的是二者的差矩阵的F范数最小，即下 式的值最小，若用������������ 代替������误差最小:
Latent Semantic Analysis
在向量空间模型中，一篇文档(document)可以表示为一个向 量，其中每个分量对应一个词项(term)，分量的值是词项在 文档中出现的频率(词项频率，term frequency)或者其它改进 后的词项权值。 ������ = ������������ ������1 , ������������ ������2 , … , ������������ ������������
Latent Semantic Analysis
对称对角化定理: 若������是������ × ������的实值对称方阵，且拥 有������个线性无关的特征向量，则������可分解如下： ������ = ������Λ������T 其中，������的列是������的互相正交且归一化的特征向量(正交 单位向量)，Λ是对角矩阵，其对角线上的元素是������的特 征值，且按照对角线降序排列 例： 1/2 −1/2 3 0 2 1 1 1 = × × 1/2 1/2 0 1 1 2 −1 1 2 1 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 −1/ 2 3 0 1 = × × 0 1 2 −1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
������������������ ������2 , ������3 =
0×1+1×0+1×0+0×0+0×0 ������2 × |������3 |
=0
文档������2 和文档������3 没有相关性 是否合理？ 建立在词项空间上文档表示没有考虑到同义词关系
Latent Semantic Analysis
0 0 1 特征向量： ������1 = 0 、 ������2 = 1 、 ������3 = 0 0 0 1
Latent Semantic Analysis
令������是实对称矩阵，则其所有特征值均为实数，且不同 特征值所对应的特征向量是正交的 矩阵对角化定理: 若������是������ × ������的实值方阵且拥有������个 线性无关的特征向量，则������可分解如下： ������ = ������Λ������ −1 其中，������的列是������的特征向量，Λ是对角矩阵，其对角 线上的元素是������的特征值，且按照对角线降序排列 ������1 ������2 , ������������ ≥ ������������+1 … ������������ 若特征值均不相同，则这样的分解是唯一的