4 Syntax练习
《语言学》Chapter 4 Syntax 习题兼答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
4 Syntax练习
Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher‟s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme”“Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。
负载交际能力最大的是述位。
11. IC analysis: to analyze the relation between sentence and its component elements.12. endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心，离心1．Which serves a centre or head. AP, NP,VP2. no definable centre or head. PP,V+O ,be + A. 无中心13. deep structure and surface structure1. underlying level of structural relation 潜藏在人们意识中的结构2. closed to people produced and received.声音文字直接感受到的14.1. When we say that we can change the second word in the sentence “He is waiting outside”with another word or phrase. We are taking about ____inside the sentence.A. Syntactic relationsB. paradigmatic relations BC. Linear relationsD. Government2. The part of the grammar that represents a speaker‟s knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called______ .A.LexiconB. morphologyC. SyntaxD. semantics C3. What does …IC‟ stands for as a syntactic notion and analytical technique ?A. inferential ConnectiveB. inflectional ComponentC. Immediate Constituent cD. Implicative Communication4. If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze the sentence “She broke the window with a stone yesterday”, where is the first cut?Draw a tree diagram of this sentence.A. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and broke BC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with5. ____ is the defining properties of units like noun (number, gender, case) and verb (tense, aspect, etc.).A. parts of speechB. Word classesC. Grammatical categories CD. Functions of words6. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English ?A. genderB. numberC. caseD. voice D7. ____ is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.A. ConcordB. Immediate constituentC. Syntagmatic relationsD. Government D8. ____ proposed to define sentence as the maximum free form.A. BloomfieldB. Chomsky AC. HallidayD. Sussure9. The phrase “boys and girls ”is a(n) _____.A. subordinate endocentric constructionB. coordinate endocentric construction BC. subordinate exocentric constructionD. coordinate exocentric construction10. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is to _____.A. study real ‘facts’in daily settingsB. tell people how to speak appropriatelyC. tell people what is right in language useD. Look for …the universal grammar‟ D11. What is the full form of LAD ?nguage associative districtnguage acquisition device BC.Linguistic acquisition districtnguage associative device12. A speaker‟s actual utterance in Chomsky‟s terminology is called _____.A. deep structureB. linguistic universalsC. universal grammarD. surface structure D13. Chomsky studies language from a psychological point of view, holding that language is a form of ____; while Halliday focuses on thesocial aspect of language, regarding language as a form of ____.A. knowing, doingB. knowing, thinking AC. thinking, doingD. doing, knowing14．F. de Saussure is a(n) _____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. Russian C15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate A16. “You sit down” is transformed into “Sit down”. Which transformational rule is used according to TG Grammar ?A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion D17. L. Bloomfield is a famous _____ structural linguist.A. BritishB. RussianC. AmericanD. French C18. In ______ , Noam Chomsky published his famous book “Syntactic Structure”.A. 1920B.1957C. 1965D. 1970 B19. “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which transformational rule is used.A. CopyingB. ReorderingC. AdditionD. Deletion C20.The phrase “men and women” belong to the ______Construction.A. predicateB. coordinateC. subordinateD. exocentric B21. ______ refers to a construction where one clause is coordinated with another.A. EmbeddingB. RecursivenessC. ConjoiningD. Cohesion CII. Tell true statement from false.1．Traditional grammar involves a great deal of gender, number and case. T2.“I‟m a teacher.”“He studies English.” describe the form of government.F Concord government: give her a present.3. “ langue” is much more stable than “parole”. T4. When we mentioned about a “树”，it is signified; and the sound /shu:/ is signifier, the relationship among them is arbitrary. T5. The sentence “ If the weather is nice, we‟ll go out.” is settled at the base paradigmatic relation. F6. Sassure proposed the linguistic study considered in itself. TThe only true object of study in linguistics is the language, considered in itself and for its own sake. 语言和为语言而研究的语言7. Rheme contributes much more great than theme. F8. IC analysis is used to analyze the semantic feature of the sentence. F9. The Ultimate Constituents of IC analysis is morpheme. T10. “He seemed angry.” Is the construction of exocentric construction. T11. “The house is behind this building. ” is endocentric. F.12. “He came back very late last night.”The underlying structure is endocentric one. T13. To analyse the sentences with IC analysis.14. When we mention about “phonetic ” and “lexicon components”, they belong to deep structure category. F15. The abstract meaning and ambiguity of the sentence can be analyzed be deep structure. T16. Systemic –functional grammar wanted to link the function with structure of the language.17.B y synchrony we mean to study language change and development. F18.T he open-class words include prepositions. F19.“The boy smiled” has an exocentric structure. T20.T he IC Analysis is not able to analyse split verbs like “do sb. in”. T21.L angue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject topersonal and situational constraints.22.P honology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentencepatterns of a language. F23.。
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)
After-class Exercises for Chapter 4 Syntax
After-class Exercisesfor Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets.1. The sentence that has a NP an d a VP can be shown in a __________ formula “S→NP VP”.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. tree diagramD. vertical2. The two clauses in __________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A. simpleB. completeC. complexD. coordinate3. A__________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator4. The rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences are called __________ rules.A. recursiveB. structuralC. doubleD. combinational5. In the phrase structure rule “S→NP VP”, the arrow can be read as __________.A. is equal toB. consists ofC. hasD. generates6. When we move a noun phrase from the object position to the subject position in passive transformation in English, we are ___________ the noun to the left.A. rewritingB. postposingC. maintainingD. preposing7. When we move the adverbial phrase “every day”in the sentence “Every day, we study English.” to the end of the sentence, we are now __________ the phrase to the right.A. rewritingB. preposingC. postposingD. maintaining8. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by __________ in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. F. SaussureC. N. ChomskyD. M. A. K. Halliday9. The level of syntactic representation that exists after movement takes place is commonly termed as the __________.A. phrase structureB. deep structureC. surface structureD. syntactic structure10. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed as the __________.A. phrase structureB. surface structureC. syntactic structureD. deep structure11. Syntactic movement is dictated by rule traditionally called __________ .A. phase structure rulesB. syntactic rulesC. lexical rulesD. transformational rules12. Universal Grammar (U.G.) is a model of grammar that has been proposed and developed since _________.A. 1970sB. 1980sC. 1990sD. 1960s13. The theory of __________ accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.A. Case ConditionB. Adjacent ConditionC. parameterD. Adjacent parameters14. It is the __________ on Case assignment that states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case ConditionB. parameterC. Adjacent ConditionD. Adjacent Parameter.15. Natural languages are viewed to vary according to ___________ set on U.G. principles to particular values.A. Adjacent ConditionB. parametersC. Case ConditionD. Case requirementlI. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you thinka statement is false, you are required to give the correct version.1. The main concerns of syntax are the study of how sentences are structured.2. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order.3. Sentences as sequences of words in a simple, linear, additive fashion.4. The relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to the whole.5. Syntactic categories refer to sentences and clauses only.6. The categories that cannot be substituted for one another are of the same syntactic categories.7. “The student” in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture,” and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student” belong to the same syntactic category.8. Lexical categories are generally known as parts of speech, and a language has major and minor lexical categories of a finite set.9. Major lexical categories are closed categories because the number of lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.10. Strictly speaking, the statement that the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb is true in terms of both structural and logical concepts.11. A logical subject may have different positions in a sentence.12. Phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.13. In deep structure level, the phrase “my small child’s cot”can be analyzed in at least threedifferent ways.14. In Chomsky’s theory, transformations are thought to be able to modify deep structures in various ways in order to produce surface structures.15. Under the Case Condition principle, when the Move a rule operates to change a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice, it can move a noun phase to any Case receiving position.III. Directions: Define the following terms.sentence (P61)finite verb (P61)hierarchical structure (P66)grammatical relation (P73-74)recursiveness (P78-79)X-bar theory (P81)universal grammar (P85)IV. Answer the following questions.1. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements? Support your statement with examples. (P68-69)2. What are the major lexical categories and the minor lexical categories? And what is the difference between them? (P72-73)Keys to After-class ExercisesI.1-5 B D D D B 6-10 D C C C D 11-15 D B A C BII.错误的为3 5 6 9 10 15，其余正确。
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
4 syntax(1)
Syntax
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.1 Introduction
Morphology & syntax: Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax studies the structure and ordering of components within a sentence.
Examples of the Prescriptive Rules
(1) You must not split infinitives. e.g. I ask him to boldly go in the dark forest.
(2) You must not end a sentence with a preposition. e.g. Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.
PS Rules
A sentence such as The man / hit a ball may be rewritten as a noun phrase the man and a verb phrase hit a ball; the verb phrase hit /a ball as a verb hit and a noun phrase a ball; and the noun phrase the / man, or a / ball, as a determiner the, or a, and a noun man, or ball respectively, as illustrated in the following tree diagram:
英语语言学笔记第四章
句法（syntax）这个单词，来自希腊语，由两个语素构成：﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同"，﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列"，因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词功能的描写，等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语，更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如：常说名词有数、性、格的范畴，动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里，我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数（number），主要是名词和代词的范畴，如：a book（一本书）；some books（一些书）；I（我），we（我们）；he（他），they（他们）。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴，如：He speaks English.（他说英语）；They speak English.（他们说英语）。
在法语等语言中，形容词和冠词也有数的变化，如：le cheval royal，les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种：单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似于英语中的both（双方，两者）。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题——第四章：句法
Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The hea d of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis ofa sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure:It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers”by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersVI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.。
chapter4 syntax
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sen-tences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.48. Explain and exemplify the following PS rules.(1) NP {(D)N / Pron }(s)(2) Aux—t(M)(have-en)(be-ing)49. What is the nature of Transformational-generative grammar? What are its main aspects?50. Which of the following sentences are ambiguous? For those you find ambiguous, paraphrase them so as to illustrate why they are ambiguous?(1) This is my colleague, Frank.(2) Are you tired of cleaning yourself? Let us do it.(3) In the film, Pat was a witch.(4) He promised me to come next week.(5) Patent medicines are sold by frightening people.(6) Dog for sale; eats anything and is fond of children.(7) I found something interesting on the Internet.51. Some grammar books say there are three tenses in English—the present, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses—the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.52. On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.(1) John walked slowly.(2) Tom talked with Jack very quietly.(3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early.Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, asentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence ?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures ?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.48. (1) The rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun or a pronoun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, (a) the man who came to see me last night, and (b) He who had never been there before.(2) The rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect form (have-en), or be plus an –ing form of a verb, e.g.: Aux—t(M): May I read your paper? Aux—t(have-en): Have you finished your paper? Aux—t(be-ing): Are you reading your paper?49. Transformational-generative grammar linguistic theory is associated with Noam Chomsky, particularly with his Syntactic Structures(1957). Generative grammar attempts to define rules that can generate the infinite number of grammatical(well-formed) sentences possible in a language. It starts not from a behaviorist analysis of minimal sounds but from a rationalst assumption that a deepstructure underlies a language, and that a similar deep underlies all languages. Transformational grammar seeks to identify rules (transformations) that govern relations between parts of a sentence, on the assumption that beneath such aspects as word order a fundamental structure exists. Transformational and generative grammar together were the starting point for the tremendous growth in linguistic studies since 1950s.TG Grammar has the following features. First, it seews language as a set of rules or principles. Second, the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the linguistic competence of the native speaker. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, grammarians are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker‟s knowledge instead of what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, the methodology used is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure—a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars of particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, the reaearchers follow rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.50. (1) This sentence is ambiguous, since it can be interpreted in two ways; first, it could be interpreted as that “I” was introducing my colleague Frank to someone else. Second, it could also means “I” was introducing my colleague to Frank.(2) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “Are you tired of cleaning all by yourself?”Second, “Are you tired of taking bath yourself?”(3) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “In the film, there is a character called “Pat”, who is a witch”. Second, “ Pat is an actor, and he plays the role of witch in the film.”(4) This sentence is unambiguous.(5) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “it is frightening people who sell patent medicines‟. Second, “ The way of selling patent medicines is by frightening people.”(6) This sentence is ambiguous. First, this dog is not particular about food, and is friendly to children; Second, this dog eats anything, especially children.(7) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “on the internet there was something interesting‟ (I found/something interesting on the internet). Second, “ I have surfed the internet for …the interesting thing‟” (I found something interesting/ on the internet). 51. Tense is primarily used to indicate the thime at which an event took place(but also has secondary uses, as in I wish I took you seriously). Tense and aspect are two imporant categories of the verb, and they were not separated in traditional grammar. Based on the tense system in Latin grammar, English used to be said to have 16 tenses. Nowadays, linguists make two distinctions: one between time andt ense, and the other between tense and aspect. Time is a universal concept, which every language is capable of expressing; while tense is a linguistic concept, which varies from language to language. The difference between tense and aspect is that the former is deictic, i.e. indication time relative to the timeo of utterance; while the latter is not deictic, the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance, but relative to the time of another event described, or implied, in te narrative. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present. The so-called future tense is not expressed inthe same way as these two. That is , it is not expressed by morphology, not by the different forms of the verb, but by various other means, such as “will/shall +infinitive”, “be going to + infinitive”, “present progressive aspect”“simple presnet tense” and “will/shall +progressive infinitive”. And will and shall are basically modal verbs like can and may.52. Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP→(Deg) Adv(Deg stands for degree words)VP→V(NP)(PP)( AdvP)。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
语言学chapter4习题
语⾔学chapter4习题Chapter 4 SyntaxMultiple Choice1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome5. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate6. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex7. In the sentence “Mary gave a book to him”, “him” is with a(n) _________ case.A. accusativeD. nominative8. The relation between any two words in “What a nice day!” is known as ___________.A. choice relationB. paradigmatic relationC. vertical relationD. syntagmatic relation9. __________is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.A. GenderB. TenseC. AspectD. Number10. Paradigmatic relation is known as _______________.A. horizontal relationB. chain relationC. choice relationD. semantic relation11. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?A. a clever girlB. an ugly manC. in timeD. fork and knife12. refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Exocentric relation13. ______ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as masculine: feminine: neuter, animate: inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category14. Syntactically, English is an example of ________ language.C. SOVD. OSV15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate16. the relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. e.g between s, p and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such Bill hunts is called .A. syntagmatic relationB. paradigmatic relationC. positional relationD. relation of substitutabilityFill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.3. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.4. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.6. construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be complement) construction.7. IC is the short form of immediate used in the study of syntax.8. A sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as "and", "but", "or".Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.2. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.4. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.5. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.6. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.7. In the phrase “in the near future”, the word “future” is head.8. Words like “actor”and “actress” manifest that grammatical gender strictly corresponds to biological gender.9. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.10.“The student” in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture.”, and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.” belong to the same syntactic category.Define the following terms1. Syntax2. IC analysisAnswer the following questions.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉⼤学，2004）2.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第⼆外国语⼤学，2004）3. Suggest a tree diagram of the sentence The little girl ran into the garden. The student wrote a letter yesterday. Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simple, coordinate, complex or compound complex sentences:（1）Jane did it because she was asked to.（2）The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves.（3）David was never there, but his brother was. （4）She leads a tranquil life in the country. （5）Unless I hear from her, I won’t leave this town..Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show how syntactic rules account for the ambiguity of sentences:（1）After a two-day debate, they finally decided on the helicopter.（2）The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.(3) The shooting of the hunters might be terrible.(4) He saw young men and women present.。
语言学Chapter4Syntax参考答案
Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A+ complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) Y ou know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?Y ou would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?Y ou can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?Y ou eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A+ complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) Y ou know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax
specifier + head + complement
标志语 中心语 补足语
4.4.1.
specifiers 4.4.2. complements 4.4.3. modifiers
标志语
1. Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. (traditionally, parts of speech)
1. How many word classes do you know about? ① traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun…. ② non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词),
XP rule
X head XP → (specifier) X (complement) a. XP (specifier) X b. X X (complement) XP phrase level X X (head)
specifier
X theory
(X标杆理论)
intermediate level
phrase structure rule: the grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.
语言学Chapter4课后练习答案(20200602074319)
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appearprior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the categorytype of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposals d) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPN You know that I hate war b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det N Chris was happy that his father bought him aRoll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she lovedec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure:CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
Chapter 4 Syntax句法
2. Word classes (parts of speech)
Whether a word can occupy a certain position in a sentence depends on its grammatical category rather than its meaning. Nouns: Adjectives: Verbs: Adverbs: Prepositions: Pronouns: Conjunctions:
3.2 IC analysis
Immediate Constituent Analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents reached.
E.g: The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. S Art. N V Art. N Prep. Art. N
PS rules (rewrite rules): the rules which govern the structure of phrases.
(4) IC analysis can’t explain how the interrogative sentence and the sentence with a passive verb is transformed from their affirmative and active counterparts.
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题
Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is syntax?----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “arrangement” or out together”．Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or withoutappropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence..Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentencesWhat is a sentence?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certainorder in accordance with grammatical rules.A sequence c an be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.Knowledge of sentence structureStructural ambiguityStructural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. Forexample, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.Word orderDifferent arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the wordsTom, love and Mary, we may say T om loves Mary o r Mary loves Tom.Grammatical relationsNative speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For, the word enough is example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boatsrelated to different words in the two sentences.RecursionThe same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that youare happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that youare happy.Sentence relatednessSentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.Syntactic categoriesA syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without lossof grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:The child found the knife.A policeman found the knife.The man who just left here found the knife.He found the knife.All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The nounThe knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.phrases in these sentences function as subject.Traditional grammarIn traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs(predicates), predicatives, …Structural grammarStructural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with theinter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are notjust independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.Transformational-generative (TG) grammarChomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.Adequacy of observationAdequacy of descriptionAdequacy of explanationWriting a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrase structure rules andtransformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.Systematic-functional grammarBackground and the goal of systemic-functional grammarM. A. K. HallidayLanguage is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realizedthrough forms.The three meta-functions of languageIdeational functionInterpersonal functionTextual functionCategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.The criteria on which categories are determinedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criter ion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rulesThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The XP ruleNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typewith the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated;the categories must be of the same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Phrase elementsSpecifierHeadComplementSpecifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP. Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…；aI believed that she was innocent.I sentence-l ike construction may also function as a complement such as in “That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” introduced by complementizers are complement clause.Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Sentences (the S rule)S NP VPS NP infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstracts tense and agreement.category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’Infl realized by a tense labelInfl realized by an auxiliaryTransformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDeep structure & surface structureWh-movementMove α and constraints on transformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C.Auxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Deep structure & surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences m ight be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisThe organization of the syntactic componentWh-movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?What can you talk about ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences a re composed of sequence o f words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level ofD-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. XP can be written as (specifier) X (complement), X is called the_____.23. In a tree diagram, _____is the root of tree.24. The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed________.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.VI. Given examples for word classes by using the words in the following sentence.Her dog always sleeps under the old tree.VII. Construct a sentence that has the following sentences.S Det, A, N, V, P, Det, NVIII. For each of the following sentences, supply three distinct surface structure sentences which may be regarded as derived from them:a.I told him to stop the car.b.He took his coat off.IX. Draw tree diagrams for each of the following entences.1.Mary advised John to see the dentist.2.Mary promised John to see the dentist.3. A clever magician fooled the audience.4.The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.5.They knew that the senator would win the election.6.The mouse ran up the rock.7.The mouse ate up the cheese.8.John gave Mary the book.9.John gave the book to Mary.10.John went to the supermarket.11.The man who came to see me last night is my brother.12.The candle on the desk blows in the wind.13.She passed him the hammer and saw through the window. (2 tree diagrams)14.The boy saw the girl in the car. (2 tree diagrams)15.Flying planes can be dangerous. (2 tree diagrams)16.Old men and women were more careful. (2 tree diagrams)17.The man in the room helps me every day.18.John is easy to please.19.John is eager to please.Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a setof abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (calleda lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences a re identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
Chapter4Syntax-Exercises
Chapter4Syntax-Exercises第四章练习及答案Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1.Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3.Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged ina simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules thatcomprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge ofa language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit tothe number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating theother.7.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categoriesare not fixed and newmembers are allowed for.9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognizedand discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usuallyfollows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list ofwords and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generatesentences at the level of D-structure.14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence fromaffirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.15.A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and apredicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number ofwords to form a complete statement, question or command.17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes thepredicate.18.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and whichsays something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19.A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other.20.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally calledan e_______ clause.21.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22.A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.23.P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate inone way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24.The theory of C_____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only insubject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammaticalknowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentencesB. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positionsB. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms.35.syntax 36.Sentence 37.coordinate sentence38.syntactic categories 39.grammatical relations 40.linguistic competence41.transformational rules 42.D-structureV. Answer the following questions.43.What are the basic components of a sentence?44.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45.Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46.What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47.What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.Suggested AnswersI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given./doc/9711453540.htmlplex 20.embedded 21.open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.25.D26.D27.A28.29.A30.A31.D32.C33.D34.BIV. Define the following terms.35.Syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure oflanguage. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises anumber of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally,a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finiteverb or a verb phrase.37.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38.Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.40.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform onesentence type into another type.42.D-structure: D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists beforemovement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions.43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which containsa finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book,and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured.When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B) The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "thechild" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
Chapter 4 Syntax (句法学)Syntax is the study of the part of
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In terms of the linear order of constituents, English has seven basic clause types: SV—Someone was laughing; Tom is coming. SVO—My sister enjoys parties; I like English. SVC—They became angry; He is clever. SVA—I went to New York; They work hard. SVOO—Mary gave John a book. The old man teaches us chemistry. SVOC—Most people consider the book expensive. We found Jane an honest girl. SVOA—You must put the toy downstairs. She did her homework carelessly.
直接成分分析法把话语一直分到词素， 忽略了词和习语作为词汇单位的整体作 用。如：look…up, bring…in, help…out, look forward to, 三长两短，七上八下， 如果切分到词素，就会忽视习语的整体 意义，从而破坏语义的完整性。
( Have a brief discussion on the exercises on P. 100.)
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Construction ( 结 构 ): It is composed of constituents and is able to be segmented. Or: It is a relationship between constituents.
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Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher‟s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme”“Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。
负载交际能力最大的是述位。
11. IC analysis: to analyze the relation between sentence and its component elements.12. endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心，离心1．Which serves a centre or head. AP, NP,VP2. no definable centre or head. PP,V+O ,be + A. 无中心13. deep structure and surface structure1. underlying level of structural relation 潜藏在人们意识中的结构2. closed to people produced and received.声音文字直接感受到的14.1. When we say that we can change the second word in the sentence “He is waiting outside”with another word or phrase. We are taking about ____inside the sentence.A. Syntactic relationsB. paradigmatic relations BC. Linear relationsD. Government2. The part of the grammar that represents a speaker‟s knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called______ .A.LexiconB. morphologyC. SyntaxD. semantics C3. What does …IC‟ stands for as a syntactic notion and analytical technique ?A. inferential ConnectiveB. inflectional ComponentC. Immediate Constituent cD. Implicative Communication4. If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze the sentence “She broke the window with a stone yesterday”, where is the first cut?Draw a tree diagram of this sentence.A. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and broke BC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with5. ____ is the defining properties of units like noun (number, gender, case) and verb (tense, aspect, etc.).A. parts of speechB. Word classesC. Grammatical categories CD. Functions of words6. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English ?A. genderB. numberC. caseD. voice D7. ____ is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.A. ConcordB. Immediate constituentC. Syntagmatic relationsD. Government D8. ____ proposed to define sentence as the maximum free form.A. BloomfieldB. Chomsky AC. HallidayD. Sussure9. The phrase “boys and girls ”is a(n) _____.A. subordinate endocentric constructionB. coordinate endocentric construction BC. subordinate exocentric constructionD. coordinate exocentric construction10. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is to _____.A. study real ‘facts’in daily settingsB. tell people how to speak appropriatelyC. tell people what is right in language useD. Look for …the universal grammar‟ D11. What is the full form of LAD ?nguage associative districtnguage acquisition device BC.Linguistic acquisition districtnguage associative device12. A speaker‟s actual utterance in Chomsky‟s terminology is called _____.A. deep structureB. linguistic universalsC. universal grammarD. surface structure D13. Chomsky studies language from a psychological point of view, holding that language is a form of ____; while Halliday focuses on thesocial aspect of language, regarding language as a form of ____.A. knowing, doingB. knowing, thinking AC. thinking, doingD. doing, knowing14．F. de Saussure is a(n) _____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. Russian C15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate A16. “You sit down” is transformed into “Sit down”. Which transformational rule is used according to TG Grammar ?A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion D17. L. Bloomfield is a famous _____ structural linguist.A. BritishB. RussianC. AmericanD. French C18. In ______ , Noam Chomsky published his famous book “Syntactic Structure”.A. 1920B.1957C. 1965D. 1970 B19. “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which transformational rule is used.A. CopyingB. ReorderingC. AdditionD. Deletion C20.The phrase “men and women” belong to the ______Construction.A. predicateB. coordinateC. subordinateD. exocentric B21. ______ refers to a construction where one clause is coordinated with another.A. EmbeddingB. RecursivenessC. ConjoiningD. Cohesion CII. Tell true statement from false.1．Traditional grammar involves a great deal of gender, number and case. T2.“I‟m a teacher.”“He studies English.” describe the form of government.F Concord government: give her a present.3. “ langue” is much more stable than “parole”. T4. When we mentioned about a “树”，it is signified; and the sound /shu:/ is signifier, the relationship among them is arbitrary. T5. The sentence “ If the weather is nice, we‟ll go out.” is settled at the base paradigmatic relation. F6. Sassure proposed the linguistic study considered in itself. TThe only true object of study in linguistics is the language, considered in itself and for its own sake. 语言和为语言而研究的语言7. Rheme contributes much more great than theme. F8. IC analysis is used to analyze the semantic feature of the sentence. F9. The Ultimate Constituents of IC analysis is morpheme. T10. “He seemed angry.” Is the construction of exocentric construction. T11. “The house is behind this building. ” is endocentric. F.12. “He came back very late last night.”The underlying structure is endocentric one. T13. To analyse the sentences with IC analysis.14. When we mention about “phonetic ” and “lexicon components”, they belong to deep structure category. F15. The abstract meaning and ambiguity of the sentence can be analyzed be deep structure. T16. Systemic –functional grammar wanted to link the function with structure of the language.17.B y synchrony we mean to study language change and development. F18.T he open-class words include prepositions. F19.“The boy smiled” has an exocentric structure. T20.T he IC Analysis is not able to analyse split verbs like “do sb. in”. T21.L angue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject topersonal and situational constraints.22.P honology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentencepatterns of a language. F23.。