Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools__ of Modern Linguistics
—Chapter 12 Theories and Schools ofLinguisticsWang Yao @ SDUTThe Prague School 2Introduction 13The London School American Structuralism 45Transformational-Generative GrammarRevisions or Rebels?6Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) 索绪尔The Swiss linguist is often referred to as “father of modern linguistics” “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.Saussure lectured on GeneralLinguistics in the Universityof Geneva.C. Bally and A Sechahaye collected notes and put them together to produce---Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》in 1916.Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology.Arbitrariness of the sign & Language is an institution LinguisicsW. D. Whitney Sociology E. Durkheim Language is one of the “social facts”---ideas in the collective mind of a society The continuity of a collective psyche---the unconscious (Oedipus Complex)Psychology S. FreudLanguage is an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon. Among the various aspects and different perspectives, linguists need to ask what he is trying to describe.Saussure believes language is a system of signs.Sound (signifier) + ideas (signified) = sign (a system of convention)/kæts/CatsSaussure was also influenced by Western economic theories of the time since linguistics and economics were sciences of studying values.Dichotomy:langue-parole; syntagmatic-paratagmatic; synchronic-diachronicDichotomy---absence/virtual systems (stable & invariable) and presence/actual systems (unstable & variable)langue:the structure of a system that gives the potential for the words or utterances to existParole:what people actually say or what appears on the page1) Saussure provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which had seldom been questioned.2) He influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concepts: his ideas of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue-parole, synchrony-diachrony, syntagmatic-aradigmatic relations.Saussure’s fundamental perception is of revolutionary significance, and it is he that pushed linguistics into a brand new stage and all linguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.FormalismPerspectiveThe Prague School The London School IntroductionThe Formal Perspective The American Structuralism The Transformational-Generative GrammarPrague Linguistic Circle:Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.The school practised a special style of synchronic linguistics. The most important contribution: sees language interms of function.IntroductionThree Important Points1) It stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.2) Language is systemic in that no element of Language can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.3) Language is functional in that it is a tool forperforming a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.N. Trubetzkoy: Principle ofPhonology(1939)Phonology and Phonological Oppositions The Prague School’s Major Contribution:phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology.Phonology and Phonological OppositionsN. Trubetzkoy: Principle of PhonologyPhonetics & Phonology: parole & langue.Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system asdistinct from the sounds actually produced.A phoneme may be defined as the sum of thedifferential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.N. Trubetzkoy:Principle of PhonologyIn classifying distinctive features, Trubetzkoyproposed three criteria: 1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; 2) relations between the opposing elements; and 3) their power ofdiscrimination. These oppositions are referred to as phonological oppositions.Phonology and Phonological OppositionsBilateral Opposition:the features two phonemes share belong only to themE.g. /p/ and /b/ share the feature of “bilabial” Multilateral Opposition:a more loosely established relationshipE.g. /a/ and /i/ share the feature of vowels, which is shared by any other pairs of vowels.Phonological OppositionsProportional Opposition:two phonemes areproportional if the same contrastive features also serve as the differentiating criterion for other pairs of phonemes.E.g. /p/ and /b/ share the feature of “sonority”, which also exists between /k/ and /g/Isolated Opposition:the contrastive feature is unique to the pairE.g. /v/ and /l/, the former is “labial -dental fricative”, whereas the latter is “lateral voiced”.Phonological OppositionsPhonological OppositionsPrivative Opposition:one member of a contrastive pair may be characterised by the presence of a certain feature, the other by its absence.E.g. /p/ and /b/, the former has “aspiration”, whereas the latter is “lack of aspiration”.Gradual Opposition:the pairs share different degrees of a featureE.g. /u/ and /o/, for sharing the same feature of tongue height of the vowel is a third vowelPhonological OppositionsEquipollent Opposition:the pair is not in gradual opposition, nor in privative oppositionE.g. /t/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/Neutralisable Opposition:the opposition occurs when two sounds contrast in some position but not in others E.g. /p/ and /b/ do not contrast after /s/Constant Opposition:the pair of sounds occurs in all possible positions without neutralising effectE.g. /t/ and /d/ is constant in all positions for consonants1) He showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of the phoneme.2) He defined the sphere of phonological studies.3) He revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.4) He put forward a set of methodologies forphonological studies.Trubetzkoy’s ContributionsFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)FSP:A theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the roles of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse.The point of departure, called the theme , is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.The goal of discourse, called the rheme , presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. Movement from theme to rheme reveals themovement of the mind itself.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe how information is distributed in sentences.It deals particularly with the effect of the distributionof known (given) info and new info in discourse.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)The known information:information that is not new to the reader or hearer.The new information:what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Sally stands on the table.ThemeRheme On the table standsSally .ThemeRhemeFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP) Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP)Communicative Sentence Pattern (CSP) Johnhas written a novel.SubjectVerb Object (GSP)AgentAction Goal (SSP)Theme Transition Rheme(CSP)Three Levels of a SentenceCommunicative Dynamism (CD) J. FirbasLinguistic communication is dynamic, not static.CD measures the amount of infoan element carries in a sentence.The degree of CD is the effectcontributed by a linguistic element.For Example He was cross.CD: The lowest degree of CD is carried by he , and the highest degree of CD is carried by cross , with the degree carried by wasranking between them.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Theoretically, any element---sentence, phrase, word, morpheme---may be singled out in order to establish a sharp contrast.E.g. John was reading the newspaper .The only element conveying new information has significant semantic content, whereas all the otherelements conveying known information are determined by the context.The contextually dependent elements carry the lowestdegree of municative Dynamism (CD)Contextual dependence or independence is determined by the very purpose of the communication. E.g.John has gone up to the window .I have read a nice book .He was hurrying to the railway station.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or adverbial are contextually independent.This is because a known or unknown agentexpressed by the subject appears to becommunicatively less important than an unknownaction expressed by the finite verb and/or anunknown goal (object or adverbial of place) at ortowards which the action is directed.For example,A man broke into the house and stole all the money.The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its goal, not the agent.A man broke into the house and stole all the money. Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)However, if the subject is followed by a verb expressing “existence or appearance on the scene” and is contextually independent, then it will carry the highest degree of CD, because an unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene itself, e.g.An old man appeared in the waiting room at fiveo’clock.An old man appeared in the waiting room at fiveo’clock.If the subject is contextually dependent, a contextually independent adverbial of time or place becomes an important local and temporal specification, carrying greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb, as inThe old man was sitting in the waiting room. The old man was sittingin the waiting room.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)The semantic contents and relations contribute to the degree of CD and they are not directly related to the positions the elements occupy within the linear arrangement.Not all semantic contents and relations are capable of signalling degrees of CD in the same way.E.g.1) He went to Prague to see his friend .In order to see his friend , he went to Prague.2) He gave a boy an apple .He gave an apple to a boy.Communicative Dynamism (CD)Communicative Dynamism (CD)Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of various degrees of CD.The initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD, and with each step forward, the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.Contextually dependent elements are always thematic.Non-thematic elements do not always depend on thecontext, and not every contextually independent element is non-thematic.B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).M. A. K. Halliday (1925-), student of Firth.All three stressed the importance ofcontext of situation and the systemaspect of Language.The London School is known asSystemic Linguistics and FunctionalLinguistics.Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action,rather than as a counterpart of thought”. The meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which it occurs.E.g. no writing in primitive communitieschildren learning their languagesMalinowski’s TheoriesMalinowski’s TheoriesUtterances and situations are bound up inextriably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words.Three types of situational context:situations in which speech interrelates with bodilyactivity;narrative situations;situations in which speech is used to fill a speechvacuum—phatic communion.Malinowski’s TheoriesSituations in which speech interrelates with bodily activityThe meaning of a word is not given by the physical properties of its referent, but by its functions.Malinowski’s TheoriesNarrative situationsThis can be further distinguished between “the situation of the moment of narration” and “the situation referred to by the narrative”.The first case is made up of the respective social, intellectual and emotional attitudes of those present, and the second case derives its meaning from the context referred to.Although there is no relationship between the meaning of narration and the situation in which language is used, narration can change the hearer’s social attitudes and emotions.Malinowski’s TheoriesSituations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communionIt refers to cases of language used in free, aimless, social intercourse.Phatic Communion---the use of language is not the least related to human activities, and its meaning cannot possibly come from situations in which language is used, but from the atmosphere of sociability and the fact of the personal communion of these people.Malinowski’s TheoriesCoral Gardens and Their Magic1) He prescibed the data for linguistic studies, and the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual uses of language.2) In order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study the situations in which it is used.Firth’s Theories---Context of SituationFirth regarded Language as a social process, a means of social life rather than simply as a set of agreed-upon semiotics and signs.In order to live, human beings have to learn andlearning Language is a means of participation insocial activities.Language is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting and living.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Language is both inborn and acquired.The object of linguistic study is language in use.The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of language in order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of language, explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.Firth’s Theories---Context of SituationFirth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies:because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and L is an important part of cultural values, linguistics can help reveal the social nature ofhuman beings.Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Therefore the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:the relationship of each phoneme to its phoneticcontext;the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;the morphological relations of each word;the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;the relationship of the sentence to its context ofsituation.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation There are five levels of analysis: 1) phonological; 2) lexical and semantic; 3) morphological; 4) syntactic; and 5) context of situation.Firth’s Theories---Context of Situation Phonological level of analysis---phonological functions Lexical and semantic level of analysis---referentialmeaning and collocative meaningMorphological level of analysis---inflectionsSyntactic level of analysis---the syntagmatic relationship of grammatical categories or colligationContext of situation---non-linguistic elements such as objects, behaviour, and events, together with the effects of linguistic behaviour。
英语课件Chapter12 Schools of Ls
h
13
• Context of situation includes the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment.
• 1. It begins from the first meeting of V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926.
• 2. Three important points: • (1) synchronic study of lg • (2) systemic character of lg • (3) lg is functional
h
5
• (3) revealing the interdependent relations between phonemes by studying syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes
• (4) a set of methodologies for phonological studies, such as the method of extracting phonemes and studying phonological combinations
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics(1)
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics[注：第九、十、十一章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the function that the child use s to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in alinguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics?36. What is behaviorism? What is behaviorism in linguistics? What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield? Does behaviorism have any limitations? If yes, what are they?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics?Key:I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.V. VI. Omit.。
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
Lecture 11
Saussure’s ideas on language
• Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the signifier and the signified. Some important distinctions Saussure made in linguistics include langue vs. parole, syntagmatic vs. paradigmatic, and synchronic vs. diachronic.
Important concepts
• Theme – the point of departure of a sentence, which is equally present to the speaker and hearer; • Rheme -- the goal of discourse which presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer; • Known/ given information -- information that is not new to the reader or hearer; • New information -- what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.
theories and schools of modern linguistics
A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure ---- theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer----rheme. The movement from the initial notion(Theme) to the goal of discourse(Rheme) reveals the movement of the mind itself.
Functional Grammar
It puts forward three metafunctions of language: The ideational function The interpersonal function The textual function
The ideational function
Main ideas
Emphasis on the synchronic study of language; Emphasis on the systemic character of language; Emphasis on the function of language;
Trubetzkoy(1939): principle of phonology
Functional sentence perspective (FSP): to describe how information is distributed in sentences. FSP Known/given information New information in discourse
语言学专八考研真题及答案
专八语言集锦（05年——14年专八真题及解析归纳）目录1、2005年 (1)2、2006年 (2)3、2007年 (4)4、2008年 (6)5、2009年 (8)6、2010年 (10)7、2011年 (11)8、2012年 (12)9、2013年 (13)10、2014年 (14)11、附加语言学考研题 (15)2005年38.（考查点：main branches of linguistics) Syntax is the study ofA. language functionsB. sentence structuresC. textual organizationD.word formation答案：B。
解析：Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences,是关于形成和理解正确英语句子的原则。
也就是句子结构。
故选择B。
39.（考察点：design features of language) Which of ale following is NOTa distinctive feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. ProductivityC. Cultural transmissionD. Finiteness答案：D。
解析：题问下面四个选项中，哪一个不是人类语言的主要特征？除Finiteness(有限性)外，选项中的其它的三项Arbitrariness（任意性），Productivity（能产性）和Cultural transmission（文化传递性）在语言学概述部分都提到了。
故选择D。
40. （考察点：人物）The speech act theory was first put forward byA. John SearleB. John AustinC. Noam ChomskyD. M.A,K. Halliday答案：B。
Schools of Modern Linguistics 现 代 语 言 学 流 派
Schools of Modern Linguistics现代语言学流派Ferdinand de Saussure and his Work▪father of modern linguistics▪establish the structural study of language▪emphasize the arbitrary nature of linguistic sign▪emphasize the relational nature of language units▪make several pairs of distinctions▪Saussure‟s most influential work: Course in General Linguistics (1916)▪g ive definition of language▪outline the scope of linguistics▪present principles for phonology and writing systems▪General principles▪Synchronic linguistics▪Diachronic linguistics▪Geographical linguistics▪Retrospective linguisticsThe Arbitrary Nature of the Linguistic Signs▪ language as a system of signs: the sign as a union of the signifier and the signified▪no natural or inevitable connection between the signifier and the signified▪an arbitrary way of organizing the world into concepts and categories▪two important characteristics of linguistic signs:▪the arbitrary relation between the signifier and the signified▪the linear nature of the signifiedThe Relational Nature of Language Units⏹no essential core of meaning for a signified to be the proper signified for that signifier⏹signifiers as members of system defined by their relations to the other members of thatsystem⏹language units as relational identity⏹the comparison between language and chessSaussure‟s Dichotomies⏹Langue and parole⏹Synchronic and diachronic linguistics⏹Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsLangue and Parole▪Langue is the system of a language▪it is what the individual assimilates when he learns a language;▪it is social and abstract;▪It enables the members of a speech community to communicate linguistically.▪Parole is actual speech▪it is individual and concrete;▪it is the realization of the language system.Distinction between langue and parole⏹separate what is social from what is individual and what is essential from accidental⏹lead to the distinction between phonetics and phonology⏹phonetics studies speech sounds from a physical point of view⏹phonology studies the functional units within the linguistic system⏹lead to the distinction between utterance and sentence⏹an utterance is a unit of parole⏹ a sentence is a unit of langueSynchronic and Diachronic Linguistics⏹Synchronic linguistics:concerned with language at one point in time⏹Diachronic linguistics: concerned with the development or evolution of language⏹Distinction between synchronic and diachronic study: synchronic study is given priority⏹there cannot be logical comparisons or diachronic studies without synchronicstudies⏹notion of language change should be carefully used⏹there is a close connection between the study of diachronic change andsynchronic variationSyntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations⏹Syntagmatic relations:⏹relations a linguistic element enters into with other elements in a serial or linearstructure in writing or in the temporal stream of speech⏹relations of cooccurrence⏹relations that link the whole structure to its parts and vice versa⏹Paradigmatic relations:⏹relations that obtain between elements⏹Priority is given to paradigmatic relations in modern linguistics.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹Be the first to define the symbolic nature of human language.⏹Sign:an intersection or relationship or form and meaning, where form is somethingconcrete, and meaning is something mental or cognitive.⏹Three types of signs: icon, index, and symbol.⏹Icon: a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning;⏹Index: a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in naturewith its meaning;⏹Symbol:a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with itsmeaning.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹with respect to the study of the syntactic and semantic dimensions of texts⏹ a rich working hypothesis demonstrating the systematic character of language (orliterature) at each particular period of life⏹The application of the two categories of parole and langue to literatureChapter Two European Functionalism The Prague SchoolIntroduction♦one of the most influential schools of linguistic thought in pre-war linguistics♦the approach to the study of language as a synchronic system♦the importance of the social function of language♦three points are of special importance:–the synchronic study of language–emphasis on the systemic character of languageContributions of The Prague School♦distinction between phonetics and phonology–phonetics belongs to parole–phonology belongs to langue–the notion of the phoneme as an abstract unit of the sound system ♦the functional conception of language as manifested in the analysis of sentences –Mathesius‟s distinction between theme & rheme•the theme, which is a fact or facts already known•the rheme, which contains all the new information to be transmitted –others‟ investigation of the functions of languagePhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s distinction between phonetics and phonology♦Trubetzkov‟s notion of phoneme–it has discriminative power–it cannot be analyzed into smaller segments–it can only be determined by distinctive features♦phonemes as being composed of a number of phonologically significant distinctive featuresPhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s nine phonological oppositions:–Bilateral opposition（双边对立）–Multilateral opposition（多变对立）–Proportional opposition（均衡对立）–Isolated opposition（孤立对立）–Privative opposition（否定对立）–Gradual opposition（分级对立）–Equipollent opposition（等价对立）–Neutralizable opposition（抵消对立）–Constant opposition（永恒对立）Trubetzkov‟s Con tributions to Phonological Theory♦distinctive functions of speech sounds and an accurate definition for the phoneme♦the sphere of phonological studies♦the interdependent relations between phonemes♦methodologies for phonological studiesJokobson‟s Concept o f Distinctive Features♦The distinctive features are explicitly regarded as binary choices and hence they could be listed as paired oppositions, e.g. …vocality‟ v. …consonantality‟, …vocality‟ v. …non-vocality‟.♦These features were defined with reference not only to articulatory positions but also to acoustic properties of speech-sounds.♦It was hoped that the proposed list of distinctive features would be universal. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)♦Interests in FSP:–Mathesius (1924, 1939)–Firbas (1960‟s)–Halliday (1967, 1968, 1970)♦Definition and scope of FSP:–an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain–the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new information in discourse.♦Firbas‟s notion of Com municative Dynamism (CD):–Linguistic communication is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon.–CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence(e.g. He was angry.)–The various elements of an utterance is thought to have varying degrees of communicative dynamism.Firbas: concept of “context”♦区分了四种语境：–交际双方共有的经验知识（一般语境）；–语言交际正在进行时的直接语境（范围稍窄）；–刚刚出现的上文（范围更窄）；–句子本身（范围最窄，“语境依赖”指的是这种语境）。
Modern Theories and Schools of Linguistics
Saussure’s theory of language can be summed up as follows:
The Essential Nature of the Sign (符号的任意性)
The linguistic sign is arbitrary. The linguistic sign is not the combination of one object (物体) and one name but the combination of concept and soundimage (声音形象). Saussure called concept the signified (所指) and sound-image the signifier (能指). Linguistic sign=concept (signified) + sound image (signifier) For example, ‚tree‛ is a linguistic sign; its sound-image/tri:/ is the signifier and the plant it refers to is the signified. The combination of the signifier and the signified is the arbitrary entity (任 意的实体). This combination is the linguistic sign.
''ABSENCE'' (langue)
Saussure’s Theorizing
He was the first to notice the complexities of
12.Theories and schools of modern linguistics-修改版
6
黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
2. The Prague School
• Prague Linguistic Circle:
– Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (19212000). – The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.
Teaching objectives:
The learners will be better able to have some knowledge about Saussure, the Prague School, the London School, American Structuralism and Transformational-Generative Grammar.
4
黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
李金妹制作
• Functionalism
• Formalism
5
黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
The functional perspective • The Prague School • The London School
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
The Introduction Part
他是现代语言学的重要奠基者，也是结构主义的 开创者之一。他被后人称为现代语言学之父，结构 主义的鼻祖。 1907年到1911年，他在日内瓦大学任教时，先后讲 过三次《普通语言学教程》（Cours de Linguistique Generale）这本书是索绪尔的代表性 著作，集中体现了他的基本语言学思想，对二十世 纪的现代语言学研究产生了深远的影响。同时，由 于其研究视角和方法论所具有的一般性和深刻性， 书中的思想成为二十世纪重要的哲学流派结构主义 的重要思想来源。 当然，这本书是他的两个学生根据自己的听课笔记 整理出来的，于1916年出版。In psychology
Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S.Freud 弗洛 伊德（1856-1939），他把连续的 心理活动称为潜意识下的。
Other influence
• Many people believe that Saussure was also influenced by Western economic theories of the time. Saussure 认为语言学 如同科学，同样是the science of studying values（研究价值的科学）. 因此，他把语 言学带上了科学之路。使之成为一门学科， 供人类学习和研究。
Three parts
• Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines :linguistics, sociology, and psychology. • In linguistics, he was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney(1827-1917)美国 的语言学家辉特尼。他反对自然主义语言观，强 调语言的社会因素。 • In sociology， he was greatly influenced by 法国 的“现代社会学之父”涂尔干（Emile Durkhelm， 1858-1917）。他认为，社会是一个实体存在， 个人行为是有意义的行为。社会现象实质上是社 会心理现象，社会是一种心理实体。
布拉格学派
How to determine a phoneme:
The basic way to determine the phoneme of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represens different phonemes. For example: put /// cut: p and c are different phonemes. So the most effective way to distinguish phonemes is to find minimal pairs and minimal sets. For example: p … l…
1. Phonetics (语音学) Phonology (音系学): :
Following Saussure’s distinction between Langue and Parole, he argued: phonetics belonged to parole ; phonology belonged to langue.
importance of the social function of language
were explicitly laid down as the basis for further research.
feature
Prague structuralism is functionalistic in that the Prague school views language as a combination of structure and function. So language is a structural system of multifunction, which comprises many interdependent sub-systems. They are also famous for the phonological study of language and the analysis of language from a Functional Sentence Perspective, which enable them to play the leading role in the field of structural linguistics.
新 schools of modern linguistics
Theories and schools of modern
linguistics
Following the French sociologist E. Durkheim杜克海姆, he held that language is one of the “social facts”社会事实, which are ideas in the “collective mind” of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts. In psychology, he was influenced by the Austrian
Theories and schools of modern
linguistics
This actually concerns the classical relationship经典关系 in most western philosophies between absence不在场 and presence在场, which is a distinction between virtual 虚拟 世界worlds and actual worlds现实世界. For Saussure, langue is “absence” in the virtual world and parole is “presence” in the actual world. Absence/vitual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/actual systems are considered unstable and variable.
语言学课件 Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics
3. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 1) It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain. 2) A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is called the THEME. The goal of discourse is called RHEME. The movement from the initial notion (theme) to the goal of discourse (rheme) reveals the movement of the mind itself. 3) Functional sentence perspective A. describe how information is distributed in sentences/ the effect of the distribution of known (given) information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. Usually the subject is the theme and the predicate is the rheme. Sally stands on the table. But it is not always the case. On the table stands Sally.
2011-2012学年语言学下册Saussure
What is Structuralism?
Structuralists are interested in the interrelationship between UNITS, also called "surface phenomena," and RULES, which are the ways that units can be put together. In language, the units are words; the rules are the forms of grammar which order words.
Langue
is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
Thirdly, traditional grammar has been restricted mainly to SYNTAX, that is, the way of words making patterns to form sentences, while linguistics has a boarder scope for researching, eg. pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ect. which, accordingly, are out of the scope of traditional grammar. The modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framewrok. It is wrong to judge one language by standards of another
语言学流派复习题
Theories and schools of linguistics1. Saussure’s ideaSaussure‟s idea was developed along 3 lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology.1）Linguistics:Saussure received the greatest influence from the American linguist William Dwight Whitney. He work within essentially the neogrammarian tradition but raised the question of the sign. In his books, he argued that language is in fact an institution, founded on social convention. In stressing the institutional and conventional nature of language, Whitney distinguished human communication from the merely instinctive animal communication, and language keep developing and changing.Saussure acknowledged Whitney‟s influence on his own turning to the problem of the sign. In his Course in General Linguistics, Saussure said that by insisting on the concept of arbitrariness of the sign to emphasize that language is an institution. It is Whitney who led Saussure to see that by making representation of a language rather than the history of it the basis of a discipline, one could begin to distinguish the relevant data from the irrelevant, and the functional from the non-functional. For Saussure, meaning exists only because there are differences of meaning and it is these differences of meaning that enable one to establish the articulation of linguistic forms. Forms can be recognized not because of their historical continuity, but because of their different functions, their ability of distinguish and to produce distinct meanings.Saussure fundamental perception is of revolutionary significance. Meaning depends on differences of meaning; only through differences of meaning can one identify forms and their defining functional qualities. Forms must be established through analysis of a system of relations and differences.2）Sociology:As for sociology, Saussure was influenced by the French sociologist Emile Durkheim, who wrote Rules of Sociological Method and On Suicide: Sociological Studies. First, he introduced the term “social facts”, according to Durkheim, social facts are ideas in the “collecting mind” of a society. The collective mind of a society is sth that exists over and above the individual members of the society, and its ideas are only indirectly and imperfectly reflected in the minds of the people who make up the society. Durkheim‟s idea is that a society comprises a web of phenomena of this category, many of which will possess much more complex structures. The position resulted in postulating the existence of a collective consciousness distinct from the totality of individual consciousness.About the nature of social facts, Durkheim said that we must remember that our social institutions are largely bequeathed to us by former generations and we ourselves take no part in forming them.Social constraint is one of the tests for a truly social fact. When we fully conform to the social facts, the constraint is felt only slightly and is therefore unnecessary. It is the social norms that enable human beings to communicate and act meaningful.Language is a social fact, since it is general throughout a community and exercises a constraint on the speakers. This constraint is peculiar, since (1) it consists in our lack of any alternative, if we wish to communicate, and (2) it is imposed on us by education, but when we master it, we are no longer aware of any constraint.Throughout his Course, there is the principle that language as a social fact is independent of historical development, any language in any historical period can be described and analyzed regardless of its history. 3）Psychology:Influenced from psychology mainly comes from psychoanalysis, a discipline founded and practiced by Sigmund Freud, the Austrian psychiatrist. Freud‟s works include The Interpretation of Dreams, the Ego of Id,etc.Freud discussed the prohibition of incest and other social taboos. He also discussed Oedipus complex. He postulated the continuity of a collective psychy, which he called the unconscious.The historical event is asserted as a cause, but then it is inferred from the subconscious system.Structural explanation relates actions to a system of norms—the rules of a language, the collective representation of a society, the mechanisms of a psychical economy—and the concept of the unconscious is a way of explaining how these systems have explanatory force. It is a way of explaining how these systems can be simultaneously unknown yet effectively present.In fact, one could argue that in linguistics the concept emerges in its clearest and most undeniable form. The unconscious is the concept which enables one to explain an undeniable fact: I know a language, yet I do not know what I know. I know a language, yet I need a linguist to tell me precisely what it is what I know. The concept of the unconscious connects and makes sense of these two facts and opens a space for exploration. Another example for this discipline is the placing the subject or the “I”at the centre of one‟s analytical domain and then deconstructing it. Saussure put the subject right at the centre of his analytical project. The notion of the subject becomes central to the analysis of language.2. The linear feature of the signifierAccording to Saussure, the signifier, being auditory, is unfolded solely in time. It has the following characteristics: it represents a time span-one word after another; and the span is measurable in a single dimension-it is line.Auditory signifiers have at their command only the dimension of time. Their elements are presented in succession: they form a chain, in a temporal sequential order and it is impossible for two elements to appear simutaneously.In a language state, everything is based on relations. The signs in the language system are related in two ways: there are rules for their combination and there are contrasts and similarities between them. Thus, Saussure distinguished two relations: the syntagmatics and paradigmatics. When people speak, one signifier comes after another and they form an order. For example: “He walks slowly”. In this order, the signifiers form a relationship in which every one of them derives its own value. On the other hand, one sign can lead to many associations. For instance, in “He walks slowly”. One can associate “he” with “she, they ,it ”ect; associate “walk” with “run”; associate “slowly” with “fast, as fast as he can” ect. Later, linguists termed this relation of association as selectional relation.Thus, the two dimentions of language, combination and contrast/ similarity, are commonly illustrated diagrammatically as two axes: On the syntagmatic axis, words are linked or chained together according to grammatical rules, but we make choices about which words to link together. On the paradigmatic axis, the axis of choice. Language is understood by the way the signifiers are organised in terms of a paradigmatic axis of selection and a syntagmatic axis of combination. The way in which the syntagms and paradigms are organised constitutes the structure of language.3.The immutable nature of the signifierAccording to Saussure, although linguistic signs are arbitrarily chosen with respect to the ideas that they represent, the signifier is not arbitrary with respect to the linguistic community that uses it. When a certain object has a signifier, it is accepted by members of the speech community and can not be modified by any individual.The reasons are: first, a sudden change of the system would throw the community into confusion. Y ou can imagine, if all the words change their meaning overnight, the speech community will be in confusion.Second, speakers of a language are never aware of the system, so they could do nothing about it. Even if they are aware of it, they are always satisfied with what they receive. Third, the arbitrary nature of the sign is what protects language from any attempt to modify it.However, in certain case, we can speak of immutability and mutability of the sign. Language is radically powerless to defend itself against the forcces which from one moment to the next are shifting the relationship between the signifier and the signified. This is one of the concequences of the arbitrary nature of the sign, so mutability is inescapable.4. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis refers to the views held by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf on the relationship between language and culture and thought. What lies at the centre of their hypothesis is the idea that a man‟s language moulds his perception of reality.Sapir argued that people do not perceive the world freely but rather they do so through their language, a filtering structure which will di stort the reality and thus influence and control the speaker‟s thought. This view was highlighted by Whorf‟s elaborate example.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two major components:linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. The former is simply a claim that language determines thought, and the latter is a claim that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.The point that Sapir-Whorf‟s linguistic determinism is that one‟s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one can only perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. Sapir said that human beings are greatly influenced by the particular language serving as the medium of expression for their society. The “red world” is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds. Language not only refers to but actually defines our experience.The point of Sapir-Whorf‟s linguistic rela tivity is that the categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of others. Whorf said that the linguistic system is part of the background knowledge of mankind. People are not conscious of this background. The background linguistic system is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of the ideas.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis fur thered people‟s knowledge of the relationships between language and thought, language and culture, by drawing attention to the influence of culture on language and the influence of language on thought. The hypothesis has had great influences on such fields as anthropology, sociology, linguistics and language teaching.5．Synchrony and DiachronySynchrony linguistics is also called static linguistics, studying the language state without considering how the state has evolved. Diachronic linguistics is also called evolutionary linguistics, studying the changes a language has undergone over long periods of time in history.It is an important contribution of Saussure to distinct between the synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.The relations between synchronic linguistic phenomena are not like those between diachro nic linguistic phenomena. In synchronic linguistics, “foot/feet”; “tooth/teeth”; “goose/geese”are in opposition, while in diachronic linguistics, the forms of “foot”(foti,feti,fet) have no necessary relations but only indicate accidental changes over time.As the dual nature of language, Saussure explained the relation between synchrony and diachrony with a comparison between the functioning of language and a game of chess. First, the state of language is verymuch like that of the set of chessmen. The respective value of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its position to all other items. Second, the system is always momentary, varying from one position to the next. The value of each piece depends on an unchangeable convention---the set of rules exists before the game begins. Rules that are agreed upon once and for all exist in language too. Third, to pass from one state of stability ( or synchrony) to the next, only the chess pieces have to be moved. Some changes bring about great effects, other changes bring about minor effects. In spite of that, the move does effect the whole system.Synchronic linguistics deals with the language system proper, and it is more important than diachronic linguistics. Any language in any historical period can be described and analyzed regardless of its history. Without synchronic studies, there can be no diachronic studies.However, the distinction of diachronic linguistics from synchronic linguistics is not largely accepted, because it is not easy to draw a sharp line between these two aspects of language studies. First, languages are in a constant state of changing. There is never a moment when a language remains static for our description. Second, the language of any speech community is never uniform. Which variety is to be described is quite a matter of question. Third, when a language changes, it is not the case that one set of features are suddenly replaced by another set of features.6. 6. the arbitrary nature of the signThe first principle of Saussure …s theory of language concerns the essential quality of the sign. The linguistic sign is arbitrary. The particular combination of the signifier and the signified is an arbitrary entity. By arbitrary nature of the sign Saussure means that there is no natural or inevitable link between sound and meaning, or between the signifier and the signified. There is no intrinsic reason why one of these signifiers rather than another should be linked with the concept of a tree, a cow , or a dog.However, arbitrariness is a matter of degree. There are two ways in which linguistic signs may be made less arbitrary. First, there are cases of onomatopoeia, a phenomenon in which sounds are mimetic or imitative, su ch as “bang” and “crash” in English, “dingdang”, “putong” and “pingpang” in Chinese. Second, some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, and there is a certain connection between their sounds and meaning. For example, the process of combining “black” and “board”, or “type” and “writer” to create new motivated signs is fundamentally similar to the way in which we combine words to form phrases. Third, all languages have as their basic elements arbitrary signs first, and then they have various process for combining these signs. In spite of the various processes of combining new signs, the essential nature of language and its elementary constituents are never altered.There is more to the arbitrary nature of nature of the sign than the arbitrary relation between the signifier and the signified. If language were a nomenclature for a set of universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from one language to another. But there is a vast amount of proof that languages are not nomenclatures, and that the concepts or signifieds of one language may differ radically from those of another. Each language articulates or organizes the world differently. If language were a set of names applied to independently-existing concepts, then in the historical evolution of a language the concepts should remain stable. Language is not a nomenclature ant therefore its signifieds are not pre-existing concepts bur changeable and contingent concepts which vary feom one state of language to another. The fact that the relation between signifier and signified is arbitrary means: since there are no fixed universal concepts or fixed universal signifiers, the signified itself is arbitrary, and so is the signifier.ngue and parole①Sausure made a crucial opposition between langue and parole. Langue is the system of a language, thelanguage as a system of forms, whereas parole is actual speech, the speech acts that are made possible by the system of the language. Langue is what the individual assimilates when he learns a language, a set of forms and a grammatical system which , to all intents and purposes, exists in the mind of each speaker. Parole, on the other hand, involves both the combinations by which the speaker uses the code of the linguistic system in order to express his own thoughts and the psychophysical mechanisms which permit him to externalize these combinations.②The study of langue involves an inventory of the distinctions which create signs and of rules of combinations, whereas the study of parole would lead to an account of language use, including the relative frequencies with which particular forms were used in actual speech.③this distinction leads to two distinct disciplines that study sound and its linguistic function: phonetics and phonology. The former studies sounds in speech acts from a physical point of view, and the latter is not interested in physical events themselves but in the distinctions between the abstract units of signifiers which are functional within the linguistic system. At another level, we can distinguish between utterance, as a unit of parole, and sentence, as a unit of langue.④It is the distinction that gives the linguistic unit a relational identity. Saussure used the terms signification and value. The former involves the use of linguistic elements in actual situations of utterance, while the latter is the result of the oppositions which define them.⑤The distinction between langue and parole is a logical and necessary consequence of the arbitrary nature of the sign, the object of linguistic studies.8. Why do we call Saussure “the father of semiology”?Semiology is based on the assumptions that insofar as human actions convey meaning, insofar as they function as signs, there must be an underlying system of conventions and distinctions which make this meaning possible. Where there are signs there are systems.We call Saussu re “the father of semiology”, because he is the first scholar to point out that the semiological perspective is central to any serious study of language. He said, “Language is a system of sings that express ideas and is thus comparable to the system of writing, to the alphabet of deafmutes, to symbolic rituals, to forms of etiquette, to military signals,etc, It is but the most important of these systems. We can therefore imagine a science which study the life of signs within society… We call it semiology… I t would teach us what signs consist of, and what laws govern them.” He pointed out that linguistics is only a part of this general science; and the laws which semiology discovers will thus find itself attached to a well-defined domain of human phenomena.Lingusistics may serve as a model for semiology because in the case of language the arbitrary and conventional nature of the sign is especially clear. Language is a system of signs. Noises count as language only when they serve to express or communicate ideas; otherwise they are nothing but noises. To communicate ideas; they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form which signifies, which Saussure calls the significant or signifier, and an idea signified, the signifie or signified.Saussure‟s theory of semiology had profound influence, for he not only opened up a new discipline, but also founded a methodology applicable to many social sciences. Saussure‟s theory of language is an exceptionally clear expression of the formal strategies by which a whole series of disciplines, from physics to painting, transformed themselves in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and became modern. Trubetzkoy in his Principles of Phonology, had already outlined the methodological implications of phonological theory for the social sciences and had thus advanced the semiology proposed by Saussure. He held that the phonetician is concerned with sound features while the phonologist is concerned with distinctive features. Like the linguist, the anthropologist or sociologist is attempting to make explicit theimplicit knowledge that enables people within a given society to communicate and understand each other‟s behavior. One could thus assign to semiology a vast field of inquiry. If everything having meaning within a culture is a sign and therefore an object of semiological investigation, semiology would come to include most disciplines of humanities and the social sciences. The French philosopher and anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss defined anthropology as a branch of semiology and paid homage to Saussure as the man who has laid the foundation for the proper conception of anthropology.A young science as semiology is , it has proved that the relations between the signifier and the signified exist in numerous phenomena, and that the underlying system that gives special values to social semiotics is worth studying. It is now realized that many daily happenings that have been taken for granted are governed by underlying customs, institutions, and social values. The development of semiology owes much to the great thinker and modern linguist Saussure. Thus we call Saussure “the father of semiology”.9. Comparison between Traditional grammar and Structural grammarAlthough different linguistics may vary in their practice, there may be some general features in most of the works in both traditional and structural grammars. Each of the two types of grammar has its own strong points and weakness.First, traditional grammar is the most wide spread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages. However, based mainly on European languages, its categories are inadequate for the description of non-European languages. Secondly, traditional grammar gives a fairly thorough and consistent analysis of the declarative sentence, the most frequently used in both written and spoken discourse. But such grammar is normative and prescriptive, and its rules are not all well founded, often considering usages that do not fit its rules “ungrammatical”. Thirdly, it contains a theory of reference by which the meaning of declarative sentences can be explained and to which other uses may be reduced. However, it applies a mixture of semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria without a fixed order, resulting in some cases of confusion in its analysis. Fourthly, it is the vehicle by means of which ordinary students and scholars have mastered many languages successfully for centuries. But it assumes a priori view of language, without stating its methodological presuppositions.Structural grammar, in a sense, is a reaction against traditional grammar in that it aims to overcome its weakness. Y et, in no way is it free of problems. First, structural grammar is descriptive, descr ibing everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, the aim of structural grammar is limited to describing languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. It has, however, produced almost complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammar. Thirdly, structural grammar examines al languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use. However, it fails to distinguish the human use of language for meaningful communication and other uses for non-communicative purposes.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
(3) Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics Influenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. Harris, (Methods in Structural Linguistics) C. Hockett (A Course in Modern Linguistics), and H. L. Smith further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism.
Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics
2007/12/16
1.
Ferdinand de Saussure
2. The Prague School 布拉格学派 The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistic and its most important contribution is that it sees language in terms of Function.
(2) Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)
3. London School The man who turned linguistics into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth, the first professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain. Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski. In turn, he influenced his student, the wellknown linguist M. A. K. Halliday. The three all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.
(1) Firth’s theories His first contribution is that he insisted that the object of linguistics is language in actual use. His second contribution is his method of prosodic analysis, called prosodic phonology. （韵律音位学）
117. Of the following linguists, _____ should not be grouped into American school. A. Firth B. Sapir C. Bloomfield D. Boas Answer: A
139. __D___ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. A. Saussure B. Halliday C. Chomsky D. Labov Answer: D
Firth’s second contribution to linguistics is his method of prosodic analysis, called ____. A. prosodic phonology B. feature geometry C. optimality phonology D. supersegmental phonology Answer: A
89. The well-known formula: S was put forward by ___. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Hockett D. Harris Answer: A
r…..s
RБайду номын сангаас
130. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian ____. A. Otto Jespersen B. Daniel Jones C. A. J. Ellis D. A. M. Bell Answer: A
(2) Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar
4. American Structuralism It is under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas. (1) Early period: Boas and Sapir (2) Bloomfield’s theory
(1) Phonology and phonological oppositions 音位学和音位对立 The Prague School is the best known for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Trubetzkoy（特鲁别茨柯依）developed the notion of “phoneme”.
160. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, is put forward by _____. A. Chomsky B. Halliday C. Firth D. Malinowski Answer: B
111. OF the following linguistics, ____ should b grouped into Prague School. A. Bloomfield B. Saussure C. Jakobson D. Firth Answer: C
107. ____ practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. A. The London School B. American structuralism C. The Prague School D. The TG Grammar Answer: C
142. B. L. Whorf was the student of _____. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Halliday D. Sapir Answer: D
Of the following linguists, _____should be grouped into London school. A. Firth B. Bloomfield C. Boas D. Trubetzkoy Answer: A
5. Transformational-Generative Grammar (1) The Innateness Hypothesis (2) Generative Grammar (3) The Classic Theory (4) The Standard Theory (5) The Extended Standard Theory (6) Later Theories