Uncovering Public Reactions on the Attack at Pearl Harbor
英语四六级考试译文笔记 第19篇
英语作文写作及翻译老师笔记（四六级考试）1.尽管媒体上大量的犯罪事件报道会导致公众存在一定程度的多疑，但在今天这个时代，任何想对公众隐瞒信息的尝试最终都很可能会适得其反。
Although the sheer volume of（1.大量的）crime stories in the media can lead to a degree of paranoia among the public, in this day and age（2.在这个时代）any attempts to hide information from the public would likely be counterproductive（3.适得其反）.1- the sheer volume of词典释义：sheerUK[ʃɪər] US[ʃɪr] adjectiveCOMPLETE完全的[before noun]■used to emphasize how very great, important or powerful a quality or feeling is; nothing except 完全的，彻底的•The suggestion is sheer nonsense.这个建议纯粹是胡言乱语。
•His success was due to sheer willpower/determination.他的成功全靠自己的意志力／决心。
•It was sheer coincidence that we met.我们的相遇纯属巧合。
volumeUK['vɒl.ju:m] US['vɑ:l-] nounAMOUNT数量uncountable■the number or amount of something in general 总数；总量；总额•It's the sheer volume of traffic in the city that is causing the problems.造成这些问题的就是城里的交通流量。
Uncovering the Origin of Metallurgy
Uncovering the Origin of MetallurgyMetallurgy is the science and technology of extracting metals from their ores, refining them, and preparing them for use. It is a crucial aspect of human civilization and has played a significant role in shaping our world. The origin of metallurgy is a topic of great interest to historians, archaeologists, and scientists alike. In this essay, we will explore the different perspectives on the origin of metallurgy and try to uncover the truth behind this fascinating subject. One perspective on the origin of metallurgy is that it emerged independently in different parts of the world. This theory suggests that humans discovered the properties of metals through trial and error and developed the necessarytechniques to extract and refine them. This is supported by the fact that early metallurgy was found in several regions, including the Middle East, Asia, andSouth America. For example, the ancient Egyptians were known to have used copper and gold for decorative purposes, while the people of the Andes used copper to create intricate jewelry and ornaments. Another perspective on the origin of metallurgy is that it was developed through cultural diffusion. This theory suggests that metallurgy was first developed in one region and then spread toother parts of the world through trade and migration. For example, some historians believe that metallurgy was first developed in the Middle East and then spread to Europe and Asia. This is supported by the fact that the earliest known metal objects were found in the Middle East, such as the copper beads from the 6th millennium BCE found in the area now known as Iraq. A third perspective on the origin of metallurgy is that it was developed as a result of environmental factors. This theory suggests that the availability of certain metals in a particularregion led to the development of metallurgy in that area. For example, the abundance of copper in the Middle East and the Andes may have led to the development of early metallurgy in those regions. Similarly, the availability of iron in certain parts of Africa may have led to the development of ironworking in those areas. Regardless of the origin of metallurgy, it is clear that it played a crucial role in the development of human civilization. The ability to extract and refine metals allowed humans to create tools and weapons that were stronger and more durable than those made from stone or wood. This, in turn, led to thedevelopment of agriculture, trade, and the rise of civilizations. In conclusion, the origin of metallurgy is a fascinating subject that has captured the attention of historians, archaeologists, and scientists for centuries. While there are different perspectives on how metallurgy first emerged, it is clear that it played a crucial role in shaping our world. The ability to extract and refine metals allowed humans to create tools and weapons that were stronger and more durable, leading to the development of agriculture, trade, and the rise of civilizations. As we continue to uncover new evidence about the origin of metallurgy, we will gain a deeper understanding of our shared history and the remarkable achievements of our ancestors.。
新视野大学英语第二版第二册课文要点总结
Unit 1 Section A 时间观念强的美国人Para. 1 美国人认为没有人能停止不前。
如果你不求进取，你就会落伍。
这种态度造就了一个投身于研究、实验和探索的民族。
时间是美国人注意节约的两个要素之一，另一个是劳力。
Para. 2 人们一直说：“只有时间才能支配我们。
”人们似乎是把时间当作一个差不多是实实在在的东西来对待的。
我们安排时间、节约时间、浪费时间、挤抢时间、消磨时间、缩减时间、对时间的利用作出解释；我们还要因付出时间而收取费用。
时间是一种宝贵的资源，许多人都深感人生的短暂。
时光一去不复返。
我们应当让每一分钟都过得有意义。
Para. 3 外国人对美国的第一印象很可能是：每个人都匆匆忙忙——常常处于压力之下。
城里人看上去总是在匆匆地赶往他们要去的地方，在商店里他们焦躁不安地指望店员能马上来为他们服务，或者为了赶快买完东西，用肘来推搡他人。
白天吃饭时人们也都匆匆忙忙，这部分地反映出这个国家的生活节奏。
工作时间被认为是宝贵的。
Para. 3b 在公共用餐场所，人们都等着别人吃完后用餐，以便按时赶回去工作。
你还会发现司机开车很鲁莽，人们推搡着在你身边过去。
你会怀念微笑、简短的交谈以及与陌生人的随意闲聊。
不要觉得这是针对你个人的，这是因为人们非常珍惜时间，而且也不喜欢他人“浪费”时间到不恰当的地步。
Para. 4 许多刚到美国的人会怀念诸如商务拜访等场合开始时的寒暄。
他们也会怀念那种一边喝茶或咖啡一边进行的礼节性交流，这也许是他们自己国家的一种习俗。
他们也许还会怀念在饭店或咖啡馆里谈生意时的那种轻松悠闲的交谈。
一般说来，美国人是不会在如此轻松的环境里通过长时间的闲聊来评价他们的客人的，更不用说会在增进相互间信任的过程中带他们出去吃饭，或带他们去打高尔夫球。
既然我们通常是通过工作而不是社交来评估和了解他人，我们就开门见山地谈正事。
因此，时间老是在我们心中的耳朵里滴滴答答地响着。
Para. 5 因此，我们千方百计地节约时间。
四六级阅读难点关键句
四六级阅读难点关键句100句CET阅读难点关键句100句1. Wearing a seat belt saves lives; it reduces your chance of death or serious injury by more than half.2. But it will be the driver‟s responsibility to make sure that children under 14 do not ride in the front unless they are wearing a seat belt of some kind.3. However, you do not have to wear a seat belt if you are reversing your vehicle; or you are making a local delivery or collection using a special vehicle; or if you have a valid medical certificate which excuses you from wearing it.4. Remember you may be taken to court for not doing so, and you may be fined if you cannot prove to the court that you have been excused from wearing it.5. Professor Taiju Matsuzawa wanted to find out why otherwise healthy farmers in northern Japan appeared to be losing their ability to think and reason at a relatively early age, and how the process of ageing could he slowed down.6. With a team of colleagues at Tokyo National University, he set about measuring brain volumes of a thousand people of different ages and varying occupations.7. Computer technology enabled the researchers to obtain precise measurements of the volume of the front and side sections of the brain, which relate to intellect (智能) and emotion, and determine the human character.8. Contraction of front and side parts as cells die off was observed in some subjects in their thirties, but it was still not evident in some sixty and seventy-year-olds.9. The findings show in general terms that contraction of the brain begins sooner in people in the country than in the towns.10. White collar workers doing routine work in government offices are, however, as likely to have shrinking brains as the farm worker, bus driver and shop assistant.11. We know that you have a high opinion of the kind of learning taught in your colleges, and that the costs of living of our young men, while with you, would be very expensive to you.12. But you must know that different nations have different ways of looking at things, and you will therefore not be offended if our ideas of this kind of education happen not to be the same as yours.13. We are, however, not the less obliged by your kind offer, though we refuse to accept it; and, to show our grateful sense of it, if the gentlemen of Virginia will send us a dozen of their sons, we will take care of their education, teach them in all we know , and make men of them.14. In what now seems like the prehistoric times of computer history, the earth‟s postwar era, there was quite a wide-spread concern that computers would take over the world from man one day. 15. Already today, less than forty years later, as computers are relieving us of more and more of the routine tasks in business and in our personal lives. We are faced with a less dramatic but also less foreseen problem.16. Obviously, there would be no point in investing in a computer if you had to check all its answers, but people should also rely on their own internal computers and check the machine when they have the feeling that something has gone wrong.17. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.18. For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travellersor others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it , let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface.19. The first time that the question “ What is at the bottom of the oceans?” ha d to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed.20. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.21. For every course that he follows a student is given a grade, which is recorded, and the record is available for the student to show to prospective employers.22. All this imposes a constant pressure and strain of work, but in spite of this some students still find time for great activity in student affairs.23. The effective work of maintaining discipline is usually performed by students who advise the academic authorities.24. Much family quarrelling ends when husbands and wives realize what these energy cycles mean, and which cycle each member of the family has.25. Whenever possible, do routine work in the afternoon and save tasks requiring more energy or concentration for your sharper hours.26. We also value personal qualities and social skills, and we find that mixed-ability teaching contributes to all these aspects of learning.27. They also learn how to cope with personal problems as well as learning how to think, to make decisions, to analyse and evaluate, and to communicate effectively.28. The problem is, how to encourage a child to express himself freely and confidently in writing without holding him back with the complexities of spelling?29. It may have been a sharp criticism of the pupil‟s technical abilities in writing, but it was also a sad reflection on the teacher who had omitted to read the essay, which contained some beautiful expressions of the child‟s deep feelings.30. The teacher was not wrong to draw attention to the errors, but if his priorities had centred on the child‟s ideas, an expression of his disappointment with the presentation would have given the pupil more motivation to seek improvement.31. Given the nature of government and private employers, it seems most likely that discrimination by private employers would be greater.32. The release of the carbon in these compounds for recycling depends almost entirely on the action of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and certain types of fungi.33. A spirited discussion springs up between a young girl who says that women have outgrown the jumping-on-a-chair-at-the-sight-of-a mouse era and a major who says that they haven‟t.34. They are trying to find out whether there is something about the way we teach language to children which in fact prevents children from learning sooner.35. Mathematicians who have tried to use the computers to copy the way the brain works have found that even using the latest electronic equipment they would have to build a computer which weighed over 10,000 kilos.36. Since different people like to do so many different things in their spare time, we could make a long list of hobbies, taking in everything from collecting matchboxes and raising rare fish, tolearning about the stars and making model ships.37. They know that a seal swimming under the ice will keep a breathing hole open by its warm breath, so they will wait beside the hole and kill it.38. We may be able to decide whether someone is white only by seeing if they have none of the features that would mark them clearly as a member of another race.39. Although signs of dishonesty in school , business and government seem much more numerous in years than in the past, could it be that we are getting better at revealing such dishonesty?40. It is not quite a matter of disagreeing with the theory of independence, but of rejecting its implications: that the romances may be taken in any or no particular order, that they have no cumulative effect, and that they are as separate as the works of a modern novelist.41. His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as “ racially-based negative prejudgments against a group generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition,” can be interpreted as also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe.42. Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the Black family encouraged the transmission of and so was crucial in sustaining —the Black heritage of folklore, music, and religious expression from one generation to another, a heritage that slaves were continually fashioning out of their African and American experiences.43. Even the folk knowledge in social systems on which ordinary life is based in earning, spending, organizing, marrying, taking part in political activities, fighting and so on , is not very dissimilar from the more sophisticated images of the social system derived from the social sciences, even though it is built upon the very imperfect samples of personal experience.44. There are several steps that can be taken, of which the chief one is to demand of all the organizations that exist with the declared objectives of safeguarding the interests of animals that they should declare clearly where they stand on violence towards people.45. It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural differences among neuron types, however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its conduction was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits.46. According to this theory, it is not the quality of the sensory nerve impulses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce, but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge , and there is some evidence for this view.47. The result of attrition is that, where the areas of the whole leaves follow a normal distribution,a bimodal distribution is produced, one peak composed mainly of fragmented pieces, the other of the larger remains.48. The Bible does not tell us how the Roman census takers made out, and as regards our more immediate concern, the reliability of present day economic forecasting, there are considerable difference of opinion.49. A survey conducted in Britain confirmed that an abnormally high percentage of patients suffering from arthritis of the spine who had been treated with X rays contracted cancer.50. Yet across the gulf of space, minds that are to our minds as ours are to those of the beasts that perish, intellects vast and cool and unsympathetic, regarded this earth with envious eyes, and slowly and surely drew their plans against us.51. Even the doctoral degree, long recognized as a required “ union card” in the academic world, has come under severe criticism as the pursuit of learning for its own sake and the accumulation of knowledge with out immediate application to a professor‟s classroom duties.52. While a selection of necessary details is involved in both, the officer must remain neutral and clearly try to present a picture of the facts, while the artist usually begins with a preconceived message or attitude which is then transmitted through the use of carefully selected details of action described in words intended to provoke associations and emotional reactions in the reader.53. Articles in the popular press even criticize the Gross National Production (GNP) because it is not such a complete index of welfare, ignoring, on the one hand, that it was never intended to be, and suggesting, on the other, that with appropriate changes it could be converted into one.54. Other experiments revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psychoneuaral correlations were concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences.55. The Chinese have distributed publications to farmers and other rural residents instructing them in what to watch for their animals so that every household can join in helping to predict earthquakes.56. Supporters of the Star Wars defense system hope that this would not only protect a nation against an actual nuclear attack, but would be enough of a threat to keep a nuclear war from ever happening.57. Neither would it prevent cruise missiles or bombers, whose flights are withi n the Earth‟s atmosphere, from hitting their targets.58. Civil rights activists have long argued that one of the principal reasons why Blacks, Hispanics, and other minority groups have difficulty establishing themselves in business is that they lack access to the sizable orders and subcontracts that are generated by large companies.59. During the nineteenth century, she argues, the concept of the “useful” child who contributed to the family economy gave way gradually to the present day notion of the “useless” child who, though producing no income for, and indeed extremely costly to its parents, is yet considered emotionally “ priceless”.60. Well established among segments of the middle and upper classes by the mid-1800‟s, this new view of childhood spread throughout society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as reformers introduced child labor regulations and compulsory education laws predicted in part on the assumption that a child‟s emotional value made child labor taboo.61. Of course, it would be as dangerous to overreact to history by concluding that the majority must now be wrong about expansion as it would be to re-enact the response that greeted the suggestion that the continents had drifted.62. While the fact of this consumer revolution is hardly in doubt, three key questions remain: who were the consumers? What were their motives? And what were the effect of the new demand for luxuries?63. Although it has been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produced what manufacturers and servicing trades thought their customers wanted, only a study of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise picture of who wanted what.64. With respect to their reasons for immigrating, Grassy does not deny their frequently noted factthat some of the immigrants of the 1630‟s, most notably the organizers and clergy, advanced religious explanations for departure, but he finds that such explanations usually assumed primacy only in retrospect.65. If we take the age-and sex-specific unemployment rates that existed in 1956 (when the overall unemployment rate was 4.1 percent) and weight them by the age- and sex-specific shares of the labor force that prevail currently, the overall unemployment rate becomes 5 percent.66. He was puzzled that I did not want what was obviously a “ step up” toward what all Americans are taught to want when they grow up: money and power.67. Unless productivity growth is unexpectedly large, however, the expansion of real output must eventually begin to slow down to the economy‟s larger run growth potential if generalized demand pressures on prices are to be avoided.68. However, when investment flows primarily in one direction, as it generally does from industrial to developing countries, the seemingly reciprocal source-based restrictions produce revenue sacrifices primarily by the state receiving most of the foreign investment and producing most of the income—namely ,the developing country partner.69. The pursuit of private interests with as little interference as possible from government was seen as the road to human happiness and progress rather than the public obligation and involvement in the collective community that emphasized by the Greeks.70. The defense lawyer relied on long-standing principles governing the conduct of prosecuting attorneys: as quasi-judicial officers of the court they are under a duty not to prejudice a party‟s case through overzealous prosecution or to detract from the impartiality of courtroom atmosphere.71. No prudent person dared to act on the assumption that, when the continent was settled, one government could include the whole; and when the vast expense broke up, as seemed inevitable, into a collection of separate nations, only discord, antagonism, and wars could be expected.72. If they were right in thinking that the next necessity in human progress was to lift the average person upon an intellectual and social level with the most favored, they stood at least three generations nearer than Europe to that goal.73. Somehow he knows that if our huckstering civilization did not at every moment violate the eternal fitness of things, the poet‟s song would have been given to the world, and the poet would have been cared for by the whole human brotherhood, as any man should be who does the duty that every man owes it.74. The instinctive sense of the dishonor which money-purchase does to art is so strong that sometimes a man of letters who can pay his way otherwise refuses pay for his work, as Lord Byron did, for a while, from a noble pride, and as Count Tolstoy has tried to do, from a noble conscience.75. Perhaps he believed that he could not criticize American foreign policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from the federal government.76. Abraham Lincoln, who presided in his stone temple on August 28, 1963 above the children of the slaves he emancipated (解放), may have used just the right words to sum up the general reaction to the Negroes’massive march on Washington.77. In the Warren Court era, voters asked the Court to pass on issues concerning the size and shape of electoral districts, partly out of desperation because no other branch of government offered relief, and partly out of hope that the Court would reexamine old decisions in this area as it had in others, looking at basic constitutional principles in the light of modern living conditions.78. Some even argue plausibly that this weakness may be irremediable : in any society that, like a capitalist society, seeks to become ever wealthier in material terms disproportionate rewards are bound to flow to the people who are instrumental in producing the increase in its wealth.79. This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices have refused to find any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations, sexual discriminat ion in particular, are “suspect” and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts.80. But as cameras become more sophisticated, more automated, some photographers are tempted to disarm themselves or to suggest that they are not really armed, preferring to submit themselves to the limits imposed by premodern camera technology because a cruder, less high-powered machine is thought to give more interesting or emotive results, to have more room for creative accident.81. Both novelists use a storytelling method that emphasizes ironic disjunctions between different perspectives on the same events as well as ironic tensions that inhere in the relationship between surface drama and concealed authorical intention, a method I call an evidentiary narrative technique.82. When black poets are discussed separately as a group, for instance, the extent to which their work reflects the development of poetry in general should not be forgotten, or a distortion of literacy history may result.83. These differences include the bolder and more forthright speech of the later generation and its technical inventiveness.84. But black poets were not battling over old or new rather, one accomplished Black poet was ready to welcome another, whatever his or her style, for what mattered was racial pride.85. Tolstoy reversed all preconceptions and in every reversal he overthrew the “ system”, the “ machine”, the externally ordained belief, the conventional behaviour in favor of unsystematic, impulsive life, of inward motivation and the solutions of independent thought.86. It was better covered by television and press than any event here since President Kennedy’s inauguration (就职) , and , since indifferent is almost as great a problem to the Negro as hostility, this was a plus.87. But do not the challenge and the excitement of the critical problem as such lie in that ambivalence of attitude which allows us to recognize the intelligence and even the splendor of Meredith‟s work, while, at the same time, we experience a lack of sympathy, a failure of any enthusiasm of response?88. In this respect she resembled one of her favourite contemporaries, Mary Brunton, who would rather have “ glided through the world unknown” than been suspected of literary airs—to be shunned, as literary women are, by the more pretending of their own sex, and abhorred, as literary women are, by the more pretending of the other!89. From those sounds which we hear on small or on coarse occasions, we do not easily receive strong impressions, or delightful images; and words to which we are nearly strangers, whenever they occur, draw that attention on themselves which they should transmit to things.90. To proceed thus is to set up a fivefold hypothesis that enables you to gather from the innumerable items cast up by the sea of experience upon the shores of your observation only the limited number of relevant data—relevant, that is, to one or more of the five factors of yourhypothesis.91. As an author, I am naturally concerned that a surprisingly large percentage of the population of the United States is functionally illiterate; if they can‟t read or cannot understand what they read, they won‟t buy books, or this magazine.92. They do not know those parts of the doctrine which explain and justify the remainder ; the considerations which show that a fact which seemingly conflicts with another is reconcilable with it, or that, of two apparently strong reasons, one and not the other ought to be preferred.93. Quite apart from the logistic problems, there existed a well-established tradition in Britain which refused to repatriate against their will people who found themselves in British hands and the nature of whose reception by their own government was, to say the least, dubious.94. An obsession with the exact privileges of a colonial legislature and the precise extent of Britain‟s imperial power, the specifics of a state constitution and the absolute necessity of a federal one, all expressed this urge for a careful articulation as proof that the right relationship with external powers did indeed prevail.95. One encyclopaedia tells us that intelligence is related to the ability to learn, to the speed with which things are learned, to how well and how long ideas are remembered, to the ability to understand those ideas and use them in problem-solving, and to creativity.96. The event marked the end of an extended effort by William Barton Rogers, M.I.T. …s founder and first president, to create a new kind of educational institution relevant to the times and to the contrary‟s ne ed, where young men and women would be educated in the application as well as the acquisition of knowledge.97. Each departmental program consists, in part, of a grouping of subjects in the department‟s areas of professional interest and, in part, of additional opportunities for students of their choice.98. Alternatively, a student may use elective time to prepare for advanced study in some professional field, such as medicine or law, for graduate study in some area in which M. I. T. gives no undergraduate degree, such as meteorology or psychology, or for advanced study in an interdisciplinary field, such as astrophysics, communication science, or energy.99. While the undergraduate curriculum for an open Bachelor of Science degree, as listed by a department, may have its own unique features, each program must be laid out in consultation with a departmental representative to assure that it is meaningful in structure and challenging in content.100. Where previously it had concentrated on the big infrastructure projects such as dams, roads and bridges, it began to switch to projects which directly improved the basic services of a country.。
英语托福试题及答案
英语托福试题及答案一、听力部分1. 问题：What is the main topic of the lecture?答案：The main topic of the lecture is the impact of industrialization on the environment.2. 问题：According to the professor, what is the primarycause of air pollution?答案：The primary cause of air pollution, according to the professor, is the burning of fossil fuels.3. 问题：What is the student's suggestion to reduce pollution?答案：The student suggests using renewable energy sourcesto reduce pollution.二、阅读部分1. 问题：What does the author argue about the role of technology in education?答案：The author argues that technology has the potentialto enhance learning experiences but also emphasizes the importance of its proper integration into the curriculum.2. 问题：What evidence does the author provide to support the benefits of technology in education?答案：The author provides evidence such as increasedstudent engagement, access to a wider range of resources, and the ability to personalize learning.3. 问题：What is the author's view on the challenges of integrating technology into education?答案：The author believes that challenges include the need for teacher training, the digital divide, and the risk of distraction.三、口语部分1. 问题：Describe a memorable event from your childhood.答案：One memorable event from my childhood was my first visit to a zoo, where I was amazed by the variety of animals and learned about their habitats.2. 问题：Why do you think it is important to learn a second language?答案：Learning a second language is important because it opens up opportunities for communication, broadens cultural understanding, and enhances cognitive abilities.3. 问题：What are some ways to improve your English speaking skills?答案：Some ways to improve English speaking skills include practicing with native speakers, joining language exchange groups, and using language learning apps.四、写作部分1. 问题：Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? University education should be free for all students.答案：[Your response should be a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, body paragraphs with supporting arguments, and a conclusion.]2. 问题：Some people believe that the government should spend more on art and culture, while others think that this money should be used for other public services. Discuss both views and give your opinion.答案：[Your response should be a well-organized essay that presents the arguments for both views, provides your own opinion, and includes a conclusion.]3. 问题：Describe a person who has had a significant influence on your life and explain why this person is important to you.答案：[Your response should be a descriptive essay that outlines the person's characteristics, the impact they have had on you, and the reasons for their significance.]。
英译汉。高英
Lesson 11)The one I am thinking of particularly is entered by Gothicarched gateway of aged brick and stone .You pass from the heat and glare of a big, open square into a cool, dark cavern which extends as far as the eye can see, losing itself in the shadowy distance.此时此刻我要说的集市的入口是一座古老的砖石结构的哥特式拱门，年代非常久远。
当你穿过一个烈日暴晒的大型露天广场，然后走进一个凉爽、幽暗的洞穴。
这洞穴一直一直向前延伸，一眼望不到尽头，最终消失在远处的阴影里。
2)It is a point of honor with the customers not to let the shopkeeper guess what it is she really likes and want until the last moment. 对于顾客来说，至关重要的一点是，不到最后一刻是不能让店主猜到她心里究竟中意哪样东西、想买哪样东西的.3)The seller ,on the other hand ,makes a point of protesting that the price he is charging is depriving him of all profit, and that he is sacrificing this because of his personal regard for the customer. 而在店主那一方来说，则是竭尽全力的让顾客相信，他开出的价钱使他根本无利可图，而他之所以愿意这样做完全是出于本人对顾客的敬重。
英文写作佳句
47. It is absolutely essential to reverse the irrational misuse of nonrenewable resources. For example, fuel-efficient motor vehicles must be developed to reduce oil consumption and alternative energy sources must be found to replace coal.
我们必须注意有关计算机千年虫可能带来的灾难性结果的警告，并且相应地优先考虑寻找有效的解决办法以确保顺利过渡到新世纪。
43. It is high time we put an end to the deplorable practice of infanticide.
我们早该杜绝杀婴这种应遭谴责的做法。
36. Why do some governments persist in spending billions of dollars on space exploration when starvation and poverty continue to grip many countries throughout the world? This particular question is being raised by an ever-increasing number of people.
立即解决贫困问题的办法仍然是难以捉摸的。然而，公众认识到为数百万人提供更高质量的生活的必要性是找到有效的解决办法的第一步。
53. What dose the future hold if mankind persists in wasting natural resources? While no one knows for sure, scientists do exhibit a degree of certainty when predicting that future generations will face a dramatically different world.
学术英语(社科)Unit3三单元原文及翻译
UNIT 3 Unemployment1. Losing a job can be the most distressing economic event in a person’s life. Most people rely on their labor earnings to maintain their standard of living, and many people get from their work not only income but also a sense of personal accomplishment.A job loss means a lower living standard in the present, anxiety about the future, and reducedself-esteem. It is not surprising, therefore, that politicians campaigning for office often speak about how their proposed policies will help create jobs.失去一份工作可能是最痛苦的经济事件在一个人的生活。
大多数人们依靠自己的劳动收入来维持他们的生活标准,许多人会从他们的工作得到的不仅是收入，还有自己的成就感。
一个失去工作意味着现在要定一个更低的生活标准,焦虑未来,并丧失自尊心。
这并不奇怪,因此,政治家竞选办公室经常谈论他们所提出的政策将帮助创造就业机会。
4.In judging how serious the problem of unemployment is, one question to consider is whether unemployment is typically a short-term or long-term condition. If unemployment is short-term, one might conclude that it is not a big problem. Workers may require a few weeks between jobs to find the openings that best suit their tastes and skills. Yet if unemployment is long-term, one might conclude that it is a serious problem. Workers unemployed for many months are more likely to suffer economic and psychological hardship.判断失业问题有多么严重时，其中一个问题就是要考虑是否失业通常是一个短期或长期的条件。
十年六级真题阅读理解重点单词及难句翻译
十年六级真题阅读理解重点单词及难句翻译1999年1月Passage 31.Try to imagine the consequences of such a transformation2.Underpinnings：支柱3.For as we will see, incentives imply a capacity to enjoy them：因为，正如我们将要看到的那样，动力意味着人们获得享受的能力4.We also use categorizations colored by emotion s in our families, communities,and overall society：我们也带着感情色彩对我们的家庭、社区和整个社会进行分类5.In fact, society exploit s our emotional reactions and attitudes：事实上，社会利用了我们情感上的反应和态度6.It give high rewards to individuals who perform important tasks such assurgery, makes heroes out of individuals for unusual or dangerous achievements such as flying fighter planes in a war, and uses the legal and penal system to make people afraid to engage in antisocial acts：社会给予外科医生等从事重要工作的人很高的奖励，将战争中的战斗机驾驶员等做出不寻常或具有危险性成就的人树为英雄，并利用刑法体系使人们不敢从事反社会的行为。
1999年6月Passage 11.We sometimes think humans are uniquely vulnerable to anxiety：我们有时认为人类是唯一对忧虑脆弱的动物。
高中英语阅读理解高难度单项选择题50题
高中英语阅读理解高难度单项选择题50题1. The passage mainly discusses _____.A. the history of a cityB. the culture of a countryC. the development of a technologyD. the benefits of a new policy答案：D，In the passage, the author spends most of the text elaborating on the advantages and positive impacts of the new policy. A, B, and C are only briefly mentioned or not the main focus.2. It can be inferred from the passage that _____.A. the project will be completed soonB. there are some challenges aheadC. more funds are neededD. the team is very experienced答案：B，The text mentions certain difficulties and obstacles faced during the process, suggesting that there are challenges to overcome in the future. Options A, C, and D are not directly indicated or inferred from the given information.3. What is the main idea of Paragraph 3?A. A new theory is introduced.B. An example is provided.C. A problem is analyzed.D. A solution is proposed.答案：C，Paragraph 3 mainly focuses on dissecting and explaining a particular problem, rather than introducing a new theory, providing an example, or proposing a solution.4. The author mentions "example X" to _____.A. illustrate a pointB. compare two thingsC. introduce a new conceptD. show contrast答案：A，The "example X" is used to clarify and support a specific point made by the author, not for comparison, introducing a new concept, or showing contrast.5. According to the passage, which of the following is true?A. Option AB. Option BC. Option CD. Option D答案：A，Careful reading of the passage reveals that the details and information presented support Option A. The other options either contain incorrect information or are not in line with the text.6. What can we conclude from the passage about the character?A. He is brave.B. He is intelligent.C. He is kind-hearted.D. He is cautious.答案：B，Throughout the passage, the character's actions and decisions demonstrate his intelligence in handling various situations.7. The tone of the passage is _____.A. optimisticB. pessimisticC. neutralD. critical答案：A，The language and overall message of the passage conveya sense of hope and positive outlook, indicating an optimistic tone.8. Which statement best summarizes the passage?A. Statement AB. Statement BC. Statement CD. Statement D答案：C，Statement C captures the key points and main ideas presented in the passage more accurately than the other options.9. It is implied in the passage that _____.A. a change is comingB. a decision has been madeC. a problem has been solvedD. a goal has been achieved答案：A，Hints and indications within the text suggest that a change is on the horizon, while the other options are not strongly suggested or supported.10. The main purpose of the passage is to _____.A. informB. persuadeC. entertainD. describe答案：A，The content of the passage is primarily focused on presenting facts and information, with the aim of informing the reader.11. The main idea of the passage is _____.A. to describe a beautiful sceneryB. to introduce a new technologyC. to tell a funny storyD. to explain a scientific phenomenon答案：D，The passage mainly focuses on explaining a complex scientific concept and its related details. Option A only mentions the scenery, which is not the main focus. Option B about a new technology is not the core topic. Option C, a funny story, is not the main content of the passage.12. The author's attitude towards the topic is _____.A. positiveB. negativeC. neutralD. uncertain答案：A，Throughout the passage, the author presents various positive aspects and benefits related to the topic, indicating a positive attitude. Option B would imply criticism or pessimism, which is not evident. Option C, neutral, doesn't match the author's clear advocacy. Option D, uncertain, is not supported as the author expresses definite opinions.13. What is the main purpose of the text?A. To informB. To persuadeC. To entertainD. To warn答案：A，The text mainly provides factual information and details to convey knowledge, suggesting an informative purpose. Option B aims at convincing the readers, which is not the main intention. Option C, to entertain, would involve more elements of fun or diversion, not present here. Option D, to warn, is not the main goal as there is no sense of caution.14. The overall tone of the passage is _____.A. seriousB. humorousC. sadD. excited答案：A，The language and content of the passage are presented in a serious and matter-of-fact manner. Option B, humorous, would involve jokes or light-hearted elements not present. Option C, sad, doesn't fit the tone as there is no expression of sorrow. Option D, excited, implies enthusiasm which is not the dominant tone.15. The central theme of the article is _____.A. love and friendshipB. adventure and explorationC. history and cultureD. science and innovation答案：C，The article primarily discusses historical events and cultural aspects, making this the central theme. Option A is not the main focus. Option B, adventure and exploration, are not the core subjects. Option D, science and innovation, may be mentioned but not as the main theme.16. The author's main point in the passage is to _____.A. raise awarenessB. solve a problemC. compare different ideasD. present a theory答案：A，The author emphasizes the importance of certain issues to raise public awareness. Option B, solving a problem, is not the main objective. Option C, comparing different ideas, is not the primary focus. Option D, presenting a theory, is not the main point; rather, it's about making people aware.17. What is the key message the author wants to convey?A. The importance of teamworkB. The benefits of exerciseC. The value of educationD. The need for environmental protection答案：D，The author spends significant time discussing the current state of the environment and the necessity of protection. Option A, teamwork, is not the main emphasis. Option B, exercise benefits, are not the key message. Option C, education value, is not the central topic.18. The main focus of the text is _____.A. art and literatureB. politics and economyC. sports and healthD. technology and development答案：B，The content of the text mainly deals with political systems and economic issues. Option A, art and literature, are not the main subjects. Option C, sports and health, are not the core areas. Option D, technology and development, are not the primary focus.19. The main idea expressed in the passage can be summarized as _____.A. a personal experienceB. a social issueC. a scientific discoveryD. a historical event答案：B，The passage mainly discusses a widespread social problem and its implications. Option A, a personal experience, is not the main content. Option C, a scientific discovery, is not the central idea. Option D, a historical event, is not the main focus.20. The author's perspective on the matter is _____.A. optimisticB. pessimisticC. realisticD. idealistic答案：C，The author presents a balanced and factual assessment, indicating a realistic perspective. Option A, optimistic, would show more hope and positivity. Option B, pessimistic, would convey more negativityand doubt. Option D, idealistic, implies a visionary or utopian view, which is not the case.21. The word "obscure" in the passage is closest in meaning to:A. clearB. confusingC. famousD. unknown答案：D，In the context, the word "obscure" is used to describe something that is not well-known or hard to understand. Option A "clear" means easily understood and is the opposite of "obscure". Option B "confusing" implies causing confusion but not necessarily indicating a lack of familiarity. Option C "famous" means widely known, which is contrary to the meaning of "obscure". So, the correct answer is D "unknown".22. What does the phrase "on the verge of" mean in the following sentence?A. far away fromB. in the middle ofC. close toD. completely inside答案：C，The phrase "on the verge of" typically suggests being very close to a particular state or situation. Option A "far away from"indicates a significant distance. Option B "in the middle of" implies being in the center. Option D "completely inside" means being fully within. Therefore, the correct meaning is C "close to".23. The term "precarious" in the text can be best replaced by:A. stableB. dangerousC. safeD. certain答案：B，"Precarious" is often used to describe a situation that is risky or unstable. Option A "stable" means firm and not likely to change. Option C "safe" indicates the absence of danger. Option D "certain" implies being definite and sure. Hence, the appropriate substitution is B "dangerous".24. What is the meaning of "elusive" as used in the passage?A. easy to catchB. difficult to find or understandC. obviousD. common答案：B，"Elusive" means something that is hard to find, catch or understand. Option A "easy to catch" is the opposite. Option C "obvious" means easily seen or understood. Option D "common" means occurring frequently. Thus, the correct answer is B.25. The word "profound" in the article is most similar in meaning to:A. shallowB. deepC. simpleD. surface答案：B，"Profound" indicates having deep meaning or great significance. Option A "shallow" means not deep. Option C "simple" means easy and not complex. Option D "surface" refers to the outer layer. So, the answer is B.26. What does the expression "at a glance" mean in this context?A. after a careful examinationB. with a quick lookC. without lookingD. by looking many times答案：B，"At a glance" means by taking a quick look. Option A "after a careful examination" involves detailed study. Option C "without looking" is the opposite. Option D "by looking many times" is not the meaning of "at a glance". Hence, the correct option is B.27. The word "conspicuous" in the text can be replaced by:A. hiddenB. noticeableC. invisibleD. secret答案：B，"Conspicuous" means easily noticed or visible. Option A "hidden" means not visible. Option C "invisible" means cannot be seen. Option D "secret" implies being kept hidden. So, the suitable replacement is B "noticeable".28. What is the meaning of "ambiguous" in the following sentence?A. clear and definiteB. having more than one possible meaningC. simple and straightforwardD. easy to understand答案：B，"Ambiguous" means having multiple possible interpretations or being unclear. Option A "clear and definite" is the opposite. Option C "simple and straightforward" implies being easy to understand. Option D "easy to understand" also contradicts the meaning of "ambiguous". Thus, the correct answer is B.29. The term "sporadic" in the passage is closest in meaning to:A. frequentB. regularC. occasionalD. continuous答案：C，"Sporadic" describes something that occurs irregularly or only at intervals. Option A "frequent" means happening often. Option B"regular" implies a consistent pattern. Option D "continuous" means without interruption. Therefore, the answer is C "occasional".30. What does the phrase "by and large" mean in the text?A. in detailB. generallyC. specificallyD. exactly答案：B，"By and large" is an idiomatic expression that means on the whole or generally. Option A "in detail" refers to providing specific and31. The author implies that the main reason for the success of the new product is _____.A. its low priceB. its unique designC. extensive advertisingD. good customer serviceAnswer: B. The passage suggests that the unique design of the product sets it apart from competitors and is the key factor for its success. Options A, C, and D are mentioned but not emphasized as the main reason.32. It can be inferred from the passage that the company's future plans include _____.A. expanding into new marketsB. reducing production costsC. launching a similar productD. improving the existing productAnswer: A. The text hints at the company's ambition to explore new geographical areas for business growth, indicating expansion into new markets. The other options are not strongly indicated.33. The passage suggests that the problem could have been avoided if _____.A. better planning had been doneB. more resources had been allocatedC. quicker decisions had been madeD. different strategies had been adoptedAnswer: A. The context implies that insufficient or improper planning led to the problem. The other options might have helped but are not the core reason as suggested.34. What can be deduced from the writer's tone in the passage?A. OptimisticB. PessimisticC. NeutralD. DoubtfulAnswer: A. The overall language and expressions used by the writerconvey a sense of optimism about the subject matter. The other tones are not consistent with the text.35. It is implicit in the passage that the relationship between the two characters is _____.A. friendlyB. hostileC. indifferentD. complexAnswer: D. The description of their interactions and exchanges implies a complex nature that is not straightforwardly friendly, hostile, or indifferent.36. The passage implies that the new policy will have the greatest impact on _____.A. small businessesB. large corporationsC. consumersD. government agenciesAnswer: A. The details provided suggest that small businesses will be most affected by the new policy due to their limited resources and size.37. What can be inferred about the research findings based on the passage?A. They are conclusiveB. They are controversialC. They need further validationD. They have wide applicationsAnswer: C. The text indicates that while the research has some interesting results, more work is needed to fully validate and understand their implications.38. It can be deduced from the passage that the main challenge faced by the organization is _____.A. lack of fundsB. internal conflictsC. intense competitionD. changing regulationsAnswer: C. The discussion highlights the competitive environment as the primary obstacle for the organization's progress.39. The passage suggests that the solution to the problem lies in_____.A. technological innovationB. better managementC. increased investmentD. changing consumer behaviorAnswer: B. The analysis indicates that improved management practices would address the root causes of the problem effectively.40. What is implied about the future of the industry mentioned in the passage?A. Bright and promisingB. Uncertain and riskyC. Stable and predictableD. Declining and hopelessAnswer: B. The various factors and uncertainties discussed in the passage suggest an unclear and risky future for the industry.41. The author's main purpose in writing the passage is to _____.A. informB. entertainC. persuadeD. describe答案：A，In this type of question, you need to understand the overall tone and content of the passage. If the passage presents facts and information, the purpose is usually to inform. Options B, C, and D have different intentions and don't match the nature of the given text.42. What can be inferred from the passage?A. The situation will improve soon.B. A new solution has been found.C. The problem remains unsolved.D. More efforts are needed.答案：C，To infer means to draw a conclusion based on the given information. Analyze the details and context to determine the most likely outcome. Here, the passage doesn't provide evidence for options A and B, and option D is too general. The text implies that the problem is still ongoing.43. The word "elusive" in the passage probably means _____.A. easy to understandB. difficult to catchC. clearly expressedD. frequently mentioned答案：B，When encountering vocabulary in context questions, look at the surrounding words and sentences for clues. In this case, "elusive" is likely to mean something hard to grasp or obtain, similar to "difficult to catch".44. According to the passage, which of the following statements is true?A. Option AB. Option BC. Option CD. Option D答案：B，Carefully compare each option with the information presented in the passage. Check for accuracy and consistency todetermine the correct statement.45. The passage is mainly about _____.A. a person's experienceB. a historical eventC. a scientific discoveryD. a cultural phenomenon答案：D，Summarize the main ideas and themes of the passage to identify its core topic. Consider the key elements and recurring themes to make the correct choice.46. What is the tone of the passage?A. OptimisticB. PessimisticC. NeutralD. Critical答案：C，The tone refers to the author's attitude. Analyze the language and expressions used to determine if it's positive, negative, or neutral.47. Which of the following best summarizes the passage?A. Option AB. Option BC. Option CD. Option D答案：A，Look for the option that captures the essential points and main ideas of the entire passage without leaving out crucial details.48. The author mentions _____ in order to _____.A. example A; illustrate a pointB. example B; provide evidenceC. example C; contrast with something elseD. example D; introduce a new concept答案：A，Understand the purpose behind the author's inclusion of specific examples and how they contribute to the overall message.49. What conclusion can be drawn from the last paragraph?A. Conclusion AB. Conclusion BC. Conclusion CD. Conclusion D答案：D，Focus on the final paragraph and analyze the information presented to reach a logical conclusion.50. The main idea of this passage can be best expressed as _____.A. Option AB. Option BC. Option CD. Option D答案：C，Synthesize the entire passage to identify the overarchingconcept or message that ties everything together.。
英语四六级 2
1． 结尾万能公式一：如此结论
说完了，毕竟要归纳一番，相信各位都有这样的经历，领导长篇大论，到最后终于冒出个“总而言之”之类的话，我们马上停止开小差，等待领导说结束语。也就是说，开头很好，也必然要有一个精彩的结尾，让读者眼前一亮，这样，你就可以拿高分了！比如下面的例子：Obviously（此为过渡短语）, we can draw the conclusion that good manners arise from politeness and respect for others.如果读者很难“显而见之”，但说无妨，就当读者的眼光太浅罢了！更多过渡短语：to sum up, in conclusion, in brief, on account of this, thus更多句型：s, it can be concluded that…, Therefore, we can find that…2． 结尾万能公式二：如此建议如果说“如此结论”是结尾最没用的废话，那么“如此建议”应该是最有价值的废话了，因为这里虽然也是废话，但是却用了一个很经典的虚拟语气的句型。拽！Obviously, it is high time that we took some measures to solve the problem.这里的虚拟语气用得很经典，因为考官本来经常考这个句型，而如果我们自己写出来，你说考官会怎么想呢？更多句型：Accordingly, I recommend that some measures be taken.Consequently, to solve the problem, some measures should be taken.
1）加法（串联）都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：I enjor music and he is fond of playing guitar.如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.其它的短语可以用：besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover2）转折（拐弯抹角）批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.The coat was thin, but it was warm.更多的短语：despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding3）因果（so, so, so）昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系！The snow began to fall, so we went home.更多短语：then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that4）失衡句（头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重）有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。举例：This is what I can do.Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：When to go, Why he goes away…5）附加（多此一举）如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他；或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.I don’t enjoy that book you are reading.Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成；定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。6）排比（排山倒海句）文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势！Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. （气势恢宏）要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可！七、 挑战极限原则既然十挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀！原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.如果您可一些出这样的句子，不得高分才怪！
考博英语阅读理解及答案解析
Passage 1The physical distribution of products has two primary aspects: transportation and storage. Both aspects are highly developed and specialized phases of marketing. The costs of both trans-porting and storing are built into the prices of products. Transportation can be by truck, rail-way, ship, or barge. For some items, such as exotic plants and flowers, or when rapid delivery is essential, air freight may be used.Storage, or warehousing, is a necessary function because production and consumption of goods rarely match: items generally are not sold as quickly as they are made. Inventories build up, both in warehouses and at retail establishments, before the foods are sold. The transporta-tion function is involved in bringing goods to a warehouse and taking them from it to retail stores.Storage performs the service of stabilizing market price. If, for example, no agricultural product could be stored, all food would have to be put on the market immediately. This would, of course, create a glut and lower prices drastically. There would be an immediate benefit to consumers, but in the long run they would suffer. Farmers, because of low prices, would be forced off the land, and the amount of food produced would decrease. This, in turn, would raise consumer prices.Warehouses for storage are of several types. Private warehouses are owned by manufactur-ers. Public warehouses, in spite of their name, are privately owned facilities, but they are in-dependent of manufacturer ownership. General-merchandise warehouses store a great variety of products. Cold-storage warehouses store perishable goods, especially food products. Grain ele-vators are a kind of warehouse used to keep wheat and other grains from spoiling. A bonded warehouse is one that stores foods, frequently imported, on which taxes must be paid before they are sold. Cigarettes and alcoholic beverages are common examples.The distribution center is a more recently developed kind of warehouse. Many large com- panics have several manufacturing plants, sometimes located outside the country. Each plant does not make every company product but specializes in one or more of them. The distribution center allows a manufacturer to bring together all product lines in one place. Its purpose is to minimize storage and to ease the flow of goods from manufacturers to retailers rather than build up extensive inventories. It reduces costs by speeding up product turnover. Very large corporations will have several distribution centers regionally or internationally based1. The main subject of this passage is______.A) transportation and storage B) storage of productsC) distribution center D) two main aspects of product distribution2. Warehousing is important in that _A) inventories build up before the goods are soldB) the prices will go downC) more goods are produced than can be consumedD) the food has to be put on the market immediately3. How many types of warehouses for storage are discussed in the passage?A) 3. B) 4. C) 6. D) 7.4. Where might one find meat and milk?A) Grain elevator. B) Cold-storage warehouse.C) Private warehouse. D) Bonded warehouse.5. What is NOT true of a distribution center?A) It is a relatively new type of warehouse.B) Product is replaced more quickly and costs are down.C) Some distribution centers are not built in the sane country as the factoryD) It builds up extensive inventories to minimize storage.Passage 2How much pain do animals feel? This is a question which has caused endless controversy. Opponents of big game shooting, for example, arouse our pity by describing tile agonies of a badly-wounded beast that has crawled into a comer to die. In countries where the fox, the hare and the deer are hunted, animal-lovers paint harrowing pictures of the pursued animal suffering not only the physical distress of the chase but the mental anguish of anticipated death.The usual answer to these criticisms is that animals do not suffer in the same way, or to the same extent, as we de. Man was created with a delicate nervous system and has never lost his acute sensitiveness to pain; animals, on the other hand, had less sensitive systems to begin with and in the course of millions of years, have developed a capacity of ignoring injuries and disorders which human beings would find intolerable. For example, a dog will continue to play with a ball even after a serious injury to his foot; he may be unable to run without limping, but he will go on trying long after a human child would have had to stop because of the pain. We are told, moreover, that even when animals appear to us to be suffering acutely, this is not so; what seems to us to be agonized contortions caused by pain are in fact no more than muscular contractions over which they have no control.These arguments are unsatisfactory because something about which we know a great deal is being compared with something we can only conjecture. We know what we feel; we have no means of knowing what animals feet. Some creatures with a less delicate nervous system than ours may be incapable of feeling pain to the same extent as we do: that as far as we are entitled to do, the most humane attitude, surely, is to assume that no animals are entirely exempt from physical pain and that we ought, therefore, wherever possible, to avoid causing suffering even to the least of them.6. Animal-lovers assume that animals, being hunted, would suffer from ____.A) a great deal of agony both in body and in spiritB) mental distress once they are woundedC) only body pains without feeling sadD) crawling into the comer to die7. Supporters of game shooting may argue that animals ______.A) cannot control their muscular contractionsB) have developed a capacity of feeling no painC) are not as acutely sensitive as human beings to injuriesD) can endure all kinds of disorders8. The author feels sure that _____.A) animals don't show suffering to usB) dogs are more endurable than human childrenC) we cannot know what animals feelD) comparing animals with human beings is not appropriate9. What is the author's opinion about animal hunting?A) We should feel the same as the hunted animals do.B) We should protect and save all the animals.C) We shouldn't cause suffering to them.D) We should take care of them if we can.10. This passage seems to ____.A) argue for something B) explain somethingC) tell a story D) describe an objectPassage 3In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. A the-ory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experi-merits to test the theory. If observations confirm the scientists' predictions, the theory is sup-ported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said: "Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house."Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the problem areformulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist's thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes ob-servations to test hypotheses. For without hypotheses, further investigation lacks purpose and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.11. The word "this" in the 3rd sentence in paragraph 1 refers to ______.A) a good example B) an imaginary modelC) the kinetic molecular theory D) an observed event12. Bricks are mentioned in the 3rd paragraph to indicate how ____.A) mathematicians approach scienceB) building a house is like performing experimentsC) science is more than a collection of factsD) scientific experiments have led to improved technology13. In the last paragraph, the author refers to a hypothesis as "a leap into the unknown" in or- der to show that hypotheses ______.A) are sometimes ill-conceived B) can lead to dangerous resultsC) go beyond available facts D) require effort to formulate14. What is a major function of hypotheses as implied in the last paragraph7A) Sifting through known facts.B) Communicating a scientist's thoughts to others.C) Providing direction for scientific research.D) Linking together different theories.15. Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?A) Theories are simply imaginary models of past events.B) It is better to revise a hypothesis than to reject it.C) A scientist's most difficult task is testing hypotheses.D) A good scientist needs to be creative.文章大意：这篇文章从定义、作用及产生过程几方面阐述了科学理论。
现代大学英语精读6第一课
How to get the poor out off our conscienceI would like to reflect on one of the oldest of human exercises , the process by which over the years, and indeed over the centuries , we have undertaken to get poor off our conscience .Rich and poor have lived together , always uncomfortably and sometimes perilously , since the beginning of time . Plutarch was led to say : “An imbalance between the rich and poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of republics . ”And the problem that arise from the continuing coexistence of affluence and poverty -and particularly the process by which good fortune is justified in the presence of the ill fortune of others-have been an intellectual preoccupation for centuries . They continue to be so in our own time .One begins with the solution proposed in the Bible : the poor suffer in this world but are wonderfully rewarded in the next . Their poverty is a temporary misfortune : If their are poor and also meek , they eventually will inherit the earth . This is , in some ways , an admirable solution . It allows the rich to enjoy their wealth while envying the poor their future fortune .Much , much later , in the twenty or thirty years following the publication in 1776 of The wealth of Nation -the late dawn of the Industrial Revolution in Britain -the problem and its solution began to take on their modern form . Jeremy Bentham , a near contemporary of Adam Smith ,came up with the formula that for perhaps fifty years was extraordinarily influential in Britain and , to some degree , American thought . This was utilitarianism . “ By the principle of utility , ” Bentham said in 1789, “is meant the principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question .”Virtue is indeed must be , self-centered . While there were people with great good fortune and many more withe great ill fortune , the social problem was solved as long as , again in Bentham’s words , there was “ the greatest good for the greatest number ” . Society did its best for the largest possible number of people ; one accepted that the result might be sadly unpleasant for the many whose happiness was not served .In the 1830s a new formula , influential in no slight degree to this day , became available for getting the poor off the public conscience . This is associated with the names of David Ricardo , a stockbroker , and Thomas Robert Malthus , a divine . The essentials are familiar : The poverty of the poor was the fault of the poor . And it was because it was a product of their excessive fecundity : Their grievously uncontrolled lust caused them to breed up to the full limits of the available subsistence .。
2022年考研考博-考博英语-上海交通大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷(带答案)第37期
2022年考研考博-考博英语-上海交通大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题Most of the civil servants involved in the affair have been successfully （） and sentenced. 问题1选项A.prosecutedB.propagatedC.persecutedD.precipitated【答案】A【解析】prosecute"起诉,告发"; propagate"传播,传送;繁殖"; persecute"迫害,困扰"; precipitate"使沉淀;促成"。
句意：大部分涉案公务员已被成功检控和判刑。
选项A符合句意。
2.单选题The structure of this animal's brain given no（） that it is any more intelligent than others. 问题1选项A.indicationB.indexC.hintD.implication 【答案】C【解析】固定搭配题。
give no hint that指"没有显示出，没有表明出 "。
句意：这种动物的大脑结构并没有显示出它比其他动物更聪明。
3.单选题The brain drain of experts away from developing countries will greatly influence these countries development of （） industry.问题1选项plicatedB.sophisticatedC.primitiveD.collective【答案】B【解析】形容词辨析题。
complicated"复杂的,难懂的";sophisticated"精密的,尖端的";primitive "原始的, 早期的"; collective "集体的, 共同的"。
acca_F4_背诵讲义
Chapter 1 Structure of the legal system1. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE LEGAL SYSTEMLaw∙Law is a formal control mechanism.∙It provides a structure for dealing with and resolving disputes.∙It also provides some deterrent to those wishing to disrupt social order.Common law∙Common law developed in England during the period following the Norman Conquest.∙It was made by judges who travelled around the country to keep the King’s peace and made law by merging local customary laws into one ‘law of the land’.∙Today, the concept of PRECEDENT continues to be the key feature of commom law, and distinguishes it from other legal systems.∙Remedies under common law are monetary, and are known as damages.Equity∙Common law does not provide justice to the wronged person if monetary compensation is not suitable.∙Equity developed two or three hundred years after common law as a system to resolve disputes where damages are not a suitable remedy and therefore introduced fairnessinto the legal system.∙For example, wh ere a person needs to stop another person’s behaviour or to force them to act as they agreed to, equity provides remedies to achieve this.Civil law∙Civil law exists to resolve disputes over the rights and obligations of persons dealing with each other and seeks to compensate wronged parties.∙It is a form of private law (between individuals) and covers areas such as tort, contract and employment law.∙In civil proceedings, the case must be proved on the balance of probability, the object is to convince the court that it is probable that a person’s assertions are ture.∙There is no concept of punishment in the civil law and compensation is paid to the wronged person.∙If they wish, both parties may choose to settle the dispute out of court.Criminal law∙ A crime is conduct that is prohibited by the law.∙Criminal law is a form of public law (betweent the State and individuals).∙In criminal proceedings, the State is the procecutor because it is the community as a whole which suffers as a result of the law being broken.∙The burden of proof to convict the accused(认定被告有罪) rests with the procecution, which must prove its case beyond reasonble doubt.∙In the UK, the police take the initial decision to prosecute, this is then reviewed by the Crown Prosecution Service. However, some prosecutions are started by the Director of Public Prosecutions, who is the head of the Crown Prosecution Service.∙Persons guilty of crime may be punished by fines payable to the State, imprisonment, ora community-based punishment.The distinction between civil law and criminal lawThis is not an act or event which creates the distinction between civil and criminal law, but the legal consequences. A single event might give rise to both civil and criminal proceedings.2. JURISDICTION OF CIVIL COURTS∙The nature of the case and the size of the claim will determine which court hears a civil case.∙The County courts hear small cases ( claims under £5,000) or those which are deemed to be ‘FAST TRACK’ cases. The case is heard by a Circ uit Judge assisted by DistrictJudges.∙Complicated cases or those which are deemed to be ‘MULTI TRACK’ cases are heard at the High Court.∙The Queen’s Bench Division hears cases concerning contract and tort issues.∙The Family Division hears cases concerning children and matrimonial issues.∙The Chancery Division hears cases concerning trusts, bankruptcy and corporate issures.∙Appeals are to the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal and are heard by three judges who will decide the outcome by a majority.∙ A further appeal to the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom may be permitted if it involves an issue of public interests.3. JURISDICTION OF CRIMINAL COURTS∙All criminal cases begin in magistrates’ courts where the case is introduced into the system.∙Certain types of offences are known as indictable offences, these are serious offences and can only be heard in Crown Court. Other less serious summary offences are heard summarily in the magistrates’court.∙Where an offence falls in between the two, it can be ‘triable either way’, the defendant will have the choice to be tried at the magistrates’ court or at the Crown Court.∙Where the decision in a criminal case is appealled against, a court further up the hierarchy will hear it.∙Appeals from magistrates’ courts are either to the Crown Court or the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court.∙Case stated appeals from the Crown Court are made to QBD. ‘Case stated’ is a legal function to review a magistrates’ court decision on a point of law , it means the law was misinterpreted by the magistrate.∙Appeals from the Crown Court are made to the Court of Appeal and this may be appealled to the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom if it involves an issue of publicinterests.4. THE MAIN CIVIL COURTS IN THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEMMagistrates’ court∙The magistrates’ court is mainly a criminal court, but it also has original jurisdiction in many civil cases, such as liscensing and family issues.∙It will also hear claims for recovery of unpaid local authority charges and council tax(英国家庭税).County CourtCounty courts have civil jurisdiction only, it deal with almost every kind of civil case within its serve areas. The main limits to its jurisdiction are financial. It is involved in the following matters: ∙Contact and tort∙Equity matters∙Probate matters∙Disputes concerning land∙Undefended matrimonial cases∙Some bankruptcy, company winding-up and admiralty cases（海事裁判）.High CourtThe High Court are divided into three divisions.∙The Queen’s Bench Divison hears cases concerning contract and tort issues. It also hasa Commercial Court and an Admiralty Court. A divisionl court of the QBD has anappellate jurisdiction on appeals from magistrates’ court and tribunals.∙The Family Division hears cases concerning children and matrimonial issues. The Family Division also has a limited appellate jurisdiction on some appeals from theMagistrates’ Court.∙The Chancery Division hears cases concerning trusts, mortgage, bankruptcy, taxation, probate and corporate issures. It also has a Patents Court and a Company Court, which deals with liquidations and other company proceedings.Appeal courtsThe civil court which have an exclusively appellate jurisdiction are the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom.Court of Appeal∙The Court of Appeal hears appeals from the County Court, High Court and several sepcial tribunals.∙It reviews the evidence and the legal opinions and makes its decisions based on them.∙Cases are heard by three judges ( known as Lord Justices of Appeal) who will decide the outcome by a majority..Supreme Court for the United Kingdom∙The Supreme Court for the United Kingdom is the highest appeal court in the English legal system. Cases are heard by Justices of the Supreme Court.∙The court hears appeals from the Court of Appeal and also appeals from the High Court, under the ‘leapfrog procedure’ .5. THREE TRACK SYSTEM FOR THE ALLOCATION OF CIVIL CASESThe Civil Procedure Rules (CPR 民事程序规定) introduced a three track system for the allocation of civil cases. Generally speaking, county courts hear small track cases and fast track cases and the High Court hears multi-track cases.∙In the small claims track, claims of no more than £5,000 will be heard. These are cases to be dealt with quickly and informallly, often without the need for legal represetation or a full hearing. Parties can consent to use the small claims track if the value of the claimexceeds the limits, but this has to be subject to the court's approval.∙In the fast claims track, claims under £25,000 may be heard. There is a strictly limited procedure designed to enable cases to be heard within a short but reasonable timescale.Costs are fixed and hearings are no longer than one day.∙The multi-track is intended to provide a new and more flexible regime for the more complex claims, which has a value of more than £15,000. An initial ‘case managementconference’ will be held to encourage the parties to resolve the dispute or to consider the alternative dispute resolution. The trial judge sets a budget and a final timetable for thetrial.∙Claimants of cases between £15,000 and £25,000 have the choice of using the fast or multi track, although judges may insist complex cases are heard under the multi track.Chapter 2 Sources of English lawSOURCESCase law Statute CustomCommon Equity Primary SecondarylawSources of English law∙There are three main sources of English law, namely case law, legislation (statute) and custom.∙Broadly speaking, case law is made and developed in the courts and legislation is made by the legislature（立法机关，立法团体） in Parliament.∙Since both of these sources create law today, they can be considered as contemporary.∙However, local customs, which developed historically and have existed for a very long time, are not considered as contemporary.1. CASE LAW AS A SOURCE OF LAW∙Case law is is made in the courts according to the common law and equity.∙Both common law and equity are the product of decisions in the courts made by judges who interpret and apply previous cases based on the doctrine of binding precedent.∙This doctrine provides that once a principle of law has been decided, it becomes a precedent which binds the lower courts in cases with materially the same facts.∙If the facts of the case are not materially the same as those of the relevant precedent, the precedent may be ‘distinguished’ and not be followed.∙Only statements of law made by judges can form precedent.∙These statements can be divided into ratio decidendi and obiter dicta.∙Only the ratio decidendi forms the basis of precedent as it is this reasoning which is vital to his decision.∙Obiter dicta are statements of general law (or hypothetical situations) which are not necessary for the decision and hence are not binding.∙Whether the doctrine applies will depend on the status of the court dealing with the case.There is a hierarchy of courts with the lower courts being bound to follow thedecisions of the higher courts.∙For example, magistrates’ courts and county courts are bound by the decision of the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom.2. DOCTRINE OF PRECEDENTThe doctrine of binding precedent∙The doctrine of binding precedent, or stare decisis, is essential to the English legal system.∙This doctrine provides that once a principle of law has been decided in court, it becomes a precedent which binds the lower courts in cases with materially the samefacts.∙The purpose of the doctrine is to provide consistency, coherency and therefore predictablity and fairness in the development of the case law.Judgements∙ A judgement in a case will start with a description of the facts and probably a review of earlier precedents.∙Then the judge will make statements of law applicable to the legal problems raised by the material facts.∙These statements can be divided into ratio decidendi and obiter dicta.Ratio dicidendi∙Only a proposition(论点，主张) of law, rather than a statement of fact, will be binding.∙Ratio dicidendi can be difined as ‘any rule of law, express or implied, treated by a judge as a necessary step in reaching his conclusion, having regard to the line of reasoning adopted by him, o r a necessary part of his direction to the jury. ‘ (Cross)Obiter dicta∙Obiter dicta are statements of general law (or hypothetical situations) which are not necessary for the decision in the case.∙The obiter dicta are of persusive authority only and do not bind lower court. They may be taken into account but need not be followed.Difference between them∙The ratio decidendi forms the basis of precedent as it is this reasoning which is vital to judge’s decision.∙It is not always easy to distinguish between the ratio decidendi and the obiter dicta.Judges do not always make clear in their comments whether a particular statement orconclusion is ratio or obiter. Indeed, in a case heard by more than one judge, each judge may provide a different ratio decidendi in support of a common decision.The hierarchy of the courts in relation to the operation of precedent(a) the Supreme Court for the United Kindom – binds all lower courts but itself(exceptional cases)(b) Court of Appeal–binds all lower courts and itself(c) High CourtJudge sitting alone – binds all lower courts not divisional courtsJudges sitting together – binds all lower courts and divisional courts(d) CrownMagistrates–bind no-one at allCountyMagis trates’, County and Crown Courts∙Decisions of the Magistrates’ Courts and County Courts do not consititute precedent and thereofore not bind on any court, but each of them is bound by decisions of the High Court, Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom.∙The Crown Court is also bound by the superior courts and its decisions are of persuasive authority only.High court∙ A decision of the High Court made by an individual judge binds all lower courts, but not another High Court judge. However, it is of persuasive authority and tends to befollowed in practice.∙ A decison of Divisional Court usually binds another divisional court.Court of Appeal∙Decisions of the Court of Appeal binds all English courts except the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom.∙The court is normally bound by its own previous majority and unanimous (意见一致的) decisions, and by those of the Supreme Court for the United Kingdom.The Supreme Court for the United Kingdom∙The Supreme Court for the United Kingdom stands at the apex of the English judicial system. Its decisions binds all other English courts.∙Itself is bound by its own previous decisions, but it reserves the rights to depart from its own precedents in exceptional cases, although this is rarely exercised.Reversing, overruling and distinguishingPrecedent∙ A precedent is a previous court decision which another court is bound to follow by deciding a subsequent case in the same way.∙In certain circumstances, a judge may not wish to follow an previous decision and it may be open to them to reverse, overrule or distinguish the precedent.Reverse∙When the decision of a lower court is appealled to a higher one, the higher court may reverse the decision if they feel the lower court has wrongly interpreted the law. Theoriginal decision cannot form a precedent.∙For example, if the Court of Appeal reverse the decision of the High Court, the first decision cannot be a precedent but the reversed decision can.∙When a decision is reversed, the higher court is usually also overruling the lower court’s statement of the law.Overrule∙Higher courts may overrule the decisions of lower courts, depriving (剥夺) their precedent status, if they disagree with the lower court’s statement of law.∙Overruling involves an earlier case, rather than a case which is the subject of an appeal.∙When a decision is overruled, the law is changed with retrospective effect. Judges are usually cautious before overruling a long-standing precedent, but this is sometimesnecessary, for example where what is acceptable within a particular society changes. Distinguishing∙For a precedent to be followed, the facts of the previous case and the case under consideration must be materially the same.∙If not, the precedent may be ‘distinguished’ and not followed.3. THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DOCTRINEAdvantagesCertainty∙Law is decided fairly and predictably.∙The need for costly and time-consuming litigation can be avoided.∙The doctrine also gives guidance to the judges and leads to consistency in decisions from different judges in different courts and in different parts of the country.Clarity∙The doctrine gives rise to a healthy source of statements of legal principle that can helpfully and clearly be applied to new cases generally.∙This leads to a saving of time for all concerned, it don’t need to be put before the courts and argued again.Flexibility∙The doctrine allows the law to grow and be developed in accordance with changing needs and circumstances of society.∙It also allows a much more flexible judge-made law than Parliament-enacted legislation. PracticalityFaineasDisvantages∙Bulk.∙Restricts judicial discretion.∙reactive system.∙Lack of democratic accountability.4. LEGISLATION AS A SOURCE OF LAW AND ITS ADVANTAGES∙Statute law is made by Parliament.∙Parliament may make law as it sees fit – it may repeal(撤销) earlier statutes, overrule case law or make law in new areas previously unregulated.∙The validity of an Act of Parliament cannot be questioned. ( Cheney v Conn 1968).∙However, this principle of Parliamentary sovereignty[ˈsɔvərɪnti:](最高统治权、君权) has been reduced somewhat by the UK’s membership of the European Union whichrequires its law to be brought into line with the EU’s treaties and directives.∙Additionally, the Human Rights Act 1998 requires new laws to be compatible with the European Convention on Human Right.∙Statute law may be fresh legislation or may be a consolidation of existing statutes and their amendment, for example the Company Act 2006.∙It may also be a codification (法律汇编) of existing statute and case law, for example the Sale of Goods Act 1979.∙The courts are bound to apply relevant statute law and cannot disregard or rewrite it.∙Whatever the nature of the legislation, the role of judges to interpret and apply it is the same.∙Judicial interpretation (司法解释) might be needed because of ambiguity in drafting or uncertainty as to whether a particular set of facts are within the scope of a statute, orwhere unforeseeable developments have occurred since the statute was passed.∙The complexity of modern legislation makes a great deal of details which cannot be easily included in an Act.∙Therefore, powers may be given to a minister or a public body to make laws for specified purpose in the form of statutory instruments, bye-law and Rules of Court.∙Such delegated legislation has the same effect as the empowering act itself. Advantages∙They can in theory deal with any problem∙They are carefully constructed codes of law∙New problems in society or unwelcome development can be dealt with quickly∙Reponsive to public opinion as parliament is elected at least every five years5. DELEGATED LEGISLATION∙The complexity of modern legislation makes a great deal of details which cannot be easily included in an Act.∙Therefore, powers may be given to a minister or public body to make laws for specified purpose in the form of statutory instruments, bye-law and Rules of Court.∙The legislation sets out the broad objective and purpose of the Act, leaving the detail to be delegated to individuals or bodies outside Parliament.∙Such delegated legislation has the same effect as the empowering act itself.There are various forms of delegated legislation∙Statutory instruments: these are made by government minister who has delegated the relevant powers.∙Bye-laws: these are made by local authorities and apply within a specific locality∙Rules of court: these may be made by the judiciary (法官) to control court procedure.∙Orders in council: these are often made by the Privy Council (枢密院).∙Professional rules: Parliament also gives powers to various professional bodies to regulate the conduct of its members.The control over the delegated legislationAs delegated legislation is often created by unelected individuals and bodies, there are controls over it.∙It may have to be approved by an affirmative resolution of Parliament and/or be laid before Parliament for 40 days before it takes effect.∙It may be challeged in the courts. Firstly, on the ground that Parliament exceeded its authority to delegate and has acted ultra vires, or secondly, the lagislation has beenmade without the correct procedure.∙There are standing (永久的，常设的) Scrutiny Committees (检查委员会) of both Houses whose duty is to examine delegated legislation from a technical point of view and theymay raise objections if necessary. However, they have no authority to its nature orcontent.∙The Human Rights Act 1998 gives courts power to strike out any delegated lagislation that runs contrary to the HRA.Advantages∙Volume of work. Delegated legislation enables Parliament to concentrate on the broader principles of the legislative framework, rather than getting bogged down indetails.∙Speed. Delegated legislation enables new laws to be passed much more quickly, especially advantageous in times of emergency.∙Flexibility. Delegated legislation enables great flexibility, because regulations can be altered later without the need to revert to (回到) Parliament.∙Expertise. The subject of new legislation is often highly detailed, technical and complex. It therefore makes sense for the exact content, and the wording（措辞） isarrived at by consultation with professional, commercial or industrial groups outsideParliament who have the relevant expertise.∙Tider primary legislation. The primary legislation is more concise (精炼) because the details are left to other delegated legislation documentation(程序说明书). Disadvantages:∙Volume. The volume of delegated legislation means that it can become difficult for Parliment ( and others) to keep track of the effect of the legislation.∙Unconstitutional.（违反宪法的) Although Parliament is ultimately responsible for the legislation, it is likely that much of the detail has actually been drafted and finalised by individual ministers or by civil servants. Since civil servants are unelected, the degree to which law-making powers should be delegated to them is a matter for some debate. 6. STATUTORY INTERPRETATIONLegislation must be interpreted correctly before judges can apply it fairly. In order to determine the meaning of such legislation, the court will apply a number of well-established rules and principles to interpret the statute.∙Literal rule: The literal rule requires the words to be given their literal and grammatical meaning rather than what the judges think they mean.∙Golden rule: The golden rule expands the literal rule. It requires the words to be given their plain, ordinary and literal meaning unless this would give rise to manifest (明显的) absurdity(谬论) or inconsistency with the rest of the statute.∙Mischief rule: Under the mischief rule, a judges considers what mischief (损害) the Act .Where a statute is designed to remedy a weakness in the law, the correct interpretation is the one that achieves it.∙Purposive approach : It requires the words to be given not only their ordinary, literal and grammatical meaning, but also with reference to the context and purpose of thelegislation.∙Ejusdem generis (同类) : Where general words follow specific words, the general words must be interpreted by reference to(参考) the specific words used.7. HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998The Articles of the European Convention on Human Rights have now been enshrined(铭记) into English law as the Human Right Act 1998, enacted in 2000. The main provisions are: ∙The right to life∙The right to property∙The right to education∙The right to marry∙The right to a fair trial∙The right to liberty and security∙The right to free elections.∙The right to respect for privacy, family life∙Freedom of thought, conscience and religion∙Freedom of expression, assembly and association∙No punishment without law∙No discrimination in rightsThe Act binds the pubilc authorities∙The Act binds the pubilc authorities, which can be defined as bodies undertaking functions of a public nature, including government departments, local authorities, courts and schools.Non-government individuals or bodies can rely on the actImpact on UK law∙The main impact of the HRA1998 on UK law is that UK courts are now required to interpret UK law in a way that is compatible with the Convention. It means that a courtmust take into account the previous decisions of the European Court of Human Rights.∙If a court feels that a provision of primary legislation ( ie an Act of Parliament) is incompatible with the Convention, it can make a declaration of incompatibility. It is thenup to the Government to take action to remedy the incompatibility.Chapter 3 Offer and AcceptanceNature of a contractFORMATION & NATURE OF A CONTRACTAgreement Intention ConsiderationThe first essential element in the formation of a binding contract is agreement. This is ususlly evidenced by offer and acceptance.1. OFFER∙In the law of contract, an offer is a definite promise to another to be bound on specific terms. It is capable of (能够) acceptance so as to form a binding contract.∙An offer cannot be in vague terms, for example a promise to buy a horse if it is ‘lucky’ (Gunthing v Lynn 1831).∙An offer can be made to an individual, a class of persons or to the world at large and it can be accepted by the conduct of the offeree ( Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co 1893).∙Once an offer has been accepted, a binding contract is created. Either party may legally enforce the promise of the other.∙Ture offers must be distinguished from a mere supply of information and statement of intention.Supply of information∙ A mere supply of information is not an offer, because there is no intention to be bound.∙For example, stating the minimum price that one would consider if a sale were to be agreed does not make an offer ( Harvey v Facey 1893).Statement of intention∙Similarly, a mere statement of intention is not an offer neither.∙For example, advertising that an event such as an auction will take place does not make an offer. (Harris v Nickerson 1873).∙Only the offer made with the intention that it shall become binding when accepted may form a binding contract.2. INVITATION TO TREAT∙An invitation to treat is an indication that someone is prepared to receive offers with the intention to form a binding contract.∙There is no binding contract until this offer is made and, in turn , accepted.Case law has established a number of accepted principles to determine whether a statement is an offer or merely an invitation to treat.Advertisements∙An advertisement of goods for sale is usually an attempt to induce offers (Partridge v Crittenden 1968)∙However, in limited circumstances, words of an advertisement can be an offer made to the whole world (Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. 1893)Display of goods in a shop window∙In Fisher v Bell 1961, a shopkeeper was prosecuted for offering for sale an offensive weapon by exhibiting a flick knife in the shop window.∙It was held that this was not an offer for sale, but an invitation to treatExhibitions of goods in a self –service shop∙In Pharmaceutical Society of G.B. v Boots Cash Chemists 1952, the chemists exhibited various goods on self-service shelves.∙It was held that this was not an offer for sale, but an invitation to treat. Customers took up the invitation by taking the goods to the cash point, thereby making an offer to buy which was accepted by the shopkeeper.Auction sales（拍卖）∙An auctioneer’s request for bid is not an offer to sell to the highest bidder, but an invitation to treat.∙The bid itself is an offer, which the auctioneer is then free to accept or reject ( Payne v Cave 1789).Invitations for tenders (竞标)∙An invitation to tender is not an offer to contract with the party offering the lowest price, but an invitation to treat.∙The tender itself is an offer, which the person who issued the invitation is then free to accept or reject.3. ACCEPTANCE OF AN OFFERACCEPTANCE∙Valid acceptance of a valid offer is one of the essencials of a contract∙An acceptance must be an unqualified (无条件的) agreement to the terms of the offer.∙Acceptance is generally not effective until communicated to the offeror, except where the ‘postal rule’ applies.∙ A purported acceptance which introduces any new terms is a counter-offer, which has the effect of terminating the original offer ( Hyde v Wrench 1840).Request for information∙ A response to an offer which is actually a request for further information will not form an acceptance.Acceptance ‘ subject to contract’∙Acceptance ‘ subject to contract’ means that the offeree is agreeable to the terms of the offer but proposes that the parties should negotiate a formal contract.∙Neither party is bound until the formal contract is signed.Letters of intent (LOI 合作意向书)∙ A letter of intent is a strong indication given by one party to another to say that he is likely to place a contract with him.Method of acceptance∙The acceptance of an offer is made by a person authorised to do so, usually the offeree or his authorised agent.∙The acceptance may be by express words or be inferred from conduct (Brogden v Metropolitan Rly Co 1877).∙In some circumstance (Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co 1893), performance of the act required by the offer or advertisement consititutes an acceptacne.∙There must be some act on the part of the offeree since passive inaction or silence is not capable of acceptance ( Felthose v Bindley 1862).The communication of acceptance∙Acceptance is generally not effective until communicated to the offeror, except where the ‘postal rule’ applies, or the offeror waives the need for communication.∙The offeror may specify the sole means of communication, in which case only compliance with their terms will suffice （满足……的需要）.∙If the offeror specifies a means of communication but does not make it absolutely compulsory, then acceptance by another means which is equally expeditious and does。
Uncovering the Weapons and Tactics of the Past
Uncovering the Weapons and Tactics ofthe PastUncovering the Weapons and Tactics of the Past The study of ancient weapons and tactics provides us with a fascinating glimpse into the strategies and technologies employed by our ancestors in times of conflict. From the rudimentary tools of early humans to the sophisticated weaponry of ancient civilizations, the evolution of warfare reflects the ingenuity and resourcefulness of human societies throughout history. By delving into the past, we can gain valuable insights into the challenges and innovations that have shaped the art of war. One of the most compelling aspects of uncovering the weapons and tactics of the past is the opportunity to examine the ingenuity and craftsmanship of ancient civilizations. From the bronze weapons of the ancient Greeks to the iron swords of the Roman legions, each era and culture left its unique imprint on the evolution of weaponry. The meticulous craftsmanship and attention to detail evident in these artifacts speak to the skill and dedication of the craftsmen who forged them. By studying these ancient weapons, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the technological achievements of our forebears and the significance of their contributions to the development of warfare. Moreover, the study of ancient weapons and tactics offers valuable insights into the strategies and tactics employed by past civilizationsin times of conflict. The analysis of historical battles and military campaigns provides a window into the decision-making processes of ancient commanders and the factors that influenced their choices. By examining the tactics and maneuvers used in ancient warfare, we can gain a better understanding of the challenges and complexities faced by military leaders in different historical contexts. This, in turn, can inform our own approaches to strategic thinking and decision-making in contemporary conflicts. Furthermore, the exploration of ancient weapons andtactics allows us to appreciate the human cost of warfare throughout history. Behind every weapon and battle strategy lies a human story – the lives lost, the families torn apart, and the enduring impact of conflict on societies. By acknowledging the human dimension of ancient warfare, we can cultivate a greater sense of empathy and understanding for the experiences of those who lived in thepast. This, in turn, can foster a more nuanced and compassionate perspective on the nature of war and its far-reaching consequences. In addition, the study of ancient weapons and tactics can inspire a sense of awe and wonder at the achievements of past civilizations. The sheer diversity and innovation evident in the array of ancient weaponry reflect the boundless creativity and adaptability of human societies across time and space. From the chariots of ancient Egypt to the siege engines of the medieval period, the ingenuity of ancient engineers and craftsmen continues to captivate and inspire us. By immersing ourselves in the world of ancient weapons, we can gain a renewed appreciation for the rich tapestry of human history and the remarkable feats of engineering and design that have shaped our world. In conclusion, the exploration of ancient weapons and tactics offers us a multifaceted lens through which to view the complexities of human history. By delving into the technological, strategic, and human dimensions of ancient warfare, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the ingenuity, resourcefulness, and resilience of past civilizations. Moreover, the study of ancient weapons and tactics can serve as a source of inspiration and reflection, prompting us to consider the enduring impact of warfare on human societies and the lessons we can glean from the experiences of our ancestors. As we continue to uncover the weapons and tactics of the past, we are afforded a unique opportunity to connect with the legacy of those who came before us and to gain valuable insights that can inform our understanding of the present and the future.。
Home alone, and in danger
均是精品，欢迎下载学习！！！欢迎下载百度文库资源Home Alone, and in DangerFor anyone who has ever worked in an emergency room, the presentation is all too familiar. The ambulance brings in a patient who is stuporious and dehydrated, often with decubitus ulcers and covered with feces and urine. No one knows of any family members, and the only accompanying medical information is "found at home."At times physicians seem to dislike caring for such patients.Their feelings range from embarrassment to hostility. Sometimes the patient is referred to demeaningly as "goner," "failure to thrive," "social problem," or worse.These reactions are not only unprofessional but also sad and ironic. As a report in this issue documents,1helplessness is a true medical emergency.It is so common that it will probably happen to someone in our own families, or perhaps even to us if we manage to live far enough into old age.In a study based on data from the San Francisco emergency-services department and hospital records, Gurley et al. determined the outcomes of patients who lived alone and were "found down" —that is, found on the floor, immobilized and unable to get up or even to reach a telephone. The three-month study, reported in this issue of the Journal,1identified 367 such patients seen by the emergency-medical-services personnel. the authors summarized some grim facts (see their Table 2). Some people were on the floor for several days.Ninety were found dead.Some of these had been terminally ill, but they spent their final hours isolated and helpless. Some of the deaths may have been inevitable, but many were due to dehydration, hypothermia,and infection that could have been prevented or treated. Altogether, the most common precipitating events for being "found down"were stroke, acute cardiac disease, and physical injury, mainly from falls.In about a quarter of the patients, there were underlying problems involving alcoholism, illicit-drug use, or major psychiatric illness. Although poverty clearly increases the risks of disease and disability, most of the patients in this study were not impoverished but in the middle class. Many lived in comfortable neighborhoods.Seventy percent of those over 65 years old had supplemental private health insurance in addition to Medicare.In the emergency room all these patients may look similar, and there is a tendency for health professionals wrongly to attribute human misery to social deviancy. In fact, only a minority of the emergencies described resulted from self-destructive behavior.Most of the patients were guilty of nothing more than being ill and weak and living alone.The consequences of being "found down" are serious. Most of the patients were admitted to the hospital, and half required intensive care. Only a third of those who were hospitalized survived to return home. Slightly over half were discharged instead to nursing homes or other forms of long-term care. Ten percent died in the hospital. Although it is hard to find in textbooks or the medical school curriculum, this clinical problem is remarkably common.For those 65 or older who live alone,the risk of being found helpless or dead in the home is 3.2 percent per year, which is about the same as the combined risks of myocardial infarction and stroke.2 Since in this country9.5 million older people live alone, one can estimate that each year about 300,000 older Americans have a crisis at home of the type this study describes. If anything, the data of Gurley et al. underestimate the magnitude of the problem.For case finding they relied on calls to emergency services.Sometimes, immobilized people eventually get help without a call for an ambulance. Even those who live with family members are at risk, since for many hours they too may be home alone.The three-month study began in March, so it did not include the months when the danger is even greater owing to extremes of hot or cold weather. Also not included were persons who were found only after they had been dead so long that the call was not for an ambulance but for an undertaker.What can be done to reduce the complications, expense, and suffering that result when vulnerable people who live alone become unable to function? For problems such as cardiopulmonary arrest or addictive, self-destructive behavior, effective intervention is very difficult, but those conditions account for only a minority of the cases. Critics are quick to recommend that chronically ill and elderly people should live with their families. Such recommendations can be naive.The constraints of work, finances,and location limit what families can do, and many patients have no close family members. Moreover, many who live alone cherish their independence and want to remain in their own homes. Home care can help, but it is expensive and usually means no more than a few hours of care per week. All impaired or elderly patients who live alone need a plan to protect their safety.A home visit by a nurse or physical or occupational therapist is a good way to begin. People can check on each other. Physicians should encourage preventive measures and help patients recognize the need for them, especially when depression and denial interfere.For physically frail patients, programs of vigorous exercise can improve both function and safety.4Well-designed interventions can reduce the risk of falls.5What about those small, portable, electronic-alert devices?Only a single patient in the San Francisco study had one. These systems cost money and require some planning before there is a crisis. The device must be kept in reach, and the patient must remain alert and functional enough to use it. But this simple device can help, and physicians should be recommending it for more patients.Isolation can be dangerous. Each year over a quarter of elderly people have at least one fall.6,7 In 90 percent of the falls there is no major injury, but half the time the person is unable to get up. And 3 percent of the time, the person remains on the floor for over 20 minutes. Getting help is easier for those who live in special housing for the elderly because there is more surveillance for people in trouble. Those who live alone in single-family homes are at the most peril. Their cries may not be heard. Help is distant. Even a telephone can be far from reach. Sometimes it is the letter carrier who first suspects that something is wrong.The best solution to the dangers of isolation is the obvious one: being part of a community that will respond. Assisted-living facilities that are designed for functionally impaired people encourage communication and promote both independence and safety.What we need is not more nursing homes but well-designed communities that work and that people want to join and can afford. Intercoms,call systems, communal meals and recreation programs, and systems for checking on people lead to responses to problems before they become medical emergencies.Our best models are from the hospice movement and life-care communities. Physicians should become advocates for the development of living facilities that can help those who are weak and alone and in danger. Our primary motivation should be not to save society money but to offer better alternatives for those in need.8 No one should have to live life alone. And no one should face death alone.Edward W. Campion, M.D.References1.Gurley RJ, Lum N, Sande M, Lo B, Katz MH. Persons found in their homes helpless or dead. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1710-1716.2.Cohen RA, Van Nostrand JF. Trends in the health of older Americans: United States, 1994. Vital and health statistics. Series3. No. 30.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1995. (DHHS publication no. (PHS) 95-1414.)3.Bureau of the Census. Marital status and living arrangements: March 1992. Current population reports. Series P-20. No. 468.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992.4.Fiatarone MA, O'Neill EF, Ryan ND, et al. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people.N Engl J Med 1994;330:1769-1775.5.Tinetti ME, Baker DI, McAvay G, et al. A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in thecommunity. N Engl J Med 1994;331:821-827.6.King MB, Tinetti ME. Falls in community-dwelling older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995;43:1146-1154.7.Wolinsky FD, Johnson RJ, Fitzgerald JF. Falling, health status, and the use of health services by older adults: a prospective study.Med Care 1992;30:587-597.8.Galbraith JK. The good society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996.。
Applications and Reaction Conditions For Restriction Enzymes
Applications and Reaction Conditions ForRestriction EnzymesStandard Restriction Enzyme ReactionsA. REACTION CONDITIONSB. SINGLE RESTRICTION ENZYME DIGESTSEach restriction enzyme has optimal reaction (assay) conditions and different conditions for long term storage. The recommended assay and storage conditions are both determined by the manufacturer to provide the user with the highest activity, best fidelity and greatest stability for each enzyme. Factors that must be considered include temperature, pH, enzyme cofactors, salt composition, ionic strength and stabilizers. Promega restriction enzyme Reaction Buffers are designed to provide the best balance of optimal activity and convenience. Promega storage buffers have been designed after accelerated and real time/real temperature stability experiments. All enzyme storage conditions are validated through our Quality Assurance re-assay program to maximize long term stability.Setting up digests with a single restriction enzyme is relatively straightforward. However, digests using multiple enzymes that have different buffer requirements may demand the use of alternative buffers and may require adjustments in the number of units of enzyme used. Table 3.1 lists the relative activities of restriction enzymes in Promega 10X Reaction Buffers. Alternatively, use the interactive search function of this guide to identifycompatible buffers. If no compatible buffer can be found a sequential reaction may be performed in which additional buffer or salt is added to the reaction before the second enzyme, or each digest may be performed sequentially using the optimal buffers. The latter option will require either a DNA precipitation or purification step after the first digest. Regardless of the type of digest performed, the addition of BSA is recommended to stabilize the enzyme and enhance activity (1) (2) .pH: Most restriction enzymes are used between pH 7.2 and pH 8.5 as measured at the temperature ofincubation. pH values outside of the optimal range may lead to star activity .Mg 2+: Commercially available restriction enzymes require Mg 2+ as the only cofactor. Restriction enzymeactivities are relatively insensitive to the Mg 2+ concentration; similar rates are observed from 5-30mM. The presence of other divalent metal ions, especially Mn 2+, may lead to star activity .Salt Concentration: Restriction enzymes are diverse in their response to ionic strength. Most are stimulated by 50-150mM NaCl or KCl while others are inhibited by salt concentrations higher than 20mM. A few enzymes prefer acetate to chloride anions. Suboptimal ionic strength or type of ion may lead to star activity .BSA: Bovine Serum Albumin is used in restriction enzyme storage buffers and is added to digestion reactions to stabilize the enzyme. BSA can protect restriction enzymes from proteases, non- specific adsorption and harmful environmental factors such as heat, surface tension and interfering substances. Typically, the addition of0.1mg/ml BSA will result in a 1.5 to 6-fold enhancement of enzyme activity. The Acetylated BSA provided with Promega's restriction enzymes has been modified and extensively tested to ensure that no degrading activities are present.Glycerol: Glycerol is added to restriction enzyme storage buffers to prevent freezing at -20°C. Repeatedfreeze/thawing of restriction enzymes can reduce their activity. Some restriction enzymes show reducedspecificity, or increased star activity , when the glycerol concentration in the final reaction is higher than 5% although many have normal specificity at glycerol concentrations as high as 10%.Incubation Temperature: Most restriction enzymes show maximum activity at 37°C. A few enzymes require higher or lower temperatures for optimal activity (e.g., Taq I, 65°C; Sma I, 25°C). For incubations greater than 1 hour with high temperature enzymes, cover the reactions with a drop of mineral oil to prevent evaporation. Generally, the incubation temperature for the enzyme reflects the growth temperature of the bacterial strain from which it is derived. For enzymes that have temperature optima other than 37°C, Promega provides information on percent activity at 37°C on the Product Information sheet that is packaged with each enzyme. This type of information is particularly useful when performing double digests.Volume: Viscous DNA solutions inhibit enzyme diffusion and can reduce enzyme activity. DNA concentrations that are too dilute can fall below the K m of the restriction enzyme and also affect enzyme activity. Volumeconsiderations must take into account final ionic strength and must result in glycerol concentrations no higher than 5-10% in order to avoid star activity. Reaction volumes of 10-50µl per microgram of DNA are recommended.An analytical restriction enzyme reaction is usually performed in a volume of approximately 20µl on 0.2-1.5µg of substrate DNA using a 2- to 10-fold excess of enzyme over DNA, based on unit definition. Use of an unusually large volume of DNA or enzyme may give aberrant results. Caution should be exercised to prevent higher than1.Under sterile conditions add the following components, in the order stated, to a sterile microcentrifugetube.2.Mix gently by pipetting. Centrifuge briefly at 12,000 x g in a micro centrifuge to collect the contents at thebottom of the tube.3.Incubate at the optimum temperature for 1-4 hours. 4.Add 4µl of Blue/Orange 6X Loading Dye (or another appropriate DNA loading buffer), and proceed to gelanalysis.C. MULTIPLE RESTRICTION ENZYME DIGESTSe the optimal buffer supplied with one enzyme if the activity of the second enzyme is acceptable in thatsame buffer. Alternatively, acceptable activity for both enzymes may be achieved by using another ofPromega’s 4-CORE ® 10X Buffers(Cat.# R9921). If one of the enzymes has less than 75% activity in thechosen buffer, the reaction time or the number of units of enzyme used may need to be increased. Beaware of possible star activity under non-optimal reaction conditions (see Table 3.1 or use the interactivesearch function of this guide to identify compatible buffers).2.Choose an isoschizomer or neoschizomer with more compatible buffer requirements. 3.Perform a single digest with the first enzyme then inactivate that enzyme. Add the ingredients necessaryfor the second digest then add the second enzyme. For example, use a lower salt buffer and enzyme first,then inactivate the first enzyme, add enough salt to achieve the concentration required for the seconddigest, and add the second restriction enzyme.D. EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLSnormal concentrations of EDTA and glycerol. The following is an example of a typical analytical single restrictionenzyme digestion:Sterile, nuclease-free water14µl Restriction enzyme 10X buffer2µl BSA, Acetylated (1mg/ml)2µl DNA sample 0.2-1µg, in water or TE buffer1µl Restriction enzyme, 2-10U1µl Final volume 20µlLarger scale restriction enzyme digestions can be accomplished by scaling this basic reaction proportionately.If all of the restriction enzymes in a multiple digest have the same optimal buffer, setting up the digest isstraightforward. However, when this is not the case, several options are available.Note: Perform each digest sequentially using the optimal buffers. This will require either a DNA precipitation orpurification step after the first digest. Although this procedure involves more steps than those listed above, insituations where options 1-3 are not satisfactory, it may be the best alternative.Some common controls used for restriction enzyme digestion and gel analysis are given in Table 2.1.Table 2.1. Restriction Enzyme Reaction ControlsRestriction Enzyme Digest ControlsControl: Untreated DNA controlStrategyPurpose DNA is loaded on gel with no treatment otherthan the addition of loading buffer. Shows the integrity of the DNA starting material. Nicked, linear and supercoiled forms of plasmid DNA are normally seen in untreatedsamples.Control: No enzyme ControlStrategyPurpose A mock digest is run parallel with theexperimental digest, except that no enzyme isadded. The missing volume is made up withpares DNA digests with and without enzyme. Detects changes that may occur independent of enzyme such as exonuclease contamination in the DNA or in one of the reaction components.Control: Enzyme activity checkStrategy PurposePerform a control digest using the unitdefinition DNA (usually lambda) andconditions as described in the PromegaProduct Information sheet.Confirms enzyme activity.Control: DNA substrate control and general enzyme digest control Strategy PurposeSet up the following parallel digests:1.Perform a digestion as described inthe unit definition for the enzyme butusing the experimentally derived DNAinstead of control DNA. Adjust thenumber of enzyme units based onrecognition site density.2.Perform the experimental digest,replacing the experimental DNA withthe same quantity of commercialquality DNA (usually lambda DNA).Adjust the number of enzyme unitsbased on recognition site density. Compares activity of the enzyme under experimental conditions using standard DNA and experimental DNA under standard conditions. Tests for possible problems with substrate DNA such as impurity, missing recognition sites, methylation, etc. Can be used to assay for the function of other reagents used in the enzyme digest. If an inhibitor is suspected in the DNA solution, a set of digests comparing experimental DNA, control DNA and a combination of the two may also be performed. In most cases, the presence of an inhibitor will "poison" the control reaction when both are combined.Gel Analysis ControlsControl: One molecular weight (MW) markerStrategy PurposeOne or two lanes of an electrophoresis gel should always be devoted to size standards and used for comparison with unknowns. This assures that a standard exists for:1.Determining the distance samples have run in the gel.2.Measuring the sizes of unknown fragments.3.Repeatedly seeing a familiar pattern of known andstandardized MW.Control: Two different MW markersStrategy PurposeTwo different size markers provide much more information than one. Two sets of data points give greater accuracy during graphing of data points for MW measurements (by comparison with the mobility of the standards). Lane-to-lane variation may also be detected if two standards are used but they migrate differently. A greater range of size standards permits more accurate size estimation, and allows identification of conformational effects on mobility as well as electrophoretic variability.Anomalous mobility due to differences in the quantity of sample loaded may also be detected.Control: Load two different quantities of the same MW marker on the gel Strategy PurposeMass per band control: Loading two different quantities of the same size marker will yield important information about mobility shifts due to mass per band differences.Allows detection of mass effects on mobility. Also may show lane-to-lane variation during gel electrophoresis.Control: Salt effects controlStrategy PurposeRun markers beside unknown with and without the salt contained in the experimental digest.Detects any gel retardation that may occur due to the presence of high salt concentrations in sample.Control: Markers of known mass are run in a dilution series1.Williams, R., Kline, M. and Smith, R. (1996) BSA and restriction enzyme digestions. Promega Notes 59,46.2.Lepinske, M. (1996) BSA and restriction enzyme digestions. Promega Notes 60, 28.Restriction Enzyme ActivityStrategyPurpose Bands of similar MW are chosen in markerand experimental lanes. The mass of theband in question is compared to a controlbased on its staining intensity. It is crucial thatmany dilutions are run side-by-side in order toachieve the most accurate visual comparison. The quantity of an unknown DNA sample may be assessed in this manner or used to confirm a result obtained by spectrophotometry.References Back to topRestriction enzymes differ in their reaction kinetics. As a result, variations from the recommended incubationtime, number of units used, substrate amount, and/or total reaction volume should be considered carefully toensure complete digestion. The following table gives an indication of the activity of Promega blue/white cloning-qualified and genome-qualified restriction enzymes under varying reaction conditions. Variations in the number ofenzyme units used and the reaction incubation times were tested. In each case the reaction volume (50µl) andthe amount/type of DNA substrate (1µg) were the same as that used in the unit definition assay. Incubation timefor the unit definition assay is one hour.Table 2.2. Restriction Enzyme Activity under Nonstandard Units and Incubation Time Conditions.EnzymeReaction Time and Number of Units Used 15 min.4 units 15 min. 2 units 15 min. 1 unit 30 min. 2 units 1 hr 1 unit 2 hr 0.5 units 4 hr 0.25 unitsAatII C I I C C C CAccI C C C C C C IAcc65I C I I C C II ApaI C I I C C C CAvaI C C I C C C CBamHI C C I C C I IBbuI C I I I C C CBcl I C I I C C C CBgl I C I I C C C CBstXI C I I C C C CBstZI I I I C C C CClaI C I I C C C CCspI C I I C C I ICsp45I C I I C C CC Eco52I C I I C C I IEcoRI C I I C C C CEcoRV C I I C C CC Hi II C I I C C C CRestriction Enzyme Substrate ConsiderationsA. SUBSTRATE SOURCE AND STRUCTUREHincII C I I C C C CHindIII C I I I C C CKpnI C I I C C C CMluI C I I C C C CNcoI C I I C C C CNheI C I I C C C CNotI C I I C C C INsiI C I I C C C CPstI C I I C C C CSacI C I I C C C CSacII C I I C C C CSal I C C C C C C ISfiI C I I C C C CSmaI C C I C C C CSpeI C I I C C I ISphI C C C C C I ISspI C I I C C C CStyI C I I C C I IXbaI C I I C C C CXhoI C I I C C C CXmaI C I I C C C C"C" indicates complete cleavage; "I" indicates incomplete cleavage for the units and incubation times shown. Back to topSubstrates commonly used for restriction enzyme digestion include phage DNA, plasmid DNA, genomic DNA,PCR products and double-stranded oligonucleotides. The concentration of the DNA sample can influence thesuccess of a restriction digestion. Viscous DNA solutions, resulting from large amounts of DNA in too small of avolume, can inhibit diffusion and can significantly reduce enzyme activity (1) . DNA concentrations that are toolow also may inhibit enzyme activity (see Substrate Quality ). Typical K m values for restriction enzymes arebetween 1nM and 10nM, and are template-dependent (2) . Recommended final DNA concentrations for digestionrange from 0.02-0.2µg/µl. Substrate structural variations, concentration and special considerations are discussedbelow according to DNA type.Lambda DNA: Lambda DNA is a linear DNA that is an industry standard for the measurement and expression ofunit activity for most restriction enzymes. In general, one unit is sufficient to cut 1µg of lambda DNA in 1 hourunder optimal reaction conditions in a reaction volume of 50µl. In lambda DNA, the cos ends, (12-base,complimentary, single-stranded overhangs at the end of each molecule) may re-anneal during digestion. Thiscan give the appearance that digestion is incomplete. To avoid this problem, heat the DNA at 65°C for 5 minutesprior to electrophoresis to melt ends that have annealed.Plasmid DNA: Circular, supercoiled plasmid DNA typically ranges from 3-10kb in size. Compared to linear DNA,plasmids often require more units of restriction enzyme for complete cleavage due to the supercoiling (1) or thetotal number of sites to be digested (see Recognition Site Density ). See Digestion of Supercoiled Plasmid DNAfor information on the relative units needed for complete cleavage of a typical plasmid vector with commoncloning enzymes. If a supercoiled plasmid is first linearized with another restriction enzyme or relaxed with topoisomerase, less enzyme may be needed for digestion.Genomic DNA: Digestion of genomic DNA can be difficult due to methylation and viscosity. If methylation is a concern, consider using isochizomers with different methylation sensitivities (see Methylation Sensitivity of Isoshizomer/Neoschizomer Pairs). Viscosity can be adjusted by increasing the reaction volume. Genomic DNA often digests more efficiently when it is diluted to a minimum concentration of 10µg per 50-200µl. If this is not possible, heating the DNA at 65ºC for ten minutes prior to the addition of the restriction enzyme can enhance activity (3) . Addition of spermidine to final concentration of 1-5mM also has been reported to increase enzyme activity in the digestion of genomic DNA (4) . Addition of BSA to restriction digests at a final concentration of0.1mg/ml may also improve enzyme activity.PCR Products: PCR-amplified DNA may be digested with restriction enzymes that have recognition sequences within the amplified sequence or in the primer regions. The number of enzyme units needed must be balanced with the total number of sites to assure complete cleavage. Longer incubation times may be required to ensure complete digestion. Enzymes with low overdigestion values (<12 units/16 hours) should be avoided in overnight digestions, as star activity or trace contaminants present in these enzymes may lead to problems. Consult the Promega Product Information sheet for the overdigestion value of the enzyme. For many common restriction enzymes, acceptable activity is seen in PCR buffer, although digestion after amplification may not result in the expected compatible ends due to residual polymerase activity (5) . Digestion near the end of a PCR product may also present problems. Restriction enzymes require varying amounts of flanking DNA around the recognition site, usually 1-3 bases but occasionally more (See Digestion of Sites Close to the End of Linear DNA). If an oligonucleotide primer is designed with a cut site that is too close to the end of the DNA, the site may cut poorly or not at all. Since it is very difficult to assay for cutting near the end of DNA, the effectiveness of compensation with extra enzyme units or increased incubation time is difficult to determine. Use of proofreading enzymes in PCR may also complicate the situation as these enzymes are capable of degrading the 3´ ends of amplimers, interfering with complete digestion by restriction enzymes. The use of high dNTP concentrations and immediate cooling to 4°C after PCR will reduce such degradation. Another reason for incomplete digestion of PCR fragments may be primer dimers. If the restriction site is built into the primer, primer dimers will contain a double-stranded version of the site, usually in vast molar excess over that of the desired target PCR fragment. This problem can be easily avoided by purifying the PCR fragment prior to restriction enzyme digestion using the Wizard® PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Cat.# A7170).Double-Stranded Oligonucleotides: Many of the same considerations for PCR products apply to the digestion of double-stranded oligonucleotides. In this case high densities of recognition sites per unit of mass can be present and the site may also be near the end of the DNA molecule. Again, longer digestion times and/or more enzyme may be needed. Enzymes with a low overdigestion specification (12 units/16 hours) should be avoided in overnight digestions.Single-Stranded DNA: Cleavage of single-stranded DNA, although at a greatly reduced rate compared with double-stranded DNA, has been reported for a few restriction enzymes (6) . Studies have shown, however, that several restriction enzymes that appear to cleave single-stranded DNA actually recognize folded-back duplex regions within the single-stranded genomes (e.g., M13, f1, single-stranded phiX174) (7)(8) . Therefore, these enzymes are not digesting single-stranded DNA, rather individual sites that are in the duplex form.DNA-RNA Hybrids: Digestion of DNA-RNA hybrid molecules has been described for several restriction enzymes (AluI, EcoRI, HaeIII, HhaI, HindIII, MspI, SalI, ThaI) (9) . In these cases, the DNA strand of the hybrid was digested in the identical place as duplex DNA. Digestion required 20 to 50-fold higher enzyme levels than those needed for duplex DNA. It is possible but not proven that the RNA was also cleaved with large excesses of enzyme.Influence of Flanking Sequence: The sequences flanking the restriction enzyme recognition sequence can influence the cleavage rate of many restriction enzymes although the differences are usually less than 10-fold. A small number of enzymes (e.g., NaeI, HpaII, SacII, NarI, EcoRII) exhibit more pronounced site preferences and are designated Type IIe. See Site Preferences and Turbo™ Restriction Enzymes for further information.Methylation: Methylation of nucleotides within restriction enzyme recognition sequences can affect digestion. Methylation may occur as 4-methylcytosine, 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine or 6-methyladenine in DNA from bacteria (including plasmids), eukaryotes and their viruses. The sensitivity, or lack thereof, to site-specific methylation, is known for many restriction enzymes (10) . Often, isoschizomers differ in their methylation sensitivity. Refer to Table 3.6 for further information.B. SUBSTRATE QUALITYGeneral Quality of the DNA Substrate and Effect on Digestion: Highly purified DNA is required for efficient restriction enzyme digestions. Contaminants commonly used during the purification of DNA such as protein, phenol, chloroform, ethanol, EDTA, SDS, CsCl and NaCl may interfere with restriction enzyme performance if not eliminated prior to digestion (1) . Organic solvents may denature the enzyme and additional salt contamination may decrease enzyme activity. Because contaminants are usually dose dependent, inhibitory effects will increase with the volume of DNA added to the digestion reaction. Protein contaminants in DNA can include nucleases that are activated by the addition of Mg2+ or salt in the restriction enzyme buffer. The presence of such nuclease activity will result in degradation of the substrate DNA, evidenced upon electrophoresis as a smear or a loss of DNA compared with a control sample of untreated DNA. Other potentiali i l d DNA bi di i hi h i ll i f i h h bili f hC. RECOGNITION SITE DENSITYcontaminants include DNA binding proteins, which may sterically interfere with the ability of the enzyme toefficiently find its recognition site and/or retard electrophoretic mobility of the restriction fragments.DNA samples are often stored in Tris-EDTA (TE) buffer since EDTA inactivates most nucleases that co-purifywith DNA by chelating the divalent cations required for their activity. However, restriction enzymes requiredivalent cations for activity and may be inhibited if too much EDTA is present in the final reaction. Lowconcentrations of EDTA (less than 0.05mM) introduced into the restriction enzyme reaction as in the DNAstorage buffer do not substantially affect restriction enzyme activity.Some of the most commonly encountered problems for specific DNA preparations are discussed below andsuggestions for optimizing the performance of restriction enzymes on these substrates are provided.Miniprep DNA: DNA purified from minipreps can be of poor quality due to contaminants such as phenol,chloroform, protein or RNA. In addition, some bacterial strains used to amplify plasmid DNA (e.g., HB101)contain a greater amount of nuclease than others (e.g., JM109). Such enzymatic contaminants may only becomeapparent when activated by the Mg 2+ and salt present in restriction digest buffers. Phenol/chloroform extractionmay be required to remove these contaminants even after CsCl purification. Dialysis and/or multiple ethanolprecipitations with 2.5M ammonium acetate and drying can remove many of the interfering substancesintroduced during purification. Ammonium acetate, which is a volatile substance, has unique and beneficialproperties compared with other salts used for nucleic acid precipitation, but must be used in substantially higherconcentrations (1) .Alternatively, the Wizard ® Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification Systems (Cat.# A1330) provide an easy andeffective way to isolate and purify DNA, free of salt or macromolecular contaminants. The addition of spermidineto a final concentration of 1mM and/or BSA to a final concentration of 0.1mg/ml can also improve digestion ofpoor quality miniprep DNA.Genomic DNA: Genomic DNA frequently contains more contaminants than plasmid DNA. Best results areobtained when the absorbance ratios at A 260/A 280 are at least 1.8. Spermidine can be added to a finalconcentration of 1mM and/or BSA to a final concentration of 0.1mg/ml to improve digestion of poor qualitygenomic DNA. For further information see Digestion of High Molecular Weight DNA .Genomic DNA Embedded in Agarose plugs: Pulsed field gel electrophoresis permits the resolution ofextremely large DNA fragments. Genomic DNA purified by traditional techniques can contain double-strandedbreaks due to mechanical shear forces. Such breaks can be a source of background in megabase mapping offragments of 50-1000kb. To avoid this, mammalian, bacterial and yeast cells can be embedded in agarose stripsand the cells lysed and treated with proteinase K in situ (11) . Most restriction enzymes can cut DNA embeddedin agarose provided that more enzyme and longer incubation times are used. A good rule of thumb is to use 5-10units of enzyme per microgram of DNA and to avoid using restriction enzymes with low overdigestion values(<20 units/16 hours), which can cause problems during longer incubations with excess enzyme. For furtherinformation, refer to Digestion of High Molecular Weight DNA .Genomic DNA Purified From Blood. The anti-coagulant used during blood collection can affect the ability ofrestriction enzymes to completely digest DNA. Use EDTA as an anti-coagulant rather than Heparin, which canbind tightly to the enzyme and interfere with digestion. The absorbance ratios at A 260/A 280 should be at least 1.8,indicating that protein has been removed efficiently. A number of rapid DNA purification protocols have beenwritten that do not require separation of white cells from red cells (12) (13) . These techniques can yield goodquality DNA from small volumes of blood, but the DNA obtained after scale-up may be of poorer quality. Forlarger blood samples, a technique that separates white blood cells from red blood cells, such as pelleting redblood cells through a Ficoll ® gradient, is recommended prior to DNA purification.Promega offers the Wizard ® Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Cat.# A1120) for the isolation of genomic DNA fromwhite blood cells (with reagents/protocol for removal of red cells), tissue cultured cells, animal tissue, plant tissueand Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. DNA purified with this system is suitable for digestion withrestriction enzymes.PCR Products: Contaminants in PCR such as salts, glycerol, and primer dimers can inhibit restriction enzymeactivity. The Wizard ® PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Cat.# A7170) provides a reliable method forpurification of double-stranded PCR-amplified DNA from any salts or macromolecular contaminants.Restriction enzyme activity units are usually defined based on a one-hour digest of 1µg of lambda DNA. Whendigesting other substrates, adjustments may be needed based on the amount of substrate, the number ofrecognition sites per molecule and the incubation time. The following table illustrates the effect of differences insubstrate recognition sites per molecule for Eco R I while keeping the substrate mass and incubation timeconstant.Table 2.3. Differences in Substrate Recognition Sites for EcoR I.DNA Substrate BasePairs Picomoles in 1µg*Cut Sites (EcoRI)Picomoles Cut Sites Units Needed。
大学英语六级综合-阅读(二十二)
大学英语六级综合-阅读(二十二)(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、Reading Comprehension(总题数：0，分数：0.00)二、Section A(总题数：0，分数：0.00)三、Passage One(总题数：1，分数：10.00)Rather than using custom machine tools to build early models of new parts, Ford is now using 3-D printing technology to design and test its engineers' latest ideas. The new method allows product developers to have a (1) in their hands in as little as a week after they create a new design—compared with having to wait three to four months (2) ."We're building more and more parts every day using this (3) ," says Harold Sears, a technical expert in rapid manufacturing at Ford's design facility in Dearborn, Mich. Ford's new hybrid transmission was developed on a 3-D printer that costs about ＄300,000 and which can turn a pile of aluminum powder into a working prototype in a day or two.While low-cost 3-D printing by consumers and small businesses looks like a market now ready for takeoff, large businesses have already (4) advanced versions of the technology. The result has been a (5) improvement in the product-development process across a wide range of industries, including the (6) of cars, consumer electronics, safety equipment and medical devices.The process has done more than just save time and money. Engineers say rapid prototyping using 3-D printing is producing more (7) , higher-quality products—from custom-fitted bicycle helmets to better-sounding ear buds and loudspeakers.Instead of waiting for tools and parts to come back from outside machine shops or injection-molding houses, product developers on tight (8) now get more hands-on time to test their models. 3-D printers allow them to test and (9) more versions of their prototypes—in some cases tripling the number of duplicates of a new product that can be (10) before being produced on a large scale.A. previouslyB. thereafterC. processD. elasticE. deadlinesF. manufacturingG. significantH. innovativeI. ignitedJ. embracedK. lubricate L. prototype M. refined N. update O. mechanisms（分数：10.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：L）解析：[解析] 冠词a提示空格处应填入名词。
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Political Cartoon following 9/11
/exhibits/911/images/01752/0004r.jpg
Mac McGill, Ink and white out with overlays on paper
Pearl Harborbombing.Californiahit. Battered by aerial bombs and torpedoes, the USS California settles slowly into the mud and muck ofPearl Harbor. Clouds of black, oily smoke pouring up from theCaliforniaand her stricken sister ships conceal all but the hull of the capsized USS Oklahoma at the extreme right.
Political Cartoon following 9/11
/exhibits/911/images/01739r.jpg
Sue Coe.9-11, 2001. Copyright © 2002 Sue Coe,
Courtesy Galerie St.Etienne,New York. Inkjet print. Published inWorld War 3 Illustrated, #32.
Location
Citation
After the Day of Infamy: "Man-on-the-Street" Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harborpresents approximately twelve hours of opinions recorded in the days and months following the bombing of Pearl Harbor from more than two hundred individuals in cities and towns across the United States.
OnSeptember 12, 2001, theAmericanFolklifeCenterat the Library of Congress asked folklorists and other ethnographers across the nation to record the thoughts and feelings expressed by ordinary people following the tragic events of September 11.
Mac McGill, Ink and white out with overlays on paper
Published inWorld War 3 Illustrated, #32, p. 39, Gift of the artist
Political Cartoon following 9/11
/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/fsaall:@field(NUMBER+@band(fsa+8b05011))
Line: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, [LC-USE6-D-007408 DLC]
/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/fsaall:@field(NUMBER+@band(fsa+8b05007))
Line: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, [LC-USE6-D-007400 DLC]
/ammem/afcphhtml/afcphhome.html
After the Day of Infamy:"Man-on-the-Street" Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl HarborLibrary of Congress,AmericanFolklifeCenter.
Political Cartoon following 9/11
/exhibits/911/images/01865r.jpg
Peter Kuper/Peter ,Missing, 2001.
Acrylic, watercolor and pencil with photomechanical overlay on paper. Published as cover ofWorld War 3 Illustrated, #32. Gift of the artist.
Published in DC Comics' 9/11September 11th, 2001, p. 114. Gift of the artist and DC Comics.
9-11
/ammem/today/sep11.html
Multiple Authors Unknown "9-11” Undated. Today in History:September 11[/ammem/today/sep11.html] (June 2, 2005)
Pearl Harborbombing. Naval air station. This is the wreckage-strewn naval air station atPearl Harborfollowing one of the Japanese sneak attacks on the morning ofDecember 7, 1941. In the background, an explosion sends a mass of flames and smoke high in the sky.
/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/fsaall:@field(NUMBER+@band(fsa+8b05021))
Line: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, [LC-USE6-D-007418 DLC]
Pearl Harborbombing. Hangar fire. Japanese bombs wrecked and fired this hangar at theU.S.naval air station,Pearl Harbor, in addition to causing extensive damage to planes on the apron and runways, several of which may be seen in the foreground.
Pearl Harborbombing.Nevadaunderway. Severely damaged and beached during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the USS Nevada gets ready to leave her Hawaiian anchorage for permanent repairs at aU.S.port. Temporary repairs made atPearl Harborenabled the battleship to make the voyage under her own power.
/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/fsaall:@field(NUMBER+@band(fsa+8b05009))
Line: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, [LC-USE6-D-007403 DLC]
/exhibits/911/images/01788v.jpg
Phil Jimenez,[Squad 18 Fire Department
of New York station house], 2001.Ink and opaque white
over graphite underdrawing.
Pearl Harborbombing. Wrecked seaplane. One of the 80 U.S. Navy planes wrecked by Japanese bombs and bullets during the air attacks onPearl Harbor,December 7, 1941. The plane was an OS2U, an Observation Scout built by Vought-Sikorsky.
/exhibits/911/911-folklife.html
AmericanFolklifeCenterat the Library of Congress,June 4, 2005.
/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/fsaall:@field(NUMBER+@band(fsa+8b05020))
Line: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, [LC-USE6-D-007417 DLC]
Uncovering Public Reactions on the Attack atPearl Harbor& Relating Them to Reactions to Events in Our Own Lile