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经济学原理（双语）-教学大纲

经济学原理（双语）-教学⼤纲《经济学原理》（双语）教学⼤纲Principles of Economics（Class Syllabus）课程编号：032023A课程类型：□通识教育必修课□通识教育选修课□专业必修课□专业选修课学科基础课总学时：48讲课学时：48实验（上机）学时：0学分：3适⽤对象：经济类本科⽣先修课程：⾼等数学⼀、课程的教学⽬标《经济学原理》包括《微观经济学》和《宏观经济学》两部分。

经济学是研究稀缺资源在各种可供选择的⽤途中，如何进⾏最有效的配置，以使得⼈类的⽆限欲望得到最⼤满⾜的⼀门理论经济学。

经济学作为理论经济学，是许多经济学科如管理经济学、公共财政学、市场学、国际经济学、货币银⾏学、财政学、国际贸易学、国际⾦融学等的理论基础。

微观经济学是以个体经济单位例如单个家庭、单个企业、单个市场为研究对象的⼀门理论经济学。

它试图通过对个体经济单位经济⾏为的研究，来说明现代社会中市场机制的运⾏和作⽤以及如何改善这种运⾏的途径。

宏观经济学是以社会总体的经济⾏为即宏观经济运⾏作为研究对象的⼀门理论经济学。

它试图通过对社会总体经济⾏为的研究，来说明市场经济条件下宏观经济的运⾏以及如何改善这种运⾏的途径。

⽬标1：系统理解和掌握经济学基本理论和基础知识⽬标2：熟悉经济学中基本概念和基本原理的英⽂表述⽬标3：能够运⽤所学原理分析实际经济问题和现象⽬标4：为进⼀步学习其他经济类课程打下坚实的理论基础。

⼆、教学基本要求教学内容：第⼆章的消费理论、第三章的⽣产理论、第五章的市场理论、第六章的⽣产要素市场和收⼊分配理论、第七章⼀般均衡、第九章国民收⼊核算、第⼗⼀章产品市场和货币市场的⼀般均衡、第⼗三章财政政策和货币政策、第⼗五章通货膨胀与失业应精讲、细讲。

对各章重点内容，教师应阐述清楚基本原理，并在此基础上以⼀些浅显易懂的案例增进学⽣的理解，启发学⽣的求知欲与好奇⼼。

教学⽅法：为实现教学⽬标，本课程主要采取教师讲授的⽅式授课，任课教师应以多媒体教学为基本授课⽅式，教师也可以所采取的其他教学⼿段如课堂讨论、案例教学等。

外贸函电中英互译总结

一、英译中1.specialize in 专营，专门从事2.upon receipt of 一俟收到....即刻....3.be in the market for 需要4.acquaint sb with with 使某人熟悉某物5.the commercial counselor's office 商务参赞处6.Under separate cover 另封邮寄7.On the basis of equality and mutual benefit 在平等互利的基础上8.art and craft goods 手工艺品9.supply from stock 现货供应10.We enjoy an excellent reputation in this field and we supply best quality products.我们在这一领域享有很高的信誉，并能提供优质产品。

11.As you are in the line of cotton price goods,we are writing to enquire whether you are willing to enter into business relations with us.由于贵方经营棉纺织类产品，我方特写信询问贵方是否愿与我方建立业务关系。

12.In reply to your letter dated March 28.We enclose our latest illustrated catalogue for your reference.兹复你方3月28日信函，我们附上最新的带有插图的目录单，供你方参考。

13.We have been importers of cotton piece goods for many years. Now we are interested in extending our range and would appreciate your quotations.我们从事棉纺织类产品进口多年，现有意扩大我们的业务范围，如能收到贵方报价将不甚感谢。

微观经济学期中考试及答案

武汉大学微观经济学试题姓名: 学号: 分数: 一、简答题　（40分）1、什么是比较优势？假设张三每小时可以生产1斤牛肉和4斤土豆，李四每小时可以生产3斤牛肉和6斤土豆。

谁在生产牛肉上拥有比较优势？谁在生产土豆上拥有比较优势？（10分）2、一个厂商的经济利润与会计利润是什么？它们是否相同，请给予解释？（或者问：经济学家们计算的利润与会计师计算的利润是不是一样的？为什么？）（10分）3、请解释一个具有代表性的竞争厂商的均衡条件是什么？当一个竞争性厂商将销售量翻一番时，该厂商的产出价格和总收益会有什么变化？（10分）4、什么是公地的悲剧？如何解决公地的悲剧？　（10分）二、计算题　（30分）5、张三和李四两个人开车到加油站，两人在看油价前，每个人都表达各自的意愿，张三说：“我要10加仑汽油”，李四说：“我要10元钱的汽油”。

请计算张三和李四各自的需求价格弹性？（15分）6、解释为什么一个垄断者总是生产这样一个产量，该产量处的需求曲线富有弹性？（Explain why a monopolist will always produce a quantity at which the demand curve is elastic? ）（15分）三、图形分析题　（30分）7、（1）农业丰收了对农民来说是好消息还是坏消息？（2）一场摧毁了一半农作物的干旱对农民是一件好事吗？（3）如果这场干旱对农民是好事，为什么农民不会在不干旱时摧毁自己的农作物？（15分）8、（1）用图形画出一个代表性竞争厂商的短期供给曲线和长期供给曲线？（2）在什么样的条件下，一个竞争性厂商会暂时停止生产？请给予解释。

（3）在什么样的条件下，一个竞争性厂商会退出其所在的市场？请给予解释。

（15分）武汉大学微观经济学试题答案姓名: 学号: 分数: 一、简答题　（40分）1、什么是比较优势？假设张三每小时可以生产1斤牛肉和4斤土豆，李四每小时可以生产3斤牛肉和6斤土豆。

反垄断法英语词汇表

反垄断法英语词汇表AAbuse of monopoly power 滥用垄断支配力Abuse theory 滥用理论Abusive conduct 滥用行为Acquired firm 被收购的企业,被收购方Acquiring firm 收购企业,收购方Acquisition of asset 资产的收购Act of state doctrine 国家行为理论Actual damage 实际损失Additional suit 附加诉讼Administrative adjudication 行政裁决Administrative process 行政诉讼程序Adverse competitive effect 反竞争影响,反竞争效果Affirmative duty 积极的义务Aftermarket 下游市场Aggravating circumstance 从重处罚情节Aggressive pricing 超高定价Agreement to divide market 分割市场的协议Agreement with mixed competitive consequence 带有混合竞争后果的协议Allocate market geographically 从地域方面分割市场Allocative efficiency 资源配置效率Amicus brief 为协助法庭而对案情所提出的意见书，法庭之友意见概要Ancillary restraint/ partial restraint 附属的/部分的限制Annual sale 年销售额Anti-competitive effect 反竞争效果Anticompetitive stock acquisition 反竞争性的股份收购Anticompetitive 限制竞争的，反竞争的Anti-merger 合并控制Antitrust 反垄断，反托拉斯Antitrust Enforcement Guidelines for International Operations 国际经营的反垄断执法指南Antitrust felony 反垄断重罪Antitrust immunity 反垄断法的除外Antitrust litigation 反垄断诉讼Antitrust procedures and penalties act of 1974 反垄断程序和处罚法Antitrust scrutiny 反垄断审查Assign customer 划分客户Assistant Attorney General 美国联邦司法部长助理Assured source of supply 稳定的供货渠道Attempt to monopolize 企图独占Attempted monopolization 企图独占Attenuating circumstance 从轻处罚情节Attorney General 司法部部长Automatic adjustment mechanism 自动调节机制Average revenue平均收益Average total cost 平均总成本Average variable cost 平均可变成本BBackward integration 上游合并（与供应商的合并）Bad faith 恶意Bar association 律师协会Barrier to entry 进入壁垒，进入障碍Beleaguered small business 处于困境中的小企业Below-cost pricing 低于成本的定价Benchmarking 制定基准点Bid 出价Bid-rigging 串通投标Bilateral cooperation agreement 双边合作协议Blanket license arrangement 一揽子许可协议Blanket license 一揽子许可Block patent 封锁专利Bona fide 善意Bottleneck doctrine 瓶颈理论Bright-line test 可明确适用的标准Burden of proof 举证负担Bureau of competition 竞争局Business behavior交易行为Business pattern 经营方式Business reputation 商业信誉Buyer-lever competition 买方竞争CCartel participant/ cartelist 卡特尔参加者Cartel price 卡特尔价格Cartel 卡特尔Case-by-case evaluation 个案分析，个案评估Casual connection 因果关系Cause of action 诉因Celler-Kefauver Act 塞勒-克福弗反合并法Chain operation连锁经营Chain store 连锁店Characterization process 认定程序Charter of freedom 自由宪章Chicago school 芝加哥学派Chief Justice 首席法官Circumstantial evidence 环境证据Class action 集团诉讼Classic conspiracy 典型的共谋行为Coercion 强制Collaboration 协作/联合Collateral offense 附带性的违法Collateral restraint 附带限制Collateral 从属于Collective action 集体行为，多方行为Collective conduct 集体行为Collective power 联合力量Collusion 共谋Collusion 共谋行为Commercial Clause宪法中的商业条款Committed entry 不自由的市场进入，市场进入有较高的门槛Competing bid 竞争性的出价Competition policy 竞争政策Competitive variable 竞争性变量Competitiveness 竞争力Compromise 和解Compulsory licensing 强制许可Concentration in the relevant market 相关市场的集中度Concentration 集中Concerted efforts by competitors 竞争者之间的协同行为Concerted horizontal refusal to deal横向联合抵制交易Concerted refusal to deal 联合抵制交易Conglomerate merger 混合合并Conscious parallelism 有意识的协调Consciously parallel pricing conduct 有意识的协调价格行为Consent order 同意令Consignment agreement 寄售协议Consignment arrangement 寄售协议(安排）Consolidation 联合Conspiracy to monopolize 通过共谋行为实现独占Conspiracy 共谋Conspiratorial conduct 共谋行为Consumer welfare 消费者福利Continuum model 一体分析方法Contractor 承包商Contributory infringement 共同侵权Control natural monopoly 管制自然垄断Convicted antitrust defendant 被判决违反反垄断法的被告Copyright infringement suit 版权侵权诉讼Corporate entity 法人实体Corporate Leniency Policy 对公司的宽大处理政策Corporate merger 公司合并Corroborating evidence 佐证，确证的证据（也是一种附加的证据，这种证据使得提供的证据更为有利）Cost consumer 使消费者受到损失Cost justification 成本抗辩，成本辩护Cost saving 成本节约Cost-based school 以成本为基础的学派Coverage 专利的有效范围Criminal indictment 刑事控告Criminal investigation 刑事调查Criminal prosecution刑事追诉/起诉/公诉Criminal sanction 刑事制裁Cross-elasticity of demand 需求交叉弹性Cross-examination 交叉盘问Cross-licensing agreement 相互许可协议Cross-licensing 相互许可DDamage claim 损害赔偿之诉Damage settlement 损害赔偿和解Dealer-imposed price restraint 销售商强加的价格限制Declaratory judgment 宣告（式）判决，确认判决（法院只宣告确认当事人某项权利）Deconcentration分散Defense 辩护Degree of industry concentration 产业集中度Delineating the relevant market 界定相关市场Delivered price 交付价格Demand curve/schedule 需求曲线Demand elasticity 需求弹性Demand substitution需求替代Denying access 拒绝进入Depression-era 经济大萧条时期Deregulation of industry 对产业的放松管制Dichotomy model 二分法Dictum 法官判决的附带意见Direct infringer 直接的侵权行为人Direct victim 直接受害人Directness of the injury 损害的直接性Discretion 自由裁量权Discriminatory allowance 歧视性的折让Dismiss 驳回（案件）Distribution channel 销售渠道Distribution cost 销售成本Distribution pattern 销售方式Diversified producer 多样化产品的制造商Divestiture decree 拆散的判决Divestiture or compulsory licensing of intellectual property 剥夺或者强制许可知识产权Doctrine of comity 礼让原则Dominant firm占市场支配地位的企业Dominant position 市场支配地位Downstream market 下游市场Drawing of the market boundary 界定市场范围Due process 正当程序Duplicative recovery 双重补偿/追偿Duration of waiting period等待期间Duration 持续期间Economy of scale 规模经济Effective competition 有效竞争Efficiency defense 效率抗辩Dlasticity of supply 供给弹性EEnd user 最终消费者End-use 终端使用Enforcement agency 执行机构Enforcement guideline 执行指南Entrench dominance 加强市场支配地位Entry barrier 市场进入障碍/壁垒Entry condition进入市场的条件Entry fee 入会费，进入费Entry of the market 市场进入Equitable decree 衡平法上的判决Equitable relief 衡平法上的救济Equitable servitude on chattel 衡平法上的在动产上设定的地役权Essential facility 关键设施Bottleneck doctrine瓶颈理论Evade price control 规避价格管制Evidentiary burden 举证责任Ex ante 事先Ex post 事后Excess capacity 过剩的生产能力Exchange assurance 交换承诺Exclude rival 排除竞争者Exclusionary act排他行为，排斥竞争行为Exclusionary conduct 排他行为Exclusionary purpose 排斥竞争的目的Exclusionary排他性的，排斥竞争性的Exclusive authority 专有权Exclusive dealing agreement 独家经销协议Exclusive dealing contract 独家经销合同Exclusive dealing 排他性交易，独家交易Exclusive right 独占权Exclusive territorial arrangement 排他性的地域划分Exclusive territory 独占地域Exculpate 宣告无罪Exemption 豁免Exit of the market市场退出Explicit agreement / Express agreement 明示协议Express or tacit collusion 明示或默示的合谋Extension of the waiting period 等待期的延长Extraterritorial reach 域外效力FFailing division defense 垂危部门抗辩Failing firm defense 垂危公司抗辩Federal merger guideline联邦合并指南Federal Trade Commission Act 联邦贸易委员会法Felony 重罪Field of use 应用范围Finding 事实认定Fix price 固定价格Fix the price of patented goods on resale 固定专利产品的转售价格Fixed cost 固定成本Fixing of maximum resale price 固定最高转售价格Foreign sovereign act 外国政府行为Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 外国主权豁免法Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvement Act 对外贸易反垄断改进法Forestalling 买断Forfeit asset 没收财产Forward integration 下游合并（与客户的合并）Fragmented industry 集中度很低的行业Franchise agreement 特许经营协议Franchised agent 有特许权的代理人Franchised agreement 特许经营协议Fraudulent procurement of a patent 通过欺骗取得专利权Free-ride 搭便车Fringe supplier 潜在供货商Functional discount 功能折扣Future competition 潜在竞争GGame theory 博弈论Game-theoretic school 博弈论学派Generality 一般原则Geographic extension merger 地域扩大型合并Geographic market 地域市场Giant corporation 巨型企业Good faith 善意Good faith agency 善意的代理关系Grand jury 大陪审团（12-25名陪审员）Group boycott 集体抵制/联合抵制Grouping buyer 集团化的买方Guideline 指南Guild customs 行会习惯HHart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvement Act 哈特-斯科特-罗迪诺反垄断修订法Height of entry barrier 进入市场的障碍程度Herfindahl-Hirschman index 赫尔芬达-赫尔斯曼指数，赫氏指数Heterogeneous不同质的，异质的Huge barrier to entry and exit 进入和退出市场方面存在很大障碍Hobsons choice 无选择余地Holder of a legal monopoly 合法垄断权人Holding company 控股公司Homogeneous同质的Horizontal alliance 横向联合Horizontal allocation of territory 横向地域分割Horizontal collaboration 横向联合Horizontal collusion横向合谋Horizontal market division 横向市场划分Horizontal merger guideline 横向合并指南Horizontal merger 横向合并Horizontal output restraint 横向产量限制Horizontal price-fixing arrangement 横向固定价格安排horizontal price-fixing conspiracy 横向固定价格的共谋Horizontal price-fixing 横向固定价格Horizontal restraint 横向限制Horizontal territorial division 横向地域划分House of Lords 上议院IIllegal per se 本身违法Illegal purpose 非法目的Illicit cooperation 不正当合作Impair competition 损害竞争Impairment of primary line competition 对第一级的损害Impediment to competition 妨碍竞争Imperative 命令，规则Implicit agreement 默示协议Implied contract 默示合同Impose a tie-in 强加附加协议Incompetence 无行为能力Individual license 个别许可Industrial concentration 产业集中Industrial organization economics 产业组织经济学Industrial Organization Theory 产业组织理论Inference of monopoly power 垄断力量的干预Information exchange 信息交换Information sharing 信息分享Injunction 禁令Injunctive relief 禁令性救济Insurance coverage 保险范围Intangible property rights 无形财产权Intellectual property rights 知识产权Intended victim 预期的受害人Intent to monopolize 垄断意图Interbrand competition 品牌之间的竞争interchangeability 可替代性Interfirm coordination 企业间的协调行为Interlocking director 连锁董事/共同董事Interlocking directorate 连锁董事Internal expansion 内部扩张Interstate commerce 州际贸易Intrabrand competition 品牌内的竞争/同一商标销售商之间的竞争Investment return投资回报Invitation to collude 引诱进行共同犯罪行为Invitation to withhold immunity 请求撤销豁免Ipso facto 根据事实本身Issue of security 证券发行JJoint arrangement 联合安排Joint horizontal action横向联合行为Joint venture 合营企业Judicial construction 司法解释Judicial discretion 法官的自由裁量权Jurisdictional holes 管辖权漏洞Jurisdictional reach 管辖范围Jurisdictional restriction 管辖权的限制Jury 陪审团Jury verdict 陪审团的裁决Justice Department 美国联邦司法部Justice Department’s Antitrust Division 联邦司法部的反垄断局KKnow-how 专有技术Knowing 明知LLaissez faize 自由放任（的经济政策）Legal viability 法律上的根据Legitimate end 合法的目的Less demanding liability test 非强制性责任标准Lessee 承租人Lessor 出租人Letters patent 专利许可证，专利特权许可证Leverage theory 杠杆理论Leveraging 杠杆作用Licensee 被许可人License-prescribed price 专利许可协议中规定的价格Limitation period 时效期限Limited antitrust dispensation 有限的反垄断豁免Listed price 目录价格Litigant 诉讼（参与）人Litigation outcome 诉讼结果Local price-cutting 地方性价格折让Location clause 限定地域的条款Lock-in buyer 现有的买方MMake restitution 恢复原状Managerial compensation管理人员的报酬Managerial displacement 管理层的更换Mandated 强制性的Mandatory 强制性的Marginal cost 边际成本Marginal revenue 边际收益Marginal utility 边际效用Market allocation agreement /covenant /scheme 分割市场的协议Market allocation 市场分割Market behavior市场行为Market characterized by interdependence 以竞争者之间的相互依赖为特征的市场Market concentration 市场集中Market control 市场支配力Market definition市场界定Market failure 市场失灵Market performance 市场行为Market power measurement 市场支配力的测量market power市场支配力Market share 市场份额Market structure 市场结构Market trend 市场趋势Marketing arrangement 营销协议Marketing strategy 营销策略Market-rigging practice 操纵市场的做法Maximum price-fixing 固定最高价格Maximum resale price maintenance 维持最高转售价格Measure of cost 成本测量Measurement and assignment of cost 成本的测定和分摊Measurement yardstick衡量标准Menace to competition 对竞争的威胁Mephistophelean pact 恶魔的协议，指对任何一方均无好处的协议Merger and acquisition 合并和收购Merger guideline 合并指南Mergers to Monopoly 垄断性兼并Microeconomics 微观经济学Middleman profit 中间人利润Minimum price clause 最低价格条款Minimum resale price 最低转售价格Minimum Sherman Act fine 违反谢尔曼法的最低罚款额度Minimum threshold 最低标准Misallocation of resource 资源错误配置Misrepresentation 虚假陈述Misuse of private economic power 滥用私人经济势力Misuse of resource 资源的滥用Monetary relief 金钱救济Monopolist 独占者Monopolistic competition垄断竞争Monopolization 垄断化Monopoly power 垄断力Monopoly pricing 垄断性定价Monopoly 垄断Monopsony 买主独家垄断/买方垄断Most favored nation clause 最惠国条款Motivation 动机Moving party 动议方，提出请求的一方Multicount indictment 数罪并告Multi-factored reasonableness test 考虑多种因素的合理原则Multiple patent 多重专利权Mutually accommodating behavior 相互协调行为NNaked price fixing 赤裸裸的固定价格行为Naked restraint 赤裸裸的限制National Association of Attorney General （NAAG）全国检察长协会Natural monopoly 自然垄断Net revenue 净利润No rule school 无规则学派No-fault monopolization 无过失的垄断化Non-binding 无法律约束力的Non-binding guideline 没有法律约束力的指南Noncontractual restraint 非合同的限制Non-efficiency aim 非效率目标Nonexclusive license 非独占许可Nonexclusive 非独占性的Non-horizontal meger 非横向合并Nonpatented product 非专利的产品Nonprice competition 非价格竞争Nonprice distribution restraint 非价格方面的分销限制Nonprice restriction 非价格限制Nonprice vertical restraints 非价格的纵向限制Nonstatutory exemption 非法定的豁免Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932 1932年诺里斯-拉格尔迪阿法Notify 申报OOligopolistic interdependence 垄断寡头间的相互依赖Oligopolistic market structure 寡头垄断的市场结构Oligopoly 寡头垄断卖方垄断Open competition 公开竞争Operating cost 交易成本Opportunity cost 机会成本Outlaw 宣布…为非法Output 产出Overt cartel 公开的卡特尔PPackage of service 一揽子服务Parallel behavior 协同的行为Parallel pricing 协同定价Parens patriae 政府监护Partial per se standard 不完全的本身违法原则Patented product 专利产品Patentee 专利权人Pecuniary gain 金钱收益Pecuniary loss 金钱损失Pecuniary reward 金钱报酬Per se illegality 本身违法Per se rule 本身违法规则Per se rule of nonliability 本身无责任的原则Perfect competition 完全竞争Perfectly contestable market 完善的竞争市场Performance test 行为标准Permissive test 任意性标准Personal jurisdiction 属人管辖权Pertinent information 有关的信息Plant specialization 生产专业化Plea 辩解Plea agreement （经法庭批准，被告为避免受到较重的处罚与控诉人达成的）认罪协议Plus factor 附加因素Point-of-sale 销售点pool the patent 共享专利权Pooled patent 同源专利Positive trait 好处Post-acquisition收购之后的Post-acquisition market share 收购后的市场份额Post-merger market 兼并之后市场Post-merger market share 兼并后市场份额Potential competition doctrine 潜在竞争理论Potential entrant 潜在的市场进入者Precedent 判例Predation claim 涉及掠夺性定价的请求Predatory conduct 掠夺性行为Predatory price 掠夺性价格Predatory pricing 掠夺性定价Predatory tactics 掠夺性的经营策略Predictability 可预期性Preemption 优先权Preferential rate 优惠价Premerger notification 合并前的申报Prevail 胜诉Price and non-price restraint 价格限制与非价格限制Price concession 价格折让Price discrimination 价格歧视Price fixing 固定价格Price offer 报价Price structure 价格结构Price uniformity 价格联盟Price verification 价格核查Price-fixing cartel 固定价格的卡特尔price-fixing license 固定价格的许可price-sensitive buyer 对价格敏感的购买者Price-setting arrangement 确定价格的安排Price-shading firm 产品价格不明朗的企业Price-taker 价格接受者Pricing agreement价格协议pricing behavior定价行为Prima facie 初步印象，初步证据，表面证据Prima facie case of illegality 初步推定违法的案件Prima facie violation 以初步证据可认定违法Primary line injury 第一级损害（对卖方的竞争者的损害）Primary line liability 第一级损害的责任Prison term 监禁期限Private antitrust action 私人反垄断诉讼Private attorney general 私人检察长（出庭为每个公民实施公共权力的个人）Private monopoly 私人垄断Private treble damage claim 私人三倍损害赔偿请求Private treble damage action私人三倍损害赔偿之诉Probation 缓刑Procompetitive consequence 支持竞争的后果product differentiation 产品区分，产品差异Product extension merger 生产扩大型合并Product heterogeneity 产品的异质性Product homogeneity 产品的同质性Product innovation产品革新Product market 产品市场Production quota 生产配额Productive efficiency 生产效率Profit margin利润幅度Profit-maximization 利润最大化Profit-maximizing price可以实现最大利润的价格Profit-pooling agreement 分享利润的协议Proviso 但书Public interest 公共利益Public policy 公共政策Public price announcement 公开报价Public utility 公用事业Pure conglomerate transaction 纯混合合并QQuality control 质量控制Quasi-public monopoly 准国家垄断RRadical price cut 大幅度削价Reasonable and prudent person 理性人Reasonable interchangeability 合理的可替代性Reasonableness test 合理性标准Reciprocal dealing 互惠性交易Recoupment test 赔偿标准Recover damage 追偿损害赔偿，得到补偿Redeeming virtue 可弥补其不足之处的功能Refusal to deal 拒绝交易Regrating 囤积居奇Reimburse 补偿Relaxation of antimerger standard 反合并标准的松动Relevant geographic market 相关地理市场Relevant market 相关市场Relevant product market 相关产品市场Remand the case for further finding 将案件发回下级法院要求进一步的审查Remand to the trial court 将案件送回下级法院Remedy 救济Rent-seeking 寻租Resale margin 转售商品中的赚头Resale price maintenance 维持转售价格Rescission of completed transaction撤销已完成的交易Resource allocation 资源配置Resource misallocation资源的错误配置Restrict output限制产量Restrictive agreement/ covenant 限制竞争协议Restrictive distribution contract 限制销售协议Restrictive leasing 限制性的租赁Restrictive provision 限制性条款Retail market 零售市场Retail price 零售价格Retail price-fixing clause 固定零售价格的条款Revenue 收益Rival 竞争对手rivalry test 竞争行为标准Robinson-Patman Act 罗宾逊-帕特曼法Royalty 专利使用费RPM(Resale price maintenance)转售价格维持Rule of per se legality 本身合法的原则Rule of reason criteria 合理原则的标准Rule of reason 合理原则Rule of reason/a reasonableness test 合理性原则SScale economy 规模经济Scrutiny 审查Seal of approval 认证标准Secondary line injury 第二级损害（对买方的竞争者的损害）Selective price concession 选择性的价格优惠Selective price cut 选择性削价Self-correct market abuse 可通过市场自行纠正的滥用行为Self-interest 自身利益Seller concentration 卖方集中Separate entity 相互独立的实体Set aside 撤销Severe liability rule 严格责任原则sham conduct 欺骗性行为Sherman Act 谢尔曼法Spillover of cost 成本的溢出Spoken assurance 口头承诺Stabilize price 固定价格Standard contract 标准合同Standardization 生产标准化Standing （起诉）资格State attorney general 州检察长Status quo 现状Statutory combination 法定的联合Statutory defense 法定的抗辩Stock ownership 股份所有权structural approach 市场结构标准Structural criteria/approach 结构标准Structural filter school 结构过滤学派Structural model 结构模式Structural rule 结构性规则，即根据市场结构认定合法性Structural School 结构主义Structural screen 市场结构的审查Structuralist school市场结构学派Structure of an industry产业结构Structure-conduct-performance model 结构-行为-绩效模型，按照市场结构、市场行为和市场运行状况认定市场是否具有竞争性的方式Structured rule of reason standard 结构性的合理原则Subcontractor 分包商Subdue rival 排挤竞争对手Submarket 亚市场/子市场Substantive merger standard 有关合并的实体标准Substantive provision 实体性的规范Substantive 实体性的Substitutable可替代的Substitute替代Summarily condemned 当即就可以认定违法Summary condemnation 当即宣告有罪Summary dismissal 当场驳回Summary procedure 简易程序Sunk cost 沉没成本Supply and demand elasticity 供给和需求弹性Supply substitution 供给方面的可替代性Supracompetitive pricing 较竞争条件下更为有利的定价Supernormal returns 超额利润TTacit agreement 秘密协议Tacit collusion 心照不宣的协调Tacit coordination 秘密协调/默示协调Takeover 兼并Target firm 目标企业Territorial division 地区划分Territorial or customer restriction 地域或客户的限制Tertiary line injury 第三级损害（对买方的顾客的损害）Testimony of a participant-turned-informer 由参加人变为揭发人而揭发的证据Threatened loss or damage 可能会引起的损失或损害Tied product 搭售的产品（强迫购买的产品）Tie-in condition 附加条件Tie-ins搭售Toehold firm 有一定优势的微型企业Total cost 全部成本Trade association 贸易协会Trade restraint 贸易限制Transaction cost economics 交易成本经济学Transaction cost交易成本Transaction frequency 交易频率transportation barrier 交通障碍Treble damage 三倍损害赔偿Trial attorney 专门出庭办理诉讼案件的律师Trial court 初审法院Truncated or “quick look”version of the rule of reason简化了的或者快速的合理原则Trust 托拉斯，即达到可以操纵一个行业的组合Tying arrangement 搭售协议/搭售安排Tying clause 搭售条款Tying market 搭售市场（被搭售产品所在的市场）Tying product 被搭售产品Tying 搭售UUnauthorized use 未经授权的使用，擅自使用Uncommitted entrant 可自由进入的企业Unfair practice 不正当行为Uniform price cut 统一削价Unilateral conduct 单方行为Unilateral refusal to deal 单方拒绝交易Universal service 基本服务Unlawful per se 本身违法Unreasonable restraints of trade/ Undue restraint 不合理的贸易限制Upstream market 上游市场VVerdict 陪审团裁决，正式判决Verification and exchange of price by direct rival 直接竞争者之间关于价格信息的核查与交换Vertical conspiracy 纵向合谋Vertical integration 纵向联合Vertical merger 纵向合并Vertical price-fixing 纵向限价，即固定转售价格Vertical relationship 纵向关系Vertical restraint 纵向限制Vertical territorial allocation 纵向市场划分Vertical territorial restriction 纵向地域限制Vertically-related firm 有纵向关系的企业V oluntary pre-merger disclosure compact 自愿性合并前申报协定WWaiting period 等待期间Warrant a trial 成为诉讼的根据Watered stocks 实际价值低于面值的股票，掺水股Wave of corporate acquisition 企业收购浪潮Weak case 无权威性的案例Webb-Pomerence Export Trade Act of 1918 1918年韦伯-波莫雷内出口贸易法Wholesale price 批发价格Wholesaler 批发商Willful 故意Writ 批准向最高法院上诉的令状XX-year statute of limitation x年的诉讼时效。

市场竞争的商务英语口语

市场竞争的商务英语口语在市场经济条件下，企业从各自的利益出发，为取得较好的产销条件、获得更多的市场资源而竞争。

下面是分享的关于市场竞争的英语口语，希望能对大家有所帮助我想知道你们最大的竞争对手是谁。

A: I wonder who will be your strongest rival.甲：我想知道你们最大的竞争对手是谁?B: That would be ZZ Company.乙：ZZ公司。

最大的竞争:Who do you feel was your greatest petitor?你觉得谁是你最大的竞争对手?Is ZZ Company your biggest rival?ZZ公司是你们最大的竞争对手吗?Who could be a key match?谁会是你们最大的竞争对手呢?A: Who are your potential petitors?甲：谁是你的潜在竞争对手?B: PP has been developing rapidly in recent years.乙：PP公司近几年开展得很快。

我们的潜在对手:Another potential contender is ...A promising rival is ...contender n.免争者A: The Chinese market is opening wider while the petition is also getting tougher.甲：中国市场日益开放，同时竞争也更加剧烈。

B: Yes, we are ready for it. How about you?乙：是的，我们已经做好准备了。

你们呢?剧烈的市场竞争：In this petitive climate, no rules are set in stone.在这个竞争剧烈的环境下，没有什么规那么是一成不变的。

Nobody can claim China’s mobile-phone market lacks petition.但是没人会否认中国的移动通信市场竞争剧烈。

14 firms_competitive

In the long run, the firm exits if the revenue it would get from producing is less than its total cost.

Exit if TR < TC Exit if TR/Q < TC/Q Exit if P < ATC
2.The Revenue of a Competitive Firm

In perfect competition, average revenue equals the price of the good. AR=P
Total revenue Average Revenue = Quantity Price Quantity Quantity Price
完全竞争行业中某厂商的成本函数为stcq36q230q40产品价格为66美元求
Chapter 14
Firms in Competitive Markets
Firms in Competitive Markets

Difference in market structure shapes the pricing and production decisions of the firms that operate in these markets.
2. The Revenue of a Competitive Firm

Average revenue tells us how much revenue a firm receives for the typical unit sold. Average revenue is total revenue divided by the quantity sold. AR=TR/Q

Economics：The Competitive Firm

Economic Profits
Total (gross) revenues less explicit costs: Cost of merchandise sold Wages to cashier, stock, and delivery help Rent and utilities Taxes Total explicit costs Accounting profit (revenue minus explicit costs) less implicit costs Wages of owner-manager, 300 hours @ $10 per hour Return on inventory investment, 10% per year on $120,000 Total implicit costs Economic profit (revenue minus all costs) $ 3,000 1,000 $ 4,000 $ 2,000 $17,000 2,500 800 700 $21,000 $ 6,000 $27,000
The Competitive Firm
2018
Introduction

This chapter addresses the following key questions:
What
are profits? What are thepetitive firms? How much output will a competitive firm produce?

Economic Profits
Economic profit is the difference between total revenues and total economic costs. Economic cost is the value of all resources used to produce a good or service – opportunity cost.

微观经济学考试重点分析解析

微观经济学考试重点一、名词解释(24分）1、消费者剩余（consumer surplus）消费者剩余是一种物品的总效用与其市场价值之间的差额，它衡量的是消费者从某一物品的购买中所得到的超过他们为之支付的那部分额外效用。

2、无差异曲线(indifference curve）无差异曲线是用来表示消费者在一定的偏好、一定的技术和一定资源条件下选择商品时，从两种商品的不同数量组合中，获得相同的满足程度的曲线。

3、预算线（budget line）预算线是指在消费者收入和商品价格既定的情况下，消费者的全部收入所能购买到的两种商品不同数量的各种组合。

4、边际产量（marginal product）一种投入的边际产量是指在其他投入保持不变的情况下,由于增加1单位的该投入而多生产出来的产量或产出。

5、报酬递减规律(law of diminishing returns）报酬递减规律是指在其他投入保持不变的情况下，随着某一投入量的增加,所获得的产出增量越来越少.6、规模报酬不变、递增和递减（constant, increasing and decreasing returns to scale）规模报酬不变、递增和递减是指所有的要素按相同比例增加时，产出相同比例、更大比例或更少比例增加的现象。

7、最低成本原则（least—cost rule）要以最低的成本生产既定的产量，厂商应当购买各种投入（例如劳动力和资本）直到花在每一种投入上的每一美元的边际产量相等.8、需求的价格弹性（price elasticity of demand）需求的价格弹性指的是需求量对价格变动反应程度的指标。

弹性系数等于需求量变动百分比除以价格变动的百分比。

9、生产函数（the production function)生产函数是指在既定的工程、技术和知识条件下,一定量的要素投入与所能生产的最大产量间的函数关系.10、完全竞争市场（perfectly competitive markets）完全竞争市场是指竞争充分而不受任何阻碍和干扰的一种市场结构。

TheCompetitiveFirm

-- no change to the vertical intercept.
7
Comparative Statics of Short-
y
y*
y = f(x1, x~2 )
Slopes = + w1 p
x*1
x1
6
Comparative Statics of ShortRun Profit-Maximization
• An increase in p, the price of the firm’s output, causes
– an increase in the firm’s output level (the firm’s supply curve slopes upward), and
input 1 is
MP1
=
∂y ∂ x1
=
1 3
x1−
2/
3x~12/
3
.
The profit-maximizing condition is
MRP1
=
p
×
MP1
=
p 3
(
x*1
)
−
2
/
3
x~
1/ 2
3
=
w1.
Short-Run Profit-Maximization;
A Cobb-Douglas Example
Chapter Nineteen
Profit-Maximization
Economic Profit
• A firm uses inputs j = 1…,m to make products i = 1,…n.
• Output levels are y1,…,yn. • Input levels are x1,…,xm. • Product prices are p1,…,pn. • Input prices are w1,…,wm.

2024年高三英语语义辨析高级单选题30题

2024年高三英语语义辨析高级单选题30题1.The government is taking measures to boost the economy. Which of the following phrases means “boost the economy”?A.pull up the economyB.lift up the economyC.push up the economyD.pick up the economy答案：C。

“boost the economy”表示“促进经济增长”。

选项A“pull up”通常表示“拉起、停下”等意思，与经济增长无关。

选项B“lift up”一般表示“举起、抬起”，不用于经济增长的表达。

选项C“push up”可以表示“推高、提升”，与“boost”在经济增长方面意思相近。

选项D“pick up”有“捡起、好转”等意思，但不是指促进经济增长。

2.In the novel, the hero struggles to overcome difficulties. Which phrase means “struggle to do something”?A.fight to do somethingB.strive to do somethingC.try to do somethingD.attempt to do something答案：B。

“struggle to do something”表示“努力做某事、奋力做某事”。

选项A“fight to do something”更强调“战斗、抗争去做某事”。

选项B“strive to do something”与“struggle to do something”意思最为接近，都是努力奋斗去做某事。

选项C“try to do something”侧重于尝试去做某事。

选项D“attempt to do something”表示试图做某事，没有“struggle”和“strive”那么强烈的努力奋斗的感觉。

The_nature_of_the_firm(英文原版)(完美重排版)

The nature of the firmR. H. CoaseEconomic theory has suffered in the past from a failure to state clearly its assumptions . Economists in building up a theory have often omitted to examine the foundation on which it was erected. This examination is, however, essential not only to prevent the misunderstanding and needless controversy which arise from a lack of knowledge of the assumptions on which a theory is based, but also because of the extreme importance for economics of good judgment in choosing between rival sets of assumptions.For instance, it is suggested that the use of the word "firm” in economics may be different from the use of the term by the "plain man”. Since there is apparently a trend in economic theory towards starting analysis with the individual firm and not with the industry , it is all the more necessary not only that a clear definition of the word "firm" should be given but that its difference from a firm in the " real world," if it exist，should be made clear. Mrs. Robinson has said that "the two questions to be asked of a set of assumptions in economics are: Are they tractable? And: Do they correspond with the real world? “. Though, as Mrs. Robinson points out, “more often one set will be manageable and the other realistic”， yet there may well be branches of theory where assumptions may he both manageable and realistic.It is hoped to show in the following paper that a definition of a firm may be obtained which is not only realistic in that it corresponds to what is meant by a firm in the real world, but is tractable by two of the most powerful instruments of economic analysis developed by Marshall, the idea of the margin and that of substitution, together giving the idea of substitution at the margin . Our definition must, of course, "relate to formal relations which are capable of being conceived exactly."ⅠIt is convenient if, in searching for a definition of a firm, we first consider the economic system as it is normally treated by the economists. Let us consider the description of the economic system given by Sir Arthur Salter. "The normal economic system works itself. For its current operation it is under no central control, it needs no central survey. Over the whole range of human activity and human need, supply is adjusted to demand, and production to consumption, by a process that is automatic, elastic and responsive." An economist thinks of the economic system as being coordinated by the price mechanism and society becomes not an organization but an organism. The economic system "works itself." This does not mean that there is noplanning by individuals. These exercise foresight and choose between alternatives. This is necessarily so if there is to be order in the system. But this theory assumes that the direction of resources is dependent directly on the price mechanism.Indeed, it is often considered to be an objection to economic planning that it merely tries to do what is already done by the price mechanism. Sir Arthur Salter's description, however, gives a very incomplete picture of our economic system . Within a firm， the description does not fit at all.For instance, in economic theory we find that the allocation of factors of production between different Uses is determined by the price mechanism. The price of factor A becomes higher in X than in Y. As a result，A moves from Y to X until the difference between the prices in X and Y , except in so far as it compensates for other differential advantages, disappears. Yet in the real world , we find that there are many areas where this does not apply. If a workman moves from department Y to department X , he does not go because of a change In relative prices，but because he is ordered to do so. Those who object to economic planning on the grounds that the problem is solved by price movements can be answered by pointing out that there is planning within our economic system which is quite different from the individual planning mentioned above and which is akin to what is normally called economic planning.The example given above is typical of a large sphere in our modern economic System. Of course, this fact has not been ignored by economists. Marshall introduce organization as a fourth factor of production; J B. Clark give the co-ordinating function to the entrepreneur; Professor Knight introduces managers who co-ordinate. As. D. H. Robertson points out, we find islands of conscious power in this ocean of unconscious co-operation like lumps of butter coagulating in a pail of butter milk." But in view of the fact that it is usually argued that co-ordination will be done by the price mechanism，why is such organization necessary ? Why are there the "islands of conscious power"?Outside the firm, price movements direct production, which isco-ordinated through a series of exchange transactions on the market. Within a firm, the market transactions are eliminated and in place of the complicated market structure with exchange transactions is substituted the entrepreneur-co-ordinator ，who directs production. It is clear that these are alternative methods of co-ordination production. Yet, having regard to the fact that if production is regulated by price movements, production could be carried on without any organization at all, well might we ask, why is there any organization?Of course, the degree to which the price mechanism is superseded varies greatly. In a department store, the allocation of the different sections to the various locations in the building may be done by the controlling authority or it may be the result of competitive price bidding for space. In the Lancashire cotton industry, a weaver can rent power and shop-room and can obtain looms and yarn on credit. This co-ordination of the various factors of production is, however，normally carried out without the intervention of the price mechanism. As is evident， the amount of "vertical" integration, involving as it does the supersession of the price mechanism, varies greatly from industry to industry and from firm to firm.It can, I think, be assumed that the distinguishing mark of the firm is the supersession of the price mechanism. It is of course, as Professor Robbins points out, "related to an outside network of relative price and costs," but it is important to discover the exact nature of this relationship. T his distinction between the allocation of resources in a firm and the allocation in the economic system has been very vividly described by Mr. Maurice Dobb when discussing Adam Smith's conception of the capitalist:" it began to be seen that there was something more important than the relations inside each factory or unit captained by an undertaker; there were the relations of the undertaker with the rest of the economic world outside his immediate sphere . . . . The undertaker busies himself with the division of labor inside each firm and he plans and organizes consciously," but "he is related to the much larger economic specialization, of which he himself is merely one specialized unit. Here, he plays his part as a single cell in a larger organism, mainly unconscious of the wider role he fills.In view of the fact that while economists treat the price mechanism as a co-ordinating instrument, they also admit the co-coordinating function of the "entrepreneur," it is surely important to enquire why co-ordination is the work of the price mechanism in one case and of the entrepreneur in another. The purpose of this paper is to bridge what appears to be a gap in economic theory between the assumption (made for some purposes) that resources are allocated by means of the price mechanism and the assumption (made for other purposes) that this allocation is dependent on the entrepreneur-co-ordinator. We have to explain the basis on which in practice, this choice between alternatives is effected.ⅡOur task is to attempt to discover why a firm emerges at all in a specialized exchange economy. The price mechanism (considered purely from the side of the direction of resource) might be superseded if the relationship which replaced it was desired for its own sake. This would be the case, for example, if some people preferred to work under the direction of some otherperson. Such individuals would accept less in order to work under someone, and firms would arise naturally from this. But it would appear that this cannot be a very important reason , for it would rather seem that the opposite tendency is operating if one judges from the stress normally laid on the advantage of "being one's own master." Of course, if the desire was not to be controlled but to control, to exercise power over others, then people might be willing to give up something in order to direct others; that is，they would be willing to pay others more than they could get under the price mechanism in order to be able to direct them. But this implies that those who direct pay in order to be able to do this and are not paid to direct, which is clearly not true in the majority of cases. Firms might also exist if purchasers "preferred commodities which are produced by firms to those not so produced; but even in spheres where one would expect such preferences (if they exist) to be of negligible importance, firms are to be found in the real world. Therefore t here must be other elements involved.The main reason why it is profitable to establish a firm would seem to be that there is a cost of using the price mechanism. The most obvious cost of "organizing" production through the price mechanism is that of discovering what the relevant prices are. This cost may be reduced but it will not be eliminated by the emergence of specialists who will sell this information. The costs of negotiating and concluding a separate contract for each exchange transaction which takes place on a market must also be taken into account. Again, in certain markets， e. g.，produce exchanges, a technique is devised for minimizing these contract costs; but they are not eliminated. It is true that contracts are not eliminated when there is a firm but they are greatly reduced. A factor of production (or the owner thereof) does not have to make a series of contracts with the factors with whom he is co-operating within the firm, as would be necessary， of course, if this co-operation were as a direct result of the working of the price mechanism. For this series of contracts is substituted one. At this stage ， it is important to note the character of the contract into which a factor enters that is employed within a firm. The contract is one whereby the factor, for a certain remuneration (which may be fixed or fluctuating), agrees to obey the directions of an entrepreneur within certain limits. The essence of the contract is that it should only state the limits to the powers of the entrepreneur. Within these limits, he can therefore direct the other factors of production. There are, however, other disadvantages --or costs--of using the price mechanism. It may be desired to make a long-term contract for the supply of some article or service. This may be due to the fact that if one contract is made for a longer period, instead of several shorter ones, then certain costs of making each contract will be avoided. Or, owing to the risk attitude of the peopleconcerned, they may prefer to make a long rather than a short-term contract. Now, owing to the difficulty of forecasting，the longer the period of the contract is for the supply of the commodity or service, the less possible, and indeed, the less desirable it is for the person purchasing to specify what the other contracting party is expected to do. It may well be a matter of indifference to the person supplying the service or commodity which of several courses of action is taken, but not to the purchaser of that service or commodity. But the purchaser will not know which of these several courses he will want the supplier to take Therefore, the service which is being provided is expressed in general terms, the exact details being left until a later date. All that is stated in the contract is the limits to what the person supplying the commodity or service is expected to do. The details of what the supplier is expected to do is not stated in the contract but is decided later by the purchaser. When the direction of resource (within the limits of the contract) becomes dependent on the buyer in this way, that relationship which I term a "firm" may be obtained. A firm is likely therefore to emerge in those cases where a very short term contract would be unsatisfactory. It is obviously of more importance in the case of services labor than it is in the case of the buying of commodities. In the case of commodities, the main items can be stated in advance and the details which will be decided later will be of minor significance.We may sum up this section of the argument by saying that the operation of a market costs something and by forming an organization and allowing some authority (an " entrepreneur ") to direct the resources， certain marketing costs are saved. The entrepreneur has to carry out his function at less cost , taking into account the fact that he may get factors of production at a lower price than the market transactions which he supersedes，because it is always possible to revert to the open market if he fails to do this.The question of uncertainty is one which is often considered to be very relevant to the study of the equilibrium of the firm. It seems improbable that a firm would emerge without the existence of uncertainty. But those, for instance, Professor Knight, who make the mode of payment the distinguishing mark of the firm-fixed incomes being guaranteed to some of those engaged in production by a person who takes the residual，and fluctuating, income would appear to be introducing a point which is irrelevant to the problem we are considering. One entrepreneur may sell his services to another for a certain sum of money, while the payment to his employees may be mainly or wholly a share in profits. The significant question would appear to be, why, the allocation of resources is not done directly by the price mechanism.Another factor that should be noted is that exchange transactions on a market and the same transaction organized within a firm are often treateddifferently by Governments or other bodies with regulatory powers. If we consider the operation of a sales tax, it is clear that it is a tax on market transactions and not on the same transactions organized within the firm. Now since these are alternative methods of "organization” by the price mechanism or by the entrepreneur--such a regulation would bring into existence firms which otherwise would have no raison d'être. It would furnish a reason for the emergence of a firm in a specialized exchange economy. Of course, to the extent that firms already exist， such a measure as a sales tax would merely tend to make them larger than they would otherwise be，Similarly, quota schemes, and methods of price control which imply that there is rationing, and which do not apply to firms producing such products for themselves, by allowing advantages to those who organize within the firm and not through the market, necessarily encourage the growth of firms. But it is difficult to believe that it is measures such as have been mentioned in this paragraph which have brought firms into existence. Such measures would， however，tend to have this result if they did not exist for other reasons.These, then, are the reasons why organizations such as firms exist in a specialized exchange economy in which it is generally assumed that the distribution of resources is “organized” by the price mechanism. A firm, therefore, consists of the system of relationships which come into existence when the direction of resources is dependent on an entrepreneur.The approach which has just been sketched would appear to offer an advantage in that it is possible to give a scientific meaning to what is meant by saying that a firm gets larger or smaller. A firm becomes larger as additional transactions (which could be exchange transactions co-ordinated through the price mechanism) are organized by the entrepreneur and becomes smaller as he abandons the organization of such transactions. The question which arises is whether it is possible to study the forces which determine the Size of the firm. Why does the entrepreneur not organize one less transaction or one more? It is interesting to note that Professor Knight considers that:"The relation between efficiency and size is one of the most serious problems of theory, being, in contrast with the relation for a plant, largely a matter of personality and historical accident rather than of intelligible generate principles. But the question is peculiarly vital because the possibility of monopoly gain offers a powerful incentive to continuous and unlimited expansion of the firm, which force must be offset by some equally powerful one making for decreased efficiency (in the production of money income) with growth in size, if even boundary competition is to exist."Professor Knight would appear to consider that it is impossible to treat scientifically the determinants of the size of the firm. On the basis of the concept of the firm developed above, this task will now be attempted.It was suggested that the introduction of the firm was due primarily to the existence of marketing costs. A pertinent question to ask would appear to be (quite apart from the monopoly considerations raised by Professor Knight), why, if by organizing one can eliminate certain costs and in fact reduce the cost of production, are there any market transactions at all?' Why is not all production carried on by one big firm? There would appear to be certain possible explanations.First, as a firm gets larger, there may be decreasing returns to the entrepreneur function, that is, the costs of organizing additional transactions within the firm may rise. Naturally, a point must be reached where the costs of organizing an extra transaction within the firm are equal to the costs involved in carrying out the transaction in the open marker, or, to the costs of organizing by another entrepreneur. Secondly, it may be that as the transaction which are organized increase, the entrepreneur fails to place the factors of production in the use where their value is greatest, that is，fails to make the best use of the factors of production. Again, a point must be reached where the loss through the waste of resources is equal to the marketing costs of the exchange transaction in the open market or to the loss if the transaction was organized by another entrepreneur. Finally, the supply price of one or more of the factors of production may rise, because the "other advantages" of a small firm are greater than those of a large firm. Of course, the actual point where the expansion of the firm ceases might be determined by a combination of the factors mentioned above. The first two reasons given most probably correspond to the economists' phrase of "diminishing returns to management”.The point has been made in the previous paragraph that a firm was tend to expand until the costs of organizing an extra transaction within the firm become equal to the costs of carrying out the same transaction by means of an exchange on the open market or the costs of organizing in another firm. But if the firm stops its expansion at a point below the costs of marketing in the open market and at a point equal to the costs of organizing in another firm, in most cases (excluding the case of "combination “， this will imply that there is a market transaction between these two produces, each of whom could organize it at less than the actual marketing costs. How is the paradox to be resolved? If we consider an example the reason for this will become clear. Suppose A is buying a product from B and that both A and B could organize this marketing transaction at less than its present cost. B, we can assume, is not organizing one process or stage of production, but several. If Atherefore wishes to avoid a market transaction, he will have to take over all the processes of production controlled by B. Unless A takes over all the processes of production, a market transaction will still remain, although It is a different product that is bought. But we have previously assumed that as each producer expands, he becomes less efficient; the additional costs of organizing extra transactions Increase. It is probable that A's cost of organizing the transactions previously organized by B will be greater than B's cost of doing the same thing. A therefore will take over the whole of B's organization only if his cost of organizing B's work is not greater than B's cost by an amount equal to the costs of carrying out an exchange transaction on the open market. But once It becomes economical to have a market transaction, it also pays to divide production in such a way that the cost of organizing an extra transaction in each firm is the same.Up to now it has been assumed that the exchange transactions which take place through the price mechanism are homogeneous. In fact, nothing could be more diverse than the actual transactions which take place in our modern World. This would seem to imply that the costs of carrying out exchange transactions through the price mechanism will vary considerably as will also the costs of organizing these transactions within the firm. It seems therefore possible that quite apart from the question of diminishing returns the costs of organizing certain transactions within the firm may be greater than the costs of carrying out the exchange transactions in the open market. This would necessarily imply that there were exchange transactions carried out through the price mechanism, but would it mean that there would have to be more than one firm? Clearly not, for all those areas in the economic system where the direction of resources was not dependent directly on the price mechanism could be organized within one firm. The factors which were discussed earlier would seem to be the important ones, though it is difficult to say whether "diminishing returns to management” or the rising supply price of factors is likely to be the more Important.Other things being equal, therefore, a firm will tend to be larger:(a) The less the costs of organizing and the slower these costs rise with an increase in the transactions organized .(b) The less likely the entrepreneur is to make mistakes and the smaller the increase in mistakes with an increase in the transactions organized.(c) The greater the lowering (or the less the rise) in the supply price of factors of production to firms of larger Size.Apart from variations in the supply price of factors of production to firms of different sizes, it would appear that the costs of organizing and the losses through mistakes will increase with an increase in the spatial distribution of the transactions organized, in the dissimilarity of thetransaction, and in the probability of changes in the relevant prices. As more transactions are organized by an entrepreneur， it would appear that the transactions Would tend to be either different in kind or in different places. This furnished an additional reason why e efficiency will tend to decrease as the firm gets larger. Inventions which tend to bring factors of production nearer together, by lessening spatial distribution, tend to increase the size of the firm. Changes like the telephone and the telegraph which tend to reduce the cost of organizing spatially will tend to increase the size of the firm. All changes which improve managerial technique will tend to increase the size of the firm.It should be noted that the definition of a firm which was given above can be used to give more precise meanings to the terms "combination" and "integration." There is a combination when transactions which were previously organized by two or more entrepreneurs become organized by one. These become integration when it envolves the organization of transactions which previously carried out between the entrepreneurs on the market. A firm can expand in either or both of these two ways. The whole of the “structure of competitive industry” becomes tractable by the ordinary technique of economical analysis.ⅢThe problem which has been investigated in the previous section has not been entirely neglected by economists and it is now necessary to consider why the reasons given above for the emergence of a firm in a specialized exchange economy are to be preferred to the other explanations which have been offered.It is sometimes said that the reason for the existence of a firm is to be found in the division of labor. This is the view of Professor Usher, a view which has been adopted and expanded by Mr. Maurice Dobb. The firm becomes "the result of an increasing complexity of the division of labor . . . . The growth of this economic differentiation creates the need for some integrating force without which differentiation would collapse into chaos; and it is as the integrating force in a differentiated economy that industrial forms are chiefly significant. “The answer to this argument is an obvious one. The" integrating force in a differentiated economy” already exists in the form of the price mechanism. It is perhaps the main achievement of economic science that it has shown that there is no reason to suppose that specialization must lead to chaos. The reason given by Mr. Maurice Dobb is therefore inadmissible. What has to be explained is why one integrating force (the entrepreneur) should be substituted for another integrating force (the price mechanism).The most interesting reasons (and probably the most widely accepted) which have been given to explain this fact are those to be found in ProfessorKnight's Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. His views will be examined in some details.Professor Knight starts with a system in which there is no uncertainty: "Acting as individuals under absolute freedom but without collusion men are supposed to have organized economic life with the primary and secondary division of labor, the use of capital, etc., developed to the point familiar in present-day America. The principal fact which calls for the exercise of the imagination is the internal organization of the productive groups or establishments. With uncertainty entirely absent, every individual being in possession of perfect knowledge of the situation, here would be no occasion for anything of the nature of responsible management or control of productive activity. Even marketing transactions in any realistic sense would not be found. The flow of raw materials and productive services to the consumer would be entirely automatic.”Professor Knight says that we can imagine this adjustment as being "the result of long process of experimentation worked out by trial-and-error methods alone," while it is not necessary "to imagine every worker doing exactly the right thing at the right time in a sort of ' pre-established harmony' with the work of others. There might be managers, superintendents, etc., for the purpose of co-ordinating the activities of individuals," though these managers would be performing a purely routine function, "without responsibility of any sort. "Professor Knight then continues:"With the introduction of uncertainty-the fact of ignorance and the necessity of acting upon opinion rather than knowledge-into this Eden-like situation, its character is entirely changed ... With uncertainty present doing things, the actual execution of activity, becomes in a real sense a secondary part of life; the primary problem or function is deciding what to do and how to do it."This fact of uncertainty brines about the two most important characteristics of social organization."In the first place, goods are produced for a market, on the basis of entirely impersonal prediction of wants, not for the satisfaction of the wants of the producers themselves. The producer takes the responsibility of forecasting the consumers' wants. In the second place, the work of forecasting and at the same time a large part of the technological direction and control of production are still further concentrated upon a very narrow class of the producers, and we meet with a new economic functionary, the entrepreneur. When uncertainty is present and the task of deciding what to do and how to do it takes the ascendancy over that of execution the internal organization of the productive groups is no longer a matter of Indifference or a mechanical。

曼昆经济学原理Chapter14竞争市场中的企业中英文笔记

Chapter 14 Firms in Competitive Markets 竞争市场中的企业§1. 什么是竞争市场What is A Competitive Market?一．竞争的含义竞争市场又称完全竞争市场 A perfectly competitive market1.三个特征characteristics：①市场中有许多买者和许多卖者There are many buyers and sellers in the market.②各个卖者所提供的物品大体上是相同的The goods offered by the various sellers are largely the same.③企业可以自由地进入或退出市场Firms can freely enter or exit the market.2.两个结果outcomes：①市场上任何一个买者或卖者的行动对市场价格的影响都可以忽略不计The actions of any single buyer or seller in the market have a negligible impact on themarket price.②每一个买者和卖者都把市场价格作为既定的Each buyer and seller takes the market price as given.3.定义：一个有着许多交易相同产品的买者与卖者，以至于每一个买者与卖者都是价格接受者的市场 A market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price taker△价格接受者a price taker：买者和卖者必须接受市场决定的价格Buyers and sellers must accept the price determined by the market二．竞争企业的收益The Revenue of a Competitive Firm1.总收益Total revenue：①一个企业的总收益等于销售价格乘以销售量TR = (P X Q)for a firm is the selling price times the quantity sold；②总收益与产量同比例变化is proportional to the amount of output2.平均收益Average revenue：①等于总收益除以销售量AR = TR÷Q = (P X Q)÷Q = Pis total revenue divided by the quantity sold②在完全竞争市场，平均收益等于物品的价格equals the price of the good③告诉我们企业从普通一个单位产品销售中得到了多少收益tells us how much revenue a firm receives for the typical unit sold3.边际收益Marginal revenue：①增加一个单位销售量所引起的总收益变化MR =ΔTR /ΔQis the change in total revenue from an additional unit sold②对竞争企业来说，边际收益等于物品的销售价格for competitive firms, equals the price of the good§2. 利润最大化与竞争企业的供给曲线Profit Maximization and the Competitive Firm’s Supply Curve 一．边际成本曲线和企业的供给决策（1）竞争企业的利润最大化Profit Maximization for the Competitive Firm1.竞争企业的目标是利润最大化The goal of a competitive firm is to maximize profit.这就意味着企业想生产某一产量，使总收益与总成本的差最大。

AP 微观经济学真题 1995年：选择题

3. Which of the following is true of a price floor? (A) The intention of the governmentin creating the price floor is to assistthe producersof the good. (B) To have an impact in the market for the good, the price floor should be set below the existing market price of the good. (C) An effective price floor will increasethe quantity demandedof the good. (D) The price floor would tend to create a shortage of the good in the market. (E) The creation of the price floor would not changethe quantity suppliedof the good if the supply curve were upward-slopingto the right.
1. The allocation of resourcesin a market economy is describedby which of the following statements? I. The governmentdecideswhich goods will be producedand which consumers will receive them. II. Buyers and sellers exchangegoods and serviceson a voluntary basis. III. Prices and costshelp producersdecide whether they are producingtoo little or too much of a good. (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) I only II only III only I and III only II and III only

monopoly ppt课件

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2.垄断资源
Monopoly Resources
虽然关键资源的排他性是垄断的潜在原因，但实际上，垄断很少产生于这种原因。
Although exclusive ownership of a key resource is a potential source of monopoly, in practice monopolies rarely arise for this reason
Monopoly
Chapter 12
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市场理论2—— 完全垄断市场
如果纯粹垄断能使一家厂商自由地扩大产量而无需降低销售价格，如果大规模生产的经济效益使得该厂商的成本愈来愈低，什么力量能够阻止这样一个厂商一旦站稳脚跟以后，不吞没整个市场，从而破坏竞争呢？ ——斯拉法
本章主要内容
1.垄断的特征 2.垄断产生的原因 3.垄断厂商的决策分析 4.垄断造成的福利损失 5.解决垄断问题的公共政策
3.为什么铁路是垄断行业，而航空行业却有几家航空公司参与竞争？
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三、完全垄断与完全竞争 Monopoly PK Competition
垄断（Monopoly）
唯一生产者 Is the sole producer 需求曲线向下倾斜 Has a downwardsloping demand curve 价格制定者 Is a price maker 降低价格提高产量 Reduces price to increase sales
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Economies of Scale as a Cause of Monopoly...
Cost
0
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Average total cost
Quantity of Output

经济学试题(英语)

MICROECONOMICSFinal ExaminationSection A ( Total marks is 20 marks.)Multiple Choice – ( 20 marks , Each question is worth 2 mark s. )1. If total revenue rises when price falls, the demand curve is:a. elasticb. unit-elasticc. inelasticd. none of the above2. A movement along the demand curve in response to a change in price is called:a. a change in quantity demandedb. a change in demandc. a change in derived demandd. a non-price induced change3. The production function is:a. the cost to produce a certain amount of outputb. the change in the amount of output when one more worker is hiredc. the relationship between inputs into the production process and the quantity of outputd. the increase in variable costs associated with an increase in output.4. If marginal cost is decreasing but is less than average total cost, average total cost is:a. increasingb. decreasingc. decreasing in the short-run onlyd. impossible to tell unless more is known about fixed costs5.If all inputs in the production process were doubled and output less than doubled in amount, it would be an example of:a. economies of scaleb. diminishing returnsc. specializationd. diseconomies of scale6. The competitive situation characterized by only one seller is called:a. an oligopolyb. many differentiated sellersc. a competitived. Perfect monopoly7.The supply curve for a perfectly competitive firm:a. cannot be drawn until the reaction of competitors is knownb. is verticalc. is horizontald. is the marginal cost curve above the AVC curve.8 .Which of the following is not a barrier preventing new firms from entering a monopoly?a. government legislationb. economies of scalec. price discriminationd. ownership of raw materials9. The long run average cost of a firm:a. is u shaped regardless of technology.b. joins the minimum points of all the short run average costs curves.c. is the envelop of all the short run average cost curves.d. is always greater than the short run average cost.10. If a firm maximize its profit, it should produce output at a level where:a. average revenue equals average costb. marginal revenue equals marginal costc. marginal revenue equals average costd. marginal cost equals average revenueSection B ( Total marks is 50 marks.)1.Briefly explain the following terms ( 20 marks, each term is worth 5 marks)1. law of demand2. indifference curves3. marginal utility4. production function ( 5 marks each )2. Computation problems (10 marks )• A company wants to minimize the cost of producing a given output, Number of workers used per hour is L and number of machines used per hour is K andQ = 10(LK)0.5.•Wage rate is $8 per hour, and the price of a machine is $2 per hourHow many workers and machines the company should use, if the company wants to produce 80 units of the output per hour?MP L= (2 marks)MP K= (2 marks)MP L/P L = MP K/P KL = (3 marks)K = (3 marks)3. What is the difference between “change in demand “ and “change in quantity demand?( 10 marks )4. Using a graph in your answer, showing the shut-down point in a perfect competitive market . (10 marks)Section C ( Total marks is 30 marks)Instruction: Answer any 2 out of 4 questions (30 marks, each is worth 15 marks)1 .Consider the market for coffee. Use a supply and demand graph to diagram the effects of thefollowing events. describe the changes in the equilibrium price and quantity for coffee when each of the following events occurs:i. People start liking coffee more than before. (7 marks)ii. Due to viral diseases the price of an important input in the production of coffee increases.(8 marks)2. (a) Explain what is meant by in come effect and substitution effect . (7 marks)(b) Explain how income and substitution effects differ between normal and inferior goods?(8 marks)3. (a)What is third-degree price discrimination? (7 marks)(b)Discuss a real world situation where third- degree price discrimination is commonly used?(8 maarks)4. (a)Explain what is meant by isoquants and isocost lines? (5 marks)(b)Using an appropriate diagram and verbal explaination show how isoquants and isocost lines can be used to show how to produce a given output at minimum cost. (10 marks )。

经济学人常用词组

1、绝对优势（Absolute advantage）如果一个国家用一单位资源生产的某种产品比另一个国家多，那么，这个国家在这种产品的生产上与另一国相比就具有绝对优势。

2、逆向选择（Adverse choice）在此状况下，保险公司发现它们的客户中有太大的一部分来自高风险群体。

3、选择成本（Alternative cost）如果以最好的另一种方式使用的某种资源，它所能生产的价值就是选择成本，也可以称之为机会成本。

4、需求的弧弹性（Arc elasticity of demand）如果P1和Q1分别是价格和需求量的初始值，P2 和Q2 为第二组值，那么，弧弹性就等于-（Q1-Q2）（P1＋P2）/（P1-P2）（Q1＋Q2）5、非对称的信息（Asymmetric information）在某些市场中，每个参与者拥有的信息并不相同。

例如，在旧车市场上，有关旧车质量的信息，卖者通常要比潜在的买者知道得多。

6、平均成本（Average cost）平均成本是总成本除以产量。

也称为平均总成本。

7、平均固定成本( Average fixed cost）平均固定成本是总固定成本除以产量。

8、平均产品（Average product）平均产品是总产量除以投入品的数量。

9、平均可变成本（Average variable cost）平均可变成本是总可变成本除以产量。

10、投资的β(Beta）β度量的是与投资相联的不可分散的风险。

对于一种股票而言，它表示所有现行股票的收益发生变化时，一种股票的收益会如何敏感地变化。

11、债券收益(Bond yield）债券收益是债券所获得的利率。

12、收支平衡图（Break－even chart）收支平衡图表示一种产品所出售的总数量改变时总收益和总成本是如何变化的。

收支平衡点是为避免损失而必须卖出的最小数量。

13、预算线(Budget line）预算线表示消费者所能购买的商品X和商品Y的数量的全部组合。

完全竞争

The firm shuts down 停止营业if the revenue it gets from producing is less than the variable cost of production.
Shut down if TR < VC Shut down if TR/Q < VC/Q Shut down if P < AVC
FC is a sunk cost: The firm must pay its fixed costs whether it produces or shuts down.
So, FC should not matter in the decision to shut down.
The Competitive Firm’s Short-Run Decision and the supply curve
(firm must still pay FC) So, shut down if TR < VC Divide both sides by Q: TR/Q < VC/Q So, firm’s decision rule is:
Shut down if P < AVC
Short-Run equilibrium
the same. Firms can freely enter or exit the market.
each buyer and seller is a price taker.
The Revenue of a Competitive Firm
Total revenue 总收益for a firm is the selling
利润 Profit=总收益-总成本=TR-TC

商务英语案例篇_西南财经大学_4 Unit4Competition_(4.4.1) 4.4PowerPo

Unit 4 CompetitionProfile of Monopoly吴瑾Michael西南财经大学· 经贸外语学院School of Foreign Languages for Business, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics 中国大学MOOCLearning Objectives•Case study: Microsoft monopoly•Business study: Restriction of monopoly sustains the industrial prosperity•Language study: Words and expressions related to monopolyMonopoly is a company or an organization that controls the industry.垄断是一家公司或组织控制整个行业的行为。

‒Word Power dictionarySpecificallyA monopolistic activity or right that isconcentrated in a certain sphere.集中于某一领域的垄断活动或权利What is Microsoft?•An American multinational technology company •Computer software,consumer electronics and personal computers•The best known software products:the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, andthe Internet Explorer.Microsoft MonopolyProfile of the Monopoly Case•October 1998,accusation“Microsoft” of monopolizing the operating system market from the Department of Justice of the USA. 1998年10月，美国司法部指控“微软”垄断了操作系统市场•Verdict: Liquidation or separation into three parts裁决结果：清算或拆分成三部分•Ministry of Justice: Suspension of the practice of the obligatory setting of “Explorer” on all computers美国司法部：暂停在所有计算机上强制设置“浏览器”的做法Reasons for Microsoft Monopoly•IBM: Licensed at “Microsoft” the primitive operating system and did not stipulate for own exclusive rights •Apple: Advertised the revolutionary computer as machine for family and home use, but not for businessABC about Monopoly•A firm is considered a monopoly if . . .•it is the sole seller of its products.•its products do not have close substitutes.Why monopoly arises？•The root cause of monopoly is barriers to entry.Barriers to entry have three sources:•Ownership of a key resource•The government gives a single firm the exclusive right toproduce some goods.•Costs of production make a single producer more efficient than a large number of producers.Types of Monopoly•GovernmentGovernments may restrict entry by giving a single firm theexclusive right to sell a particular good in certain markets. •Natural monopolyAn industry is a natural monopoly when a single firm cansupply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firms.Monopoly vs. Competition•Monopolistic firm•is the sole producer•faces a downward-sloping demand curve•is a price maker•reduces price to increase sales •Competitive Firm•is one of many producers•faces a horizontal demand curve•is a price taker•sells as much or as little at same priceSolutions to Monopoly•Government responds to the problem of monopoly in one of three ways:•Making monopolized industries more competitive.•Turning some private monopolies into public enterprises.•Doing nothing at all.1.Increase Competition with Anti-trust Laws 利用反垄断法促进竞争•Antitrust laws are a collection of statutes aimed at curbing monopoly power.•Antitrust laws give government various ways to promote competition.•They allow government to prevent mergers.•They allow government to break up companies.•They prevent companies from performing activities that makemarkets less competitive.2. Public Ownership 公有制•Rather than regulating a natural monopoly that is run by a private firm, the government can run the monopoly itself (e.g. in the United States, thegovernment runs the Postal Service).3. Do Nothing 顺其自然•Government can do nothing at all if the market failure is deemed small compared to the imperfections of public policies.LanguageStudyReading: Microsoft Monopoly Case Study•price-taker•dictate •infringe •liquidateLanguage Study•stake •dismember•promulgate•navigateprice-taker 价格接受者/受价者n.Investopedia definition: A price taker is a person or company that has nocontrol to dictate prices for a good or service.•e.g. With consolidations leading to fewer supermarket chains and increased imports from Mexico and Chile, growers are price-takers rather than price setters.•Antonyms：price-maker/price-setterdictate 控制, 支配v.•As soon as you become the actual owner of market, you acquire possibility to dictate terms and especially price. (para.2)•When the separately taken company proposes a new unique commodity on a sale, ，it can dictate high prices in certain limits for some time. (para.13)•He could dictate their policy at home and abroad, revise their statute-book, upset the decisions of their law-courts.•Synonyms: command/decree/mandate/ordaininfringe 侵犯; 违反（规章等）;侵犯（某人的权利）;vt.•On the 20-th of October 1998 the Department of Justice of the USA accused “Microsoft” in infringement of existent agreement between them.(para.5)•They claim that his use of the name infringes their copyright.•Any government action limiting freedom of speech is an infringement of the U.S. Constitution.•Synonyms: breach, trespass, transgress•Antonyms: observe, obeyliquidate 清算; 清偿;v.•For the sake of triumph of open market, finally for the sake of users’ bless, it should be liquidated or at least separated or divided into three parts.(para.7)•liquidate debts, damages, or accounts•Synonyms:balance,clear•Antonym: repudiatestake 以…下注(打赌)/股份v/n.•Most businessmen staked on the computer of IBMproduction.(para.10)•Beyond racial relations, Starbucks has staked much of its brand on its dual promise of providing good customer service and treating its employees well•Synonyms:bankroll,capitalize,endow,underwrite •Antonym: defunddismember 分割v.•The most obvious decision would be its dismemberment. (para.15)•The shares of Standard Oil’s listed subsidiaries, after all, increased in value after the court decision in 1911 to dismember the firm.•Synonyms: demount,dismantle,dismount•Antonyms: assemble,constructpromulgate 公布，传播，宣扬v.•It is possible also to decide on a quite unprecedented step, compelling “Microsoft” to promulgate（公布，传播）the programmatic code of Windows fully. (para.15)•Her ideas have been widely promulgated on the Internet.•The law was promulgated in April 1988.•Synonyms:blare,blaze,blazonnavigate 驾驶; 航行于; 使通过; v.•A concrete subject for the present appeal of Ministry of justice to the federal court was the practice of the obligatory Windows setting together with the program of own production, “Internet Explorer” for a navigation in the Internet.(para.8)•Synonyms: transit,traverseDiscussionIs monopoly always bad? Why?。

Chapter 8 Theory of the firm(高级微观经济学-上海财经大学,沈凌)

z Assumption 1: Properties of the production function The production function is continuous, strictly increasing, and strictly
quasiconcave, and f (0) = 0 .
z Several technical terms in producer theory
1) Marginal rate of technical substitution
∂f (x) MRTSij (x) = ∂f (x) ∂xi
∂x j
The substitutability between any pair of inputs xi and x j .
∂MRTSij = 0 ∂xk
∀i, j ∈ Ns , k ∉ Ns
Strongly separable: the MRTS between two inputs from different groups is
independent of all inputs outside those two groups.
8.2 Production function
z Production function is a mapping from an input set to an output set. y = f (x) x = (x1, x2,...xn )
It says how many inputs are required to produce a fixed amount of output.
If x(w, w, y, x) solves this minimization problem, then