TG grammar五阶段
语言学TG grammar
Two Aspects of TG Grammar
• Surface Structure: The structure of sentence as it is actually produced or understood, the syntactic structure of sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or writes. • Deep Structure: The deep structure is much more abstract and is considered to be in the speaker’s, hearer’s, writer’s or reader’s mind.
TG grammar
Background about TG grammar
• In the late 1950s, Noam Chomsky founded a new theory in America and gave violent impact on the structuralist descriptive linguistics. He tried to open up a route when he found that the classification of structural elements of language according to distribution and substitution had its limitations. From this practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known TG grammar.
Differences between structual grammar and TG grammar.
乔姆斯基 普遍语法 5阶段
Chapter Three Major Developmental Phases of Chomsky's Linguistic TheorySince the turning out of his first book Syntactic Structure in which he formulated his transformational grammar, Chomsky has updated his extensively-applied linguistic notions with more lectures given and books issued. It is commonly recognized to be five phases.Phase One: Transformational GrammarIt is impossible to understand Chomsky’s linguistic notions without understanding his transformational grammar which is undoubtedly a milestone in the history of modern linguistics. Prior to the publication of Syntactic Structure in 1957, the linguistic study was mainly concerned with structuralism. Structural linguistics, with its insistence on objective methods of verification and precisely specified techniques of discovery, derives from the "behavioral sciences" approach to the study of man, and is also largely a consequence of the philosophical assumptions of logical positivism.During that period, most American linguists, according to Chomsky，defined the task of linguistics as “collecting language elements and classifying them”(Chomsky 1970:100). The approach was the mechanic procedure to find the language truth and discipline. Linguistics was a kind of verbal botany. Linguists at that time were just giving a description of a language by colleting data, colleting a large number of utterances of language. These utterances were always recorded on a tape recorder or in a phonetic script. The second step was to classify these elements of language at different linguistic levels, from the units of sounds, the phonemes, to the morphemes, then to the sequences of word classes. The study target was the rich language elements and structuralism was inductive with a word-grammar.However, with the language ability as the study target, TG aims to establish some theories, by means of which we can make sure which rules form the basis of language structure. The aim of linguistic theory was to provide the linguist with a set of rigorous methods, a set of discovery procedures which he would use to extract from the "corpus" the phonemes, the morphemes, and so on. Its approach is puttingforward hypothesis which is to be tested by native language speakers. Therefore, TG is a deductive language-category grammar which can explain infinite sentences with limited analyses.John R. Searle concludes that:Chomsky argued that since any language contains an infinite number of sentences, any "corpus," even if it contained as many sentences as there are in all the books of the Library of Congress, would still be trivially small. Instead of the appropriate subject matter of linguistics being a randomly or arbitrarily selected set of sentences, the proper object of study was the speaker's underlying knowledge of the language, his "linguistic competence" that enables him to produce and understand sentences he has never heard before.(Searle 1972: 29)Once the conception of the "corpus" as the subject matter is rejected, then the notion of mechanical procedures for discovering linguistic truths goes as well. Chomsky argues that no science has a mechanical procedure for discovering the truth anyway. Rather, what happens is that the scientist formulates hypotheses and tests them against evidence. Linguistics is no different: the linguist makes conjectures about linguistic facts and tests them against the evidence provided by native speakers of the language. He has in short a procedure for evaluating rival hypotheses, but no procedure for discovering true theories by mechanically processing evidence.The Transformational Grammar can be expressed in the following way:1 .Two levels of representation of the structure of sentences: an underlying, more abstract form, termed 'deep structure', and the actual form of the sentence produced, called 'surface structure'. Deep structure is represented in the form of a hierarchical tree diagram, or "phrase structure tree," depicting the abstract grammatical relationships between the words and phrases within a sentence.2. A system of formal rules specifying how deep structures are to be transformed into surface structures.Like a revolution, the transformational grammar established the basis for other subsequent theories of human grammatical knowledge. Since Chomsky's original presentation, many different theories have emerged. With the notion of a transformation remaining a central element in most models, concepts like deep structure and surface structure, phrase structure tree, phrase structure rules, verb phrase, noun phrase, creativity/ productivity became the grammatical elements in language study.Phase Two: Language Competence and Performance; Standard TheoryIn Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965, Chomsky put forward two sets of concepts, which are now widely known. One is competence and performance and the other deep structure and surface structure. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his or her language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.According to Chomsky，speakers have internalized a set of rules about their language. This rule system enables them to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Chomsky holds that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, because the speaker's performance is too haphazard to be studied. Thus, the task of the linguists is to discover the speaker's internalized rules. Competence is independent from performance. The difference between them is like that between knowledge of language and use of that language. Although the investigation of competence is challenging because of the complexity of our knowledge of language, performance is observable. From this point, Chomsky began to look at language from a psychological point of view and consider linguistic competence as a property of the mind of a speaker.In order to explain the difference between "performance" (all sentences that an individual will ever use) and "competence" (all sentences that an individual can utter,but will not necessarily utter), Chomsky emphasizes the existence of some innate knowledge. Chomsky proves that the grammar of a natural language cannot be reduced to a finite-state automaton. He then argues for the existence of two levels of language: an underlying deep structure, which accounts for the fundamental syntactic relationships among language components, and a surface structure, which accounts for the sentences that are actually uttered, and which is generated by transformations of elements in the deep structure. Transformational analysis does overcome the limitations of phrase structure.Chomsky divides the knowledge of language into two components: a universal grammar, which is the knowledge of language possessed by every human, and a set of parameter values and a lexicon, which together constitute the knowledge of a particular language. On the whole, the various components of the grammar as articulated in Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) are: the base component, transformational rules, the lexicon (the set of lexical items with syntactic, semantic, and phonological information), semantic interpretation rules, and the phonological component. Then comes the other distinctive feature of the second phase is the establishment of the Standard Theory, which defines a grammar as made of a syntactic component (phrase structure rules, lexicon and transformational component), a semantic component and a phonological component. The deep structure of a sentence is a tree (the phrase marker) that contains all the words that will appear in its surface structure.By including an account of the relation between sound and meaning in the construction of a grammar, Chomsky started coupling syntax and semantics. In this sense the "standard theory" syntax provides the mechanisms for transforming a meaning (a deep structure) into a phonetic representation (a surface structure).Phase Three: Extended Standard TheoryIn early transformational generative grammar, it was assumed that all semantic interpretation would be done off deep structure, but with the proposals for the extended standard theory (EST) of Chomsky came the realization that certain aspects of semantic interpretation, such as focus and presupposition and scope of quantifiers,must be done off surface structure. More recent developments suggest that EST did not go far enough. In Reflections on Language 1975, Chomsky made a good non-technical review of the EST and various philosophical issues related to generative grammar.In fact, the label 'Extended Standard Theory' was used for a while during the 1970's to describe a particular stage in the evolution of the framework. Over the next 15 years, the framework experienced great revision and changes.Phase Four: REST, GBBy the early 1980's a framework of syntactic theory had been developed, which became different enough to require a completely new presentation and a distinctive period.In 1980 Chomsky delivered a series of lectures at Pisa which were published in the subsequent year under the title 'Lectures on Government and Binding'. These lectures essentially presented the new framework for the first time in an organized, relatively coherent form. As a result, the title of the book was very swiftly given to the framework, which consequently is referred to by many as 'Government & Binding' or 'GB'. GB theory develops directly and without a radical break from earlier work in transformational generative grammar, in particular, from research that falls within the framework of the Extended Standard Theory.Government theory deals with the relationship between a syntactic head (e.g., a verb or preposition) and its dependents and binding theory, the relations among anaphors, pronominals, referring expressions, and their possible antecedents in sentences. 'Government & Binding' has been taken for the label 'Revised, Extended Standard Theory', often abbreviated 'REST'. Chomsky (1985) published Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use, in which the concepts of principles and parameters approach, typically abbreviated `P&P' or `PPA', took the place of former rules.The principle advantage of the Principle and Parameters framework lies in its potential for solving "Plato's Problem": how children can acquire their first language with such remarkable speed and efficiency. The principles do not generalize but the approach might be suggestive both in its achievements and apparent boundaries. Along with developments in other fields, especially immunology, it is regarded as a task of selection rather than that of instruction. The idea can be expressed like: everything is already laid out in the child's mind and the acquisition of knowledge lies in selecting particular choices from what has been laid out.Phase Five: Minimalist ProgramIn the 1990s Chomsky formulated a "Minimalist Program" in an attempt to simplify the symbolic representations of the language facility. The MP remains a version of the P&P model and thus enjoys the benefit of reducing the tension between descriptive and explanatory adequacy. Specific rules and constructions were being abstracted and subsumed under parameterised principles, which were then attributed to the initial state of the language faculty. In general, there are two aspects of this program: first, the minimisation of linguistic levels; second, the economy principles of derivation and representation.Although Chomsky's core ideas and their psychological implications have already formed during the first half of the 20th century, he never stops his revision of his own inventions. Minimalism is a manifestation of Chomsky's intellectual vigor in revision and regarded as the most radical of the periodic upheavals in his thinking.Although this paper have divided the development of Chomsky's language notions into the above five phases, it is no doubt that he has never stopped his devotion to language study and we also see the Post-Chomsky Linguistics which included three major tendencies. The first tendency is generative semantics, which motivates syntactic rules by means of semantic evidence. The second one is the upholding of the viewpoint like "Deep structures are universal" and "All languages have the same deep structure."A third tendency is the constantly increasing employment of the conceptual and terminological apparatus of modern formal logic and formal semantics.Chomsky Noam. Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1985.Searle John. Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics. The New York Review of Books, 1972.Chomsky Noam, Syntactic Structure . Paris: Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, 1970.Chomsky Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1965.。
tggrammar语言学名词解释
tggrammar是一种语言学名词，它是指“Transformational-generative grammar”（转换生成语法）的简称。
这一术语通常用于描述由美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基提出的一种语言学理论。
tggrammar是一种旨在解释语言结构和生成规则的理论，它对于理解语言的本质和方式具有重要意义。
1. tggrammar的基本原理tggrammar最基本的原理是：语言的结构和规则可以被认为是一种“生成”的过程，即语言是通过一系列转换规则和产生规则来生成的。
这一理论将语言视为一种具有递归特性的系统，通过递归规则的应用，可以生成无穷的句子。
2. tggrammar的核心概念在tggrammar中，有一些核心概念是必须要理解的。
句子的结构是如何被生成的？句子有哪些成分组成？词汇和句法之间是如何相互作用的？这些问题都是tggrammar所关注的核心内容。
3. tggrammar的在语言学研究中的价值tggrammar理论为语言学研究提供了一个全新的视角，它使得我们能够更加深入地理解语言的本质和结构。
通过对语言生成规则的研究，可以解释为什么一些句子是合乎语法规则的，而另一些句子则是不合乎语法规则的。
4. 个人观点和理解从我个人的观点来看，tggrammar理论是一种非常有用的理论框架，它为我们提供了一种新的思考方式和研究语言的工具。
通过深入研究tggrammar理论，我相信我们可以更好地理解各种不同语言之间的共性和差异，从而为跨文化交流和语言教育提供更好的理论基础。
总结回顾：tggrammar理论是一种旨在解释语言结构和生成规则的理论，它强调语言生成的过程和递归规则的应用。
通过深入研究tggrammar理论，我们可以更好地理解语言的生成和语法规则，为语言学研究和语言教育提供更好的理论基础。
tggrammar理论是一种语言学理论，它的基本原理是语言的结构和规则可以被认为是一种“生成”的过程。
TGgrammar五阶段PPT专业课件
Deep structure and surface structure
In brief, the sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures. But the deep structure means the fact that speakers try to convey the message of the sentence. That is to say, the surface structure of language determines the form of sentences, while deep structure determines meaning of sentences. For example, (1). The glass is broken (2). Breaking the glass Though the form of sentences is different, but the message conveyed is same.
Deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.
Surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction
4.8.2Three kinds of grammar
1)The finite state grammar It is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of apparatus, can generate an infinite number of sentences. But they all are very simple in their structure. Chomsky devises this grammar to show the impracticality of organising a language from a left-toright order.
TG Grammar在英语教学中运用
TG Grammar在英语教学中的运用摘要：本文根据乔姆斯基的转换生成语法原理，阐述了生成语法与外语教学的关系，并分别从题元理论、约束理论，深层结构和表层结构的理论角度，分析了转换生成语法如何影响外语教学。
关键词：英语教学转换生成语法理论运用一、转换生成语法的概述1.转换生成语法的初始提出转换生成语法（简称tg）最早由美国语言学家乔姆斯基提出，主要用来描述语法。
乔姆斯基认为语法主要包括基础和转换两个部分。
2.转换生成语法的研究对象乔姆斯基把人们在特定环境下所使用的话语叫做外表化语言（externalized language），简称e-语言，把大脑中的语言知识系统叫做内在化语言（internalized language），简称i-语言。
生成语法认为，语言研究的对象应该是语言知识（i-语言、语言能力和语法）。
3.转换生成语法与语言习得生成语法家们总是把语言研究与儿童习得的现象紧密连接在一起。
其实语言是一个很复杂的系统，儿童在四五岁时便能轻松掌握母语，这种能力不可能完全与生俱来，但也不是完全通过后天经验形成的。
以乔姆斯基的观点来看，语言是人脑的产物，我们能学会、使用语言，与大脑本身的机能有根本的联系。
在生成语法学中，人类与生俱来的那部分语言知识必定含有世界上所有自然语言的共同特征，即具有普遍性。
4.原则与参数理论生成语法学假设普遍语法由两大部分组成，即“原则”和“参数”。
与人类语言的共有现象有关系的叫“原则”，与语言特有现象有关系的叫“参数”。
实际上儿童的语言习得就是参数的设定。
二、转换生成语法的理论在外语教学中的应用1.题元理论在教学中的应用题元理论属于原则与参数中的一个理论。
在生成语法中，把关于题元角色分派的理论叫做题元理论。
我们可以借用以上原则和理论帮助学生分析错误的句子，让他们更了解为什么有些句子不合语法。
2.约束理论在教学中的应用所谓“约束”（chomsky，1981），是指句中两个名词性成分之间指称意义上所依赖的关系。
TG-grammar五阶段
Deep structure and surface structure
In brief, the sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures. But the deep structure means the fact that speakers try to convey the message of the sentence. That is to say, the surface structure of language determines the form of sentences, while deep structure determines meaning of sentences. For example, (1). The glass is broken (2). Breaking the glass Though the form of sentences is different, but the message conveyed is same.
The fact that ep structure of sentence ,but the two forms of sentences that convey the fact is the surface structure.
3)The Extended Standard Theory, which focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar Studies on Semantic in Generative Grammar,1972
转换生成语言学
乔姆斯基语言学理论的革命性及影响
乔姆斯基语言学的革命性： • 1．研究目的 • 过去结构主义语言学以观察语言现象并把它分类 为目标，致力于搜集和处理语言素材；乔姆斯基 语言学以描写和解释语言能力为目标，提出语法 假设和理论来揭示其规律，说明其原因。
• 2．研究方法 • 乔姆斯基认为语言是一个生成的过程，即从基础 部分生成深层结构，再由深层结构转换为表层结 构。因此他的研究过程是一个演绎的过程，从特 殊到一般，而这刚好与结构主义语言学所使用的 从一般到特殊的归纳法相反。 • 同时，转换生成语法采用的表达方式是现代数理 逻辑的形式化方法，使用数学符号和公式来规定 概念，表达规则，根据有限的公理化的规则系统 和原则系统用演绎的方法生成无限的句子，以此 来解释人类的语言能力。
性质
• 生成语法学不是一般人所理解的语法学。其研究 对象是内在性语言，而不是一般语言学家所研究 的外表化语言。外表化的语言指言语行为，说出 来的话，音义结合的词句等；内在性的语言指人 脑对语法结构的认识，以心理形式体现。
• 范围 生成语法学研究范围限于人的语言知 识或语言能力，而不是语言的使用。生成 语法学一般不研究话语的社会内容、交际 功能和说话的环境等等。 • 目标 过去结构主义语言学以观察语言现象 并把它分类为目标，致力于搜集和处理语 言素材；生成语法学以描写和解释语言能 力为目标，提出语法假设和理论来揭示其 规律，说明其原因。
• 短语结构规则有三种： • 合并、递归、推导式，其基本形式是 x→y 。 • →读作"改写"，这个公式就是将x改写 成y。 • 短语结构规则生成的是"核心语符列"， 不经过转换直接由这种语符列得出的 基本句型叫"核心句"
• 转换规则包括：移位、删略、添加。 • 最后运用语素音位规则得出实际说出的句 子 • 。这三套规则中，最引人注目的是转换规 则，因为短语结构规则和语素音位规则实 际上继承了描写语言学的"直接成分分析"和 语素音位的分析，转换是一种创新，它使 语法具有更强的解释力
TG
短语结构
底层结构
转换规 则
派生 结构
音位规 则
语音表达
S：NP+VP VP: V+NP NP: Det.+ N Det: the, a ,etc N: man, ball, etc V: hit, took, etc
S NP VP
Det
N
V
NP
The
boy
hit
the
ball
不足： 1.避开语义和语用问题，遭到了很多 学者的批评和批判 2.该模式的解释力不够强，尚有很多 句型转换得不到圆满解释
第六阶段（1993）：最简方案（ Minimalist Program，简称MP ）
三取消：1.取消了“S结构”和“D结构” 2. 取消了“管辖” 3. 取消了“X阶标” MP运算系统只包括两种：1.合并（Merger） 2.移动（Move）
音位式（PF）
词库 运算系统 逻辑式 (LF)
新麻烦： 理论一旦简单化，就可能生成一些不合语法的语句
对比乌尔曼和萨益德的意义理论分类
乌尔曼在专著《语义学：意义科学的分类》将意义理论分为 两类： 1. 分析法或指称法（Analytical or Referential Approach） 2.效用法或语境法（Operational or Contextual Approach）
萨益德在他的《语义学》（semantics）将语义理论分为 1 外延法 Denotational Approach 2 表征方法 Representation Approach
蔡菲语义学（Chafe Semantics）
生成派语义学（Generative Smantics） 观点P108
TGgrammar五阶段教育课件
Deep structure and surface structure
In brief, the sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures. But the deep structure means the fact that speakers try to convey the message of the sentence. That is to say, the surface structure of language determines the form of sentences, while deep structure determines meaning of sentences. For example, (1). The glass is broken (2). Breaking the glass Though the form of sentences is different, but the message conveyed is same.
3)Phrase structure grammar
It consists solely of phrase-structure rules that formalise some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis. This grammar has greater generative powers than a finite state grammar.
4.8.2Three kinds of grammar
乔姆斯基转换生成语法综述
乔姆斯基转换生成语法综述转换-生成语法简介（Transformational-generative grammar，简称TG）是美国语言学家乔姆斯基提出的一个描述语法的一个术语，他在1957年所写的《语法结构》的出版是转换-生成语法诞生的标志。
简单的说，转换-生成语法理论研究的是人类为什么会说话以及如何了解新的句子。
在1957年所出版的《语法结构》和1965年的《语法理论要略》两书被乔姆斯基称为“标准理论”。
此后他又修正了些许这些理论，称为“扩展的标准理论”，后又修订扩展的标准理论，形成“修正的扩展的标准理论”。
生成语法学的基本概念“转换”“转换”本来是一个控制论的术语，指事物从一种状态转化为另一种状态。
生成语法学早期借用这个术语，指的是在句子的生成过程中所采用的各种具体的操作手段及相应规则的总称。
当然，乔姆斯基的“转换”与Harris的“转换”是有一定联系的。
我们平时所说的“变换”来自Harris，只的是一种表层的转换，关注的是句子与句子或结构与结构之间的“平行”的关系。
而乔姆斯基的“转换”不单是一种平行的变换，更为重要的是一种深层形式到表层形式的生成过程。
是把现代音位学的“位”观念引申到语句结构研究中来的必然结果。
要注意的是“转换”体现的是生成语法学“规则系统”阶段（1957-1980）的特点，而这个阶段提出的各种规则大都带有“个别语法”（particular grammar）的性质。
而在后来的“普遍语法系统”中，“转换”的地位大为降低，比如在“原则-参数理论”中，原来提出的所有转换规则都被压缩为一条“- 移位”。
“生成”（generation）的基本含义有两层一、创造性这是就语言本身的客观属性来说的。
任何一种具体语言都具有很高程度上的“递归”（recursion）特点，[1]即“有限的手段的无限运用”。
具体点说，外在化的语言是个无限的句子集合，但内在性语言却表现为一套数量有限的规则，语言的创造性就表现为以有限的规则生成无限数量的合格的句子。
Chomsky TG grammar-1
content
Brief Introduction of Chomsky
Chomsky's Theory
Chomsky’s Philosophy of Language
Development of TG Grammar
All these suggest that although babies are not born knowing a language (as they are born being able to see), they are born with a predisposition (倾向/能力) to develop a language in much the same way as they are born with a predisposition to learn to walk. Like the ability to walk, the ability to speak and understand spoken language seems to be a natural human activity.
Syntactic Structures(句法结构) marked
the beginning of the Chomskyan revolution.
Brief Introduction of Chomsky
Chomsky made his influence felt more and more in such fields as linguiuistics, psychology and philosophy. Not long after, he accepted an offer to e a professsor of linguistics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) , and has been working at this institution ever since.
英语语法层次
Chapter two In troductio n-Grammatical Hierarchy语言（Language是社会交际的工具，是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系。
语法（Grammar）是语言的组织规律Grammar is the structural system of a Ianguage.，它赋予语言以结构系统，而词汇（vocabulary）则是语言的建筑材料，它通过语法而赋予语言以意义内容。
The grammar of En glish is orga ni zed into five ran ks:1. the sentence （句子），the clause （分句），the phrase （词组），the word （词）and the morpheme （词素）.英语的语法结构具有层次性，分为五个不同的层次。
2. Each rank is composed of one or more tha n one grammatical unit of the immediate lower un it.每一层由一个或一个以上的低层次的语法结构组成。
3. Afullse nte nceca ngen erallybesegme ntedra nkbyra nkdow ntoitssmallestc on stitu ents---themorphemes.句子能够一层一层地切分到它的最小组成单位----词素。
词素MorphemeThe morpheme is the mi nimum or smallest grammatical un it, also the smallest meanin gful eleme nt of speech.词素是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。
Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes （自由词素）and bound morphemes （粘附词素）.1、Free morphemes（自由词素）:a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can sta nd by itself as a simpleword.自由词素指本身具有完整意义并能作为简单词”而单独使用的词素。
转换生成语法
11
A generative grammar is not limited to particular languages, but to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars. It does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings.
6
Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.
乔姆斯基的天赋假设是建立在他对一些重要现象的 观察的基础之上的，这些现象无法用其他的理论解 释清楚。
12.4 Transformational Generative Grammar 转换生成语法
1.Introduction 介绍 2. Stage of development of TG grammar 转换生成语法的发展阶段 3. The Innateness Hypothesis 天赋假设
4. Generative Grammar 生成语法
五段动词变化规则
五段动词变化规则在英语语法中，五段动词是指根据不同时态和人称而产生变化的一类动词。
这些动词的变化规则非常规范和有序，是学习英语时的重点之一。
掌握五段动词的变化规则对于正确使用英语时态和人称十分关键。
本文将详细介绍五段动词变化规则，以帮助你更好地理解和使用这些动词。
一、五段动词的定义五段动词是指常规动词的一种类型，包括绝大多数英语动词，如“walk”（走），“eat”（吃），“go”（去）等。
这些动词在特定的时态和人称下发生变化，通常被分为五个不同的形式。
二、五段动词的变化形式五段动词的变化形式包括：原形（infinitive）、过去式（simple past）、过去分词（past participle）、现在分词（present participle）和第三人称单数现在时（third person singular present）。
下面将详细介绍每个变化形式的规则和示例。
1. 原形（infinitive）原形即动词的基本形式，常以to开头，例如“to walk”（走），“to eat”（吃）。
“to”本身不是动词的一部分，只是表明所使用的是动词形式。
原形通常用来作为动词的主语或宾语。
2. 过去式（simple past）过去式表示动作或状态在过去发生或存在。
通常在动词原形后加上-ed或-d，如“walked”（走过），“ate”（吃过），除了某些特殊规则的例外。
例如，以-e 结尾的动词只需加-d，如“love”（爱）的过去式为“loved”（爱过）。
3. 过去分词（past participle）过去分词用于完成时态和被动语态，通常在动词原形后加上-ed或-d，如“walked”（走过），“eaten”（吃过）。
同样地，以-e结尾的动词只需加-d，如“loved”（爱过）。
4. 现在分词（present participle）现在分词表示正在进行的动作或状态。
通常在动词原形后加上-ing，如“walking”（正在走），“eating”（正在吃）。
英语语法学习的五个阶段
外教一对一英语语法学习的五个阶段准备阶段准备阶段，建议大家准备两本语法书，一本工具性质，一本阅读性质。
语法工具书事实上应当是每一个语言学习者经常翻阅甚至随身携带的一本实用性书籍，每当发现新的不熟悉的语言用法时都应该及时查阅，明白其中原委，不留下任何问题。
而另外一本阅读性质的语法书，主要是便于学习者在入门阶段能够读进去，系统的理解语法。
再次书目的选择上，工具性的语法书，Grace认为叶永昌先生的《英语阅读参考手册》实用性很强，而阅读性的语法书籍，Grace建议学习者亲自浏览上几本语法书目，选择自己读起来感兴趣的才容易坚持到底。
思考阶段人类学习新知识的过程都会经历一个痛苦的让旧的知识与已有知识结合的“长知识”的过程，语法知识的输入也正如此。
那么在准备阶段，当我们系统地梳理过语法概念之后，所有的语法条目此时不应当只是一个一个分开的概念，首先概念之间应当产生联系与迁移，其次新的概念应与旧的概念产生粘连。
举个例子，当我们看到“介宾短语”、“定语”、“状语”这三个概念时，首先我们应该明白，介宾短语既可以充当定语也可以充当状语，其次我们也要弄明白介宾短语其实就是我们常见的in the world这样的短语，或者是中文中类似于“在...”这样的表达，这样既使得新知识之间形成群体，便于记忆，又使得新知识与旧知识产生联系，便于理解。
思考阶段，还应注意要及时寻求帮助，很多人也很喜欢想，但是只自己闷头想，闭门造车，很多问题，可能旁人一点就通，但自己思考会需要大量时间而且还存在可能想歪做了无用功的情况，简直是得不偿失。
毕竟我们思考的是一个已经有大量现成结论的问题，所以，没必要再做出像爱因斯坦思考相对论般，曲高和寡的独自努力。
思考阶段事实上是非常tough的一件事，就像所有新生事物的生长一样，必须有痛苦的挣扎，才能有新生。
很多人都存在着一个困惑，“我也能看明白语法书上的那些条目呀，为什么总是记不住，放在语境中也体会不出来呀?”我以前的不少学生曾有这样的经历，就是在学完语法概念的隔天或一周内，得空脑子里就会想不同的定义之间的联系，甚至在刷牙的间隙，突然想不通都会跑回卧室拿出笔记再翻翻，正是这样的思考强度才能勉强过掉这第二关。
generative transformational grammar
转换 生成语法转换-生成语法（Transformational-generative grammar，简称TG）是美国语言学家乔姆斯基提出的一个描述语法的一个术语，他在1957年所写的《语法结构》的出版是转换-生成语法诞生的标志。
简单的说，转换-生成语法理论研究的是人类为什么会说话以及如何了解新的句子。
在1957年所出版的《语法结构》和1965年的《语法理论要略》两书被乔姆斯基称为“标准理论”。
此后他又修正了些许这些理论，称为“扩展的标准理论”，后又修订扩展的标准理论，形成“修正的扩展的标准理论”。
主要理论乔姆斯基认为语法主要包括基础和转换两个部分，基础部分生成深层结构，深层结构通过转换得到表层结构，语义部分属于深层结构，它为深层结构作出语义解释。
语音部分属于表层结构并为表层结构作出语音解释。
影响乔姆斯基提出的转换-生成语法很大地冲击了当时以布龙菲尔德为代表的美国描写语言学派。
乔姆斯基认为语言是人类特有的一种先天机制，他认为不仅应该研究语言行为，而且应该研究语言能力，转换-生成语法就是关于语言能力的理论。
他认为布龙菲尔德等人的理论只是研究了语言行为，不能说明语言能力。
语言理论应该解释人类天生的语言能力，他认为自己的学说是理性主义的，而布龙菲尔德的学说则是经验主义的。
也称转换-生成语法。
20世纪50年代兴起的一种语言学说。
创建人N.乔姆斯基。
1957年他的第一部专著《句法结构》出版，标志着这种学说的诞生。
最先起来响应的有语音学家M.哈利，语义学家J.卡茨，句法学家P.波斯塔尔，心理学家J.A.福多等。
这个以美国麻省理工学院为中心的学派，在几年内就一跃而为国际语言学界的重要流派。
但是到了60年代后期，就内部分裂，70年代后更是声威渐减，而80年代又趋上升。
目前该学派有东北语言学会与欧亚语言学会两个国际性组织，出版《语言学探索》等国际性学术刊物。
性质生成语法学不是一般人所理解的语法学。
其研究对象是内在性语言，而不是一般语言学家所研究的外表化语言。
生成语法
对人类语言的研究如果只停留在描述阶段，那语 言学就永远只能是实验性的人文学科，永远无法 进入理论科学的殿堂，无法与生物学，物理学以 及化学等理论性的自然科学平起平坐。生成语言 学的目标是为语言现象提供合理解释，也就是要 像牛顿说明苹果的运动方向那样，找出能够解释 语言运作机制的最佳理论。按照乔姆斯基的设想， 所有人类语言的语法系统在高度抽象的层次上都 大到相同，都是由所谓的普遍语法经过一定的变 化派生出来的；所有的语言现象都可以用同一组 语法规律，或者说可以用相同的原则来加以解释， 而语言之间的差异只是参数不同而已。
这条规则包括三点： 1）改变名词短语的位置； 2）被动形式中第二个名词短语之前插入by； 3）动词的主动形式改为被动形式。 根据这条规则，英语句子The workers built the bridge的深层结构可以分析成如下形式： the workers past build the bridge NP1 Infl V NP2
可见，在TG理论中，转换是句子过程中某一特定 阶段上必须使用的操作手段，深层结构是它的输 入，表层结构是输出。
2）生成 Chomsky认为语言是句子的无限集合，而人的语 言知识或语言能力可以设想为一套有限的规则系 统。语法是对语言知识的陈述，因而也是一套有 限的规则系统。这套有限的规则系统可以生成语 言中无限的潜在句子，这就是语法的生成性。 所谓“生成”就是通过有限的规则系统说明无限 的句子。一个句子的生成过程就是根据有限的规 则系统一步一步推导的过程。
♦ 2)一个儿童一般在五六岁时就可以掌握母语，
而小孩并没有接受系统的操练。行为主义的 “刺激一反应”论不能自圆其说。 ♦ 3)儿童不仅会说听到过的句子，而且还能说未 3) 听到过的句子。 ♦ 4)儿童在学习其他知识时常常表现出天赋方面 的差别，而在母语学习方面这种差别十分少见。
人教版高三英语必修五《Grammar》说课稿
人教版高三英语必修五《Grammar》说课稿一、教材分析《Grammar》是人教版高三英语必修五的一部分，是英语语法教学的重要内容之一。
本册教材共分为八个单元，涵盖了句子结构、时态和语态、非谓语动词、虚拟语气等多个语法知识点。
通过学习这些知识点，学生可以提高英语语法应用能力，巩固和深化自己的英语知识。
二、教学目标1. 知识目标•掌握句子的基本结构，包括主谓结构、主谓宾结构等；•理解和运用不同的时态和语态，如一般现在时、过去进行时、被动语态等；•熟悉和运用非谓语动词，如不定式、动名词和分词等；•掌握虚拟语气的使用场景和语法结构。
2. 能力目标•能够准确运用所学的语法知识进行句子的构建和改写；•能够理解和运用正确的时态和语态进行句子的表达；•能够灵活运用非谓语动词进行句子的复合和变换；•能够正确运用虚拟语气来表达假设和愿望等情态。
3. 情感目标•培养学生对英语语法的兴趣和热爱；•培养学生运用所学语法知识进行交流和表达的自信心；•提高学生对英语语法正确性和准确性的重视。
三、教学内容和过程1. 句子结构的认识与运用1.1 主谓结构的构建•通过示例句子，引导学生理解主谓结构的基本构成要素；•给学生提供一些练习，让他们能够独立构建简单的主谓结构。
1.2 主谓宾结构的构建•引导学生理解主谓宾结构的构成要素，包括及物动词和宾语的搭配；•给学生提供一些练习，让他们能够独立构建主谓宾结构。
1.3 其他句子结构•引导学生认识其他句子结构，如主谓表和主谓双宾等，并提供相应的练习。
2. 时态和语态的理解与运用2.1 一般现在时的使用•解释一般现在时的基本用法和句子结构；•提供一些例句，并让学生进行相应的改写练习。
2.2 过去进行时的使用•解释过去进行时的基本用法和句子结构；•提供一些例句，并让学生进行相应的改写和对话练习。
2.3 被动语态的使用•解释被动语态的基本用法和句子结构；•提供一些例句，并让学生进行被动语态改写和主动与被动句变换的练习。
构式语法
Let alone; all of a sudden; blue collar, white elephant 汉语中的“蓝领”“木马”“伤风”
例 (1) Peter faxed Tom a letter. 例 (1)包含了多种构式:主谓构式、双宾构式、 限定构式(不定冠词“a”)、过去时构式以及与该句 中5个词相对应的5个简单的词法构式所产生的。
2.信息的综合性
3.共性—遗传等级模式 构式语法学家认为构式本身是一个完整
的体系,该体系具有高度的统一性。构式与构 式之间一般来说是紧密的联系在一起的,构式 之间的共同点构成这些构式的共性,这些共性 本身也是一个构式,该构式的特性通过遗传关 系传给更加具体的构式,这就是所谓的共性— 遗传等级模式。
Construction Grammar 构式语法
TG语言学派的几个假设：
转换-生成语法（Transformational-generative grammar，简称TG）
1. 人们的语言能力是天赋的，是与其他认知能力平 行独立的一个模块，在语言能力这个总模块中还可 细分出若干子模块，如音位、句法、语义等。
What is construபைடு நூலகம்tion?
Definition 1:Construction is pairing of form and meaning or pairing of form and functions.
( Jackendoff, 1997; Kay & Fillmore, 1999)
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Structural analysis: NP---C+have---… Structural changes: X1-X2-X3→X1-X2+n’t-X3
Each parts substitued with X1,X2,X3
The transformational rule for negation of the former
V
NP
V
NP
John drink wine wine drink John ③The transformational rules for the passive voice cannot be used at will, for some of the English verbs do not have passive structures.
The Generative Process of A Sentence: Bracketing : (NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball)))) Diagraming : S NP Det N VP Verb NP Det the man hit the N ball
Deep structure and surface structure
In brief, the sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures. But the deep structure means the fact that speakers try to convey the message of the sentence. That is to say, the surface structure of language determines the form of sentences, while deep structure determines meaning of sentences. For example, (1). The glass is broken (2). Breaking the glass Though the form of sentences is different, but the message conveyed is same. The fact that we know the glass is broken is the deep structure of sentence ,but the two forms of sentences that convey the fact is the surface structure.
6)Transformational rules (T-rules) are the operations that add， delete or change elements in one structure to produce another structure. It refers to all the rules that apply after all lexicon items have been inserted into the structures. 7)Chomsky has listed 16 transformational rules for English. For example: Jack has not finished his work. The first part is an NP. The second part can be analysed into a “concord element” (For realisation of the inflected forms like “has”,etc.), represented by C, plus a modal verb, have , that is, “C+have”. The third part can be represented with an ellipsis, for it is not important.
④phrase structure is too flexible
S NP Det N PP Aux VP
4)Phrase structure grammar The phrase structure rules (also called rewriting rules) are as follows: a. S→NP+VP b. VP → Verb+ NP c. NP →NP (single) NP (plural) d. NP (s) → D+N e. NP (p) → D+N+ s f. D → the g. N → ｛man, ball, door, dog, book,…｝ h. Verb→ aux+ V i. V→｛ hit, take, bite, eat, walk,… ｝ j. Aux → Tense (+M) (+have + en) (+ be+ ing) k. Tense → Present Past l. M → ｛ will, can, may, shall, must,…｝
4.8 Five stages of development of TG grammar
Five stages of development
1) The Classical Theory, which aims to make linguistics a science. Syntactic Structures,1975 2)The Standard Theory, which deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,1965 3)The Extended Standard Theory, which focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar Studies on Semantic in Generative Grammar,1972 4)The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB), which focuses on Government and Binding Lectures on Government and Binding,1981 5)The Minimalist Program, which is a further revision of the previous theory. The Minimal Program,1995 Minimalist Inquiries: The Framework,1998
3)Phrase structure grammar It consists solely of phrase-structure rules that formalise some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis. This grammar has greater generative powers than a finite state grammar.
5)Phrase structure grammar
Phrase structure rules are called rewriting rules. The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another. For example, how to form the sentence “The man hit the ball” ? We must use rules and represent them by “bracketing” and “diagramming”.
4.8.3 Some defects in the theory
①The transformational rules are too powerful. ②The rules may generate ill-formed sentencesห้องสมุดไป่ตู้as well as well-formed ones. For example, with the rules SNP+VP, and VPV+NP, there might be generated the following two: S S NP VP NP VP
4.8.2Three kinds of grammar
1)The finite state grammar It is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of apparatus, can generate an infinite number of sentences. But they all are very simple in their structure. Chomsky devises this grammar to show the impracticality of organising a language from a left-toright order.
2)The finite state grammar It is appropriate to describe “stimulus-response” process of learning, but it is inappropriate to explain the complexities of the human cognitive system. It contains deep structure and surface structure. Deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction. Surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction