Appendix to History of Friedrich II of Prussia
21世纪大学英语读写教程第二册相关答案【范本模板】
第一单元UNIT1翻译TEXT A温斯顿?丘吉尔——他的另一种生活玛丽?索姆斯我的父亲温斯顿?丘吉尔是在40几岁开始迷恋上绘画的,当时他正身处逆境。
1915年,作为海军大臣,他深深地卷入了达达尼尔海峡的一场战役。
原本那次战役是能够缩短一场血腥的世界大战的,但它却失败了,人员伤亡惨重,为此丘吉尔作为公务员和个人都付出了代价:他被免去了海军部的职务,失去了显赫的政治地位。
“我本以为他会因忧伤而死的。
”他的妻子克莱门泰因说。
被这一不幸压垮的他同家人一起退隐到萨里郡的一个乡间居处—--耘锄农场。
在那儿,正如丘吉尔日后所回忆的,“绘画女神拯救了我!”一天他正在花园里漫步,正巧碰上他的弟妹在用水彩画素描。
他观看了她几分钟,然后借过她的画笔,试了一下身手————于是缪斯女神施展了她的魔法.自那天以后,温斯顿便爱上了绘画。
任何能让沉浸在忧思中的温斯顿分心的事情都让克莱门泰因高兴.于是,她赶紧去买来她所能找到的各种颜料和画具。
水彩颜料、油画颜料、纸张、帆布画布—-—很快耘锄农场里便堆满了一个绘画者可能想要或需要的各样东西。
画油画最终成了温斯顿的一大爱好—-—但是最初几步却出奇地艰难。
他凝视着他的第一块空白画布,异乎寻常地紧张。
他日后回忆道:“我迟疑不决地选了一管蓝色颜料,然后小心翼翼地在雪白的底子上的画上蚕豆般大小的一笔.就在这时,我听到车道上传来一辆汽车的声音,于是惊恐地丢下我的画笔。
当我看清是谁从汽车里走出来时,更是惊慌失措。
来者正是住在附近的著名画家约翰?莱佛利爵士的妻子。
“‘在画画呢!’她大声说道。
‘多么有趣.可你还在等什么呢?把画笔给我——-大的那支。
'她猛地用笔蘸起颜料,还没等我缓过神来,她已经挥笔泼墨在惊恐不已的画布上画下了有力的几道蓝色。
谁都看得出画布无法回击.我不再迟疑。
我抓起那支最大的画笔,迅猛异常地向我可怜的牺牲品扑了过去。
自那以后,我再也不曾害怕过画布.”后来教丘吉尔画画的莱佛利曾经说起过他这位不同寻常的学生的艺术才能:“如果他当初选择的是绘画而不是政治,他定会成为一位驾驭画笔的大师。
英国文学简史练习
英国文学简史练习材料一.填空Fill the following blanks with proper information.1."The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus"(浮士德博士的悲剧)is one of ____'s best plays. 2._____ wrote his masterpiece "The Pilgrim's Progress"(天路历程)during his second imprisonment.3.The Preface to ____ by Wordsworth and Coleridge served as the manifesto of ________.4. In the last adventure, Gulliver came to a country where ________ were possessed of reason while ________ were brute beasts.5. Hamlet’s weakness which leads to his final trag ic fall is ________.6. “Read nor to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted” is one of the epigrams found in Bacon’s “________________”.7. “ O, wind, / If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?” is a famous line in Shelley’s “______________”.8. “He has a servant called Friday.” “He” in the quoted sentence is a Character in Defoe’s “____________________”.9. The poem “Auld Lang Syne” was written by the Scottish poet ________________10. William Blake’s The Little Black Boy is taken from a book of poem published at the end of the century, between 1789 and 1794. It is one of a group called Song of ___________.11. Many of Robert Burns’ poems are based on ________ songs and ballads. By using a burden or a chorus from an old song, Burns provides the poems with a higher thematic and artistic effect.12. In the play, “Othello”, written by ________,Othello was innocent of the slightest wrong doing.13. “To be or not to be, that is the question:” This quotation is from William Shakespeare’s play “__________”.14. As a leading Romanticist, G. Byron’s chief contribution is his creation of the _________, a proud, mysterious rebel figure of noble origin.15. ____________, the full title being The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling,is considered as Henry Fielding’s masterpiece.16. D. H. Lawrence’s autobiographical novel is entitled _____________.17. _____________ is often taken as William Makepeace Thackeray’s masterpiece.18. “______________” is the most popular of F. Bacon’s 58 essays. It analy ses what studies chiefly serve for, the different ways adopted by different people to pursue studies, and have studies exert influence over human character.19. The publication of “______________” by W. Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge in 1798 is often taken as the formal beginning of Romanticism.20. John Bunyan was imprisoned again in 1675. It was during this second term in prison that he wrote ____________, which was published in 1678 after his release.21. W. Wordsworth is regarded as a “______________”. He can penetrate to the heart of things and give the reader the very life of nature.22. P. C. Shelley’s greatest achievement is his four-act poetic drama, “_______________”(1820). According to the Greek mythology, Prometheus, the champion of humanity, who has stolen the fire from the heaven, is published by Zeus to be chained on Mount Caucasus and suffers the vulture’s feeding on his liver.23. In Pride and Prejudice the misunderstanding happens between _________ and _________. 二.判断Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1.The English people were the first residents in England.2. Beowulf is the oldest poem in the English language, and also the oldest surviving epic in the English language.3. After the Roman Conquest, the English language developed very quickly.4. Christianity was not introduced to England until after the English Conquest.5. The Norman Conquest marked the rise of feudalism in England.6. Paradise Lost took its material from Greek mythology.7. William Burns wrote two volumes of poems:” The Songs of Innocence” and “The Songs of Experience”.8. In the first part of“Gulliver’s Travels”, the hero is cast upon the shore of the island of Lilliput.9. John Bunyan’s masterpiece, “The Pilgrim’s Progress” is an allegory, a nar rative in which general concepts such as sins, despair, and faith are represented as people or as aspects of the natural world.10. In the 18th century English literature, satire is much used in writing. English literature of this age produced a distinguished satirist Jonathan Swift.11. Robert Burns wrote two volumes of poems: "The Songs of Innocence" and “The Songs of Experience”.12. Swift’s masterpiece is “Robinson Crusoe” which contains three parts.13. In the 18th century, novel writing made a great advance. The main characters in the novel were no longer common people, but the kings and nobles.14. Another good example of Swift's satire is his novel: A Modest Proposal.15. Blank verse was most widely used in the history of English poetry and drama up to the twentieth century.16. In the 18th century, satire is much used in writing, English literature of this age produced a distinguished satirist Defoe.17. Robinson Crusoe was actually based on a real fact.18. W. Shakespeare once was an actor.19. J. Milton was greatly influenced by Bible throughout his life.20. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day” is a line from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18.21. G. Chaucer did much in making the London dialect the foundation for the Modern English language.22. The Faerie Queene was a long poem written by E. Spenser.23. J. Donne was the founder of the metaphysical poetry.24. Tom Jones, a novel which contains eighteen books and which took Fielding “some thousands ofhours” to complete, is generally considered to be h is masterpiece.25. Robert Burns is the national poet of Ireland. His poetry is unsurpassed for its beautiful lyricismand sincerity of emotions, and is characterized by a profound sympathy for the down-trodden man.26.Tess of the D’Urbervilles is the truthful portrayal of the tragic lot of a poor girl, a pure woman,ruined by the bourgeois society.三.选择Multiple Choice:Select from the four choices of each item the one that best answers the question or completes the statement.1.The English Renaissance period was an age of ______ .A. poetry and dramaB. drama and novelC. novel and poetryD. romance and poetry2. Which of the following statements best illustrates the theme of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18?A. The speaker eulogizes the power of Nature.B. The speaker satirizes human vanity.C. The speaker praises the power of artistic creation.D. The speaker meditates on man’s salvation.3. The Metaphysical Poetry is characterized by its extensive use of ________.A. the impersonal voiceB. conceitsC. traditional symbolsD. literary allusions4. John Donne was the founder of the Metaphysical Poetry, and his followers include the following poets except ________.A. Richard CrashawB. George HerbertC. Andrew MarvellD. John Milton5. In Paradise Lost, Milton was unconsciously in sympathy with ________.A. GodB. SatanC. AdamD. Eve6. In addition to The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, Defoe also wrote ______.A. Tom JonesB. PamelaC. The Adventures of Roderick RandomD. Moll Flanders7. Gulliver's Travels consists of ______ voyages.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four8. Lilliput is a country of ______.A. tiny inhabitantsB. giantsC. flying islandsD. rational horses9. Which of the following statements best describes Gulliver's Travels?A. Gulliver's Travels is a book of satire.B. Gulliver's Travels is a book of adventurous journeys.C. Gulliver's Travels is a realistic representation of 18th century England.D. Both A and B.10. Robert Burns came from ________.A. EnglandB. WalesC. ScotlandD. Ireland11. Lyrical Ballads (1798) was a collection of poems by ________.A. James Thomson and William CollinsB. Thomas Gray and Robert BurnsC. Percy Bysshe Shelley and George Gordon ByronD. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge12. “The Lamb” is included in William Blake’s ________.A. Poetical SketchesB. The Songs of InnocenceC. The Songs of ExperienceD. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell13. William Wordsworth is frequently referred to as ________.A. a religious poetB. a worshipper of natureC. a modern poetD. a worshipper of beauty14. Of the following definitions of poetry, the one which is incorrectly paired with its author is ________.A. “Poetry is the most beautiful and effective mode of saying things”—Matthew ArnoldB. “Poetry—the best words in their best order”—Samuel Taylor ColeridgeC. “The record of the best and happiest moment of the happiest and best minds”—Percy Bysshe ShelleyD. “The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”—Robert Burns15. The description of “a man proud, moody, cynical, with defiance on his brow, and misery in his heart, a scorner of his kind, implacable in revenge, yet capable of deep and strong affect ion” may be applied to ________.A. an epic heroB. an antiheroC. a Byronic heroD. a modern hero16. John Keats wrote the following except ______.A. EndymionB. The Eve of St. AgnesC. "Ode to a Nightingale"D. "Ode to Duty"17. In “Ode to the West Wind”, the wild west wind is referred to as the wind of ________.A. springB. summerC. autumnD. winter18. The Canterbury Tales was written in ________.A. Old EnglishB. Middle EnglishC. Modern EnglishD. Current Modern English19. Pilgrims travel to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury in ________.A. MarchB. AprilC. MayD. June20. ________ pilgrims plus Chaucer are assembled at the Tabard Inn in the southern part of London.A. 25B. 27C. 29D. 3121. Chaucer was a master of the heroic couplet which consists of two rhyming lines in iambic pentameter. Iambic pentameter meansA. the line has 6 feet, and an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable.B. the line has 6 feet, and a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable.C. the line has 5 feet, and an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable.D. the line has 5 feet, and a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable.22. Shakespeare’s fou r great tragedies are _________A. Anthony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, King Lear, Timon of AthensB. Twelfth Night, Cynbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The TempestC. Hamlet, Othello, King John, and MacbethD. Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth23. The story of Hamlet takes place in ________.A. EnglandB. DenmarkC. ItalyD. Germany24. Romeo and Juliet belongs to Shakespeare’s ________.A. romantic comedyB. comedyC. tragedyD. historical plays25. A sonnet is a poem of ________ lines, usually in iambic pentameter, with rhymes arranged according to a certain definite patterns.A. 8B. 6C. 14D. 2426. The phrase “a single man in possession of a good fortune” is applied to a single man with _____.A. luckB. statusC. wealthD. health27. In 1066, _________led the Norman army to invade and defeat England.A. William the ConquerorB. Julius CaesarC. Alfred the GreatD. Claudius28. Chaucer died on the 25th of October 1400, and was buried in _______.A. FlandersB. FranceC. ItalyD. Westminster Abbey29. From the following, choose the one, which is not Francis Bacon's work.A. The advancement of LearningB. The New InstrumentC. EssaysD. Venus and Adonis30. "The Canterbury Tales" is Chaucer's greatest work and written for the greater part in ________ couplet.A. iambicB. pentameterC. metricalD. heroic31. "Hamlet", "______", "King Lear" and "Macbeth" are generally regarded as Shakespeare's four great tragedies.A. Romeo and JulietB. Timon of AthensC. A Lover's ComplaintD. Othello32. ________ wrote his masterpiece "The Pilgrim's Progress" during his second imprisonment.A. BunyanB. MiltonC. DonneD. Dryden33. Emily Bronte wrote only one novel: entitled ________.A. ProfessorB. Jane EyreC. Wuthering HeightsD. Shirley34. Defoe's masterpiece ________ is based upon the experiences of Alexander Selkirk, who had been marooned in the island of Juan Fernadez off the coast of Chile and who had had lived here in solitude for five years.A. Captain SingletonB. Robinson CrusoeC. Colonel jackD. Captain Avery35. Which of the followings was not written by Blake?A. The Songs of ExperienceB. The Songs of InnocenceC. Elegy Written in a Country ChurchyardD. The Chimney Sweepers36. ____was a critical realist and also a severe exposer of contemporary society .His novels, such as "Vanity Fair", are mainly a satirical portrayal of the upper strata of society.A. George Eliot.B. Elizabeth GaskellC. William Makepeace ThackerayD. John Bunyan37. The title of the novel "Vanity Fair" was taken from Bunyan's masterpiece "____________".A. The Pilgrim's ProgressB. Childe Harold's PilgrimageC. Gulliver's TravelsD. The Canterbury Tales38. _______ can be justly termed England's national epic and its hero Beowulf --- one of the national heroes of the English people.A. SeafarerB. BeowulfC. WildsithD. Cynewulf39. _______ are anonymous narrative songs that have been preserved by oral transmission.A. balladsB. romancesC. sonnetsD. prose40. Which work has employed subjects from the Greek mythology?A. Paradise LostB. Paradise RegainedC. Samson AgonistesD. Prometheus Unbound41. In the 18th century English literature, the representative poet of pre-romanticism were ______.A. Alexander PopeB. William BlakeC. Jonathan SwiftD. John Keats42. Beowulf was written in ___________.A. FrenchB. Modern EnglishC. Old EnglishD. Middle English43. Chaucer was the first important poet of a royal court to write in _______.A. FrenchB. EnglishC. LatinD. Spanish44. Shylock is a character in the play ___________ by Shakespeare.A. The Merchant of VeniceB. Romeo and JulietC. As You Like ItD. Hamlet45. Of all the romantic poets in the 18th century, ___ is the most independent and the most original.A. Thomas GrayB. William BlakeC. Alexander PopeD. Daniel Defoe46. The story of “___________” is the culmination of the Arthurian romances.A. Sir Gawain and the Green KnightsB. Piers the PlowmanC. The story of BeowulfD. The Canterbury of Tales47. "When , in disgrace with Fortune and men’s eyes," This is the beginning line of one of Shakespeare's ________.A. songsB. playsC. comediesD. sonnets48. The 18th century witnessed a new literary form-the modern English novel, which, contrary to the medieval romance, gives a ______ presentation of life of the common people.A. romanticB. realisticC. propheticD. idealistic49. As a whole, ______is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life—socially, politically, religiously, philosophically, scientifically, and morally.A. Moll FlandersB. Gulliver’s TravelsC. Pilgrim’s ProgressD. The School for Sc andal50. Which of the following works best represents the national spirit of the 18th-century England?A. Robinson CrusoeB. Gulliver’s TravelsC. Jonathan Wild the GreatD. A Sentimental Journey51. In the first part of the novel Pride and prejudice, Mr. Darcy has a (n) ____ of the Bennet family .A. high opinionB. great admirationC. low opinionD. erroneous view52. Wordsworth’s poetry is distinguished by the simplicity as well as theA. purity of his languageB. ornateness of his languageC. elegant of languageD. coarseness of his language53. The Romantic Age came to an end with the death of the last well-known romantic writer ___________.A. Jane AustenB. Walter ScottC. Samuel Taylor ColeridgeD. William Wordsworth54. Austen was the first woman writer to touch the following themeA. The struggle between the working classB. the predicament of the womenC. the torture of human soulD. the freedom of marriage55. ________is not Shakespeare’s wo rk.A. HamletB. King LearC. OthelloD. The Faerie56. The Four Greatest Tragedies of Shakespeare’s do not include_______.A. Romeo and JulietB. HamletC. MacbethD. Othello57. _______is the essence of Renaissance.A. RealismB. RomanticismC. RomanceD. Humanism58. _______ is not written by John Milton.A. Paradise lostB. Paradise RegainedC. Samson AgonistesD. Beowulf59. In Robinson Crusoe, Defoe eulogizes the hero of the ______A. aristocratic classB. enterprising landlordC. rising bourgeoisieD. hard-working people60. Romanticism doesn’t emphasize ______.A. the special qualities of each individual’s mindB. the inner world of the human spiritC. individualityD. the features that men have in common61. _______ Publish Lyrical Ballads in 1789 with Coleridge.A. ByronB. WordsworthC. ShelleyD. Keats62. Don Juan is the masterpiece of _________.A. Lord Byron’sB. P. B. Shelley’sC. John Keats’sD. Samuel Coleridge’s63. ________ is not a work by Charles DickensA. Oliver TwistB. David CopperfieldC. MiddlemarchD. A Tale of Two Cities64. Wuthering Heights is a masterpiece written by _____.A. Charlotte BronteB. Emily BronteC. Ann BronteD. Branwell Bronte65. _______ is not D. H. Lawrence’s work.A. Finnegan’s WakeB. Sons and LoversC. Lady Chatterley’s LoverD. The Rain Bow66. _______ frequently applied conceits in his poems.A. SpenserB. DonneC. BlakeD. Thomas Gray67. _______ is known as "the poet's poet".A. ShakespeareB. MarloweC. SpenserD. Donne68. The middle of the 18th century was predominated by a newly rising literary form, that is the modern English ______, which gives a realistic presentation of life of the common English people.A. proseB. short storyC. novelD. tragicomedy69. Dickens' works are characterized by a mingling of _______ and pathos.A. humorB. satireC. passionD. metaphor70. The success of Jane Eyre is not only because of its sharp criticism of the existing society, but also due to its introduction to the English novel the first ______ heroine.A. explorerB. peasantC. workerD. governess。
英国文学作家作品
The Prelude(1850)
2.Samuel Taylor Coleridge
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
iographiaLiteraria
3.Robert Southey
Joan of Arc
Lord ArthurSavile'sCrime and Other Stories
Intentions
The Picture of Dorian Gray
Lady Windermere's Fan
A Woman of No Importance
An Ideal Husband
The Importance of Being Earnest
25.Thomas Babington Macaulay
Compendium of a Universal History
Critical and Historical Essays
The History of England from the Accession of James II
26.Alfred Tennyson
Manfred
Childe Harold
Don Juan
Cain
The Prophecy of Dante
The Vision of Judgment
5.Percy Bysshe Shelley
The Necessity of Atheism
Address to the Irish People
QueenMab
Denis Duval
16.Jane Austen
Northanger Abbey
爱因斯坦的时钟:时间中的空间_完整_
爱因斯坦的时钟:时间中的空间Peter Galison苏俊斌曹婧译,杨舰校1933年爱因斯坦曾说:“甚至在现代社会,有这样一些职业需要人们生活在与世隔绝的状态,并且不要求大的体力或脑力劳动。
比如灯塔或灯船的检修工人。
现在这样的职业也进入了思维领域。
”1爱因斯坦指出,孤独对埋头于哲学和数学难题的年轻科学家来讲恰是一种完美的状态。
我们不禁推测,年轻时爱因斯坦自己一定也是如此,他曾经赖于谋生的伯尔尼专利局正像是远洋中的一艘灯船。
恰如理想世界中的图景,我们奉为哲学家-科学家的爱因斯坦,超然于其办公室的凡尘,为他的理论奠基,为牛顿的绝对时空观掘墓。
爱因斯坦推翻绝对时空观的意义,已经超越了对相对论的贡献,而成为哲学上颠覆一个旧时代进入一个新时代的象征。
对诸如亨利·彭加勒(Henri Poincare),亨得里克·洛伦兹(Hendrik Lorentz),和马克斯·亚伯拉汉(Max Abraham)而言,爱因斯坦的狭义相对论另人吃惊,简直是莫名其妙,因为狭义相对论始于惯性运动中的物体、直尺和时钟的行为——简言之,始于那些前辈物理学家希望以关于电子结构、力的性质、以及以太动力学的初始假定加以证明的假定。
不久,依照爱因斯坦采用直尺和协同时钟提出关于时空的半操作性定义,一代物理学家包括温纳·海森伯(Werner Heisenberg)和尼尔斯·玻尔(Niels Bohr)仿造出了量子认识论。
对维也纳学派的哲学家包括莫里兹·石里克(Moritz Schlick)、鲁道夫·卡尔纳普(Rudolf Carnap)、以及菲利浦·弗兰克(Philipp Frank)来说,爱因斯坦狭义相对论的文章也是一个转折点,成为科学哲学的一面永远飘扬的旗帜。
因为所有这些原因,爱因斯坦1905年“关于动体的电动力学”成为20世纪著名的物理学论文。
爱因斯坦的理论,正如通常所理解的那样,与旧经典力学的“现实”世界是如此激进的背离,以至于这个工作成为革命性分水岭的典范。
爱因斯坦的时钟:时间中的空间_完整_
爱因斯坦的时钟:时间中的空间Peter Galison苏俊斌曹婧译,杨舰校1933年爱因斯坦曾说:“甚至在现代社会,有这样一些职业需要人们生活在与世隔绝的状态,并且不要求大的体力或脑力劳动。
比如灯塔或灯船的检修工人。
现在这样的职业也进入了思维领域。
”1爱因斯坦指出,孤独对埋头于哲学和数学难题的年轻科学家来讲恰是一种完美的状态。
我们不禁推测,年轻时爱因斯坦自己一定也是如此,他曾经赖于谋生的伯尔尼专利局正像是远洋中的一艘灯船。
恰如理想世界中的图景,我们奉为哲学家-科学家的爱因斯坦,超然于其办公室的凡尘,为他的理论奠基,为牛顿的绝对时空观掘墓。
爱因斯坦推翻绝对时空观的意义,已经超越了对相对论的贡献,而成为哲学上颠覆一个旧时代进入一个新时代的象征。
对诸如亨利·彭加勒(Henri Poincare),亨得里克·洛伦兹(Hendrik Lorentz),和马克斯·亚伯拉汉(Max Abraham)而言,爱因斯坦的狭义相对论另人吃惊,简直是莫名其妙,因为狭义相对论始于惯性运动中的物体、直尺和时钟的行为——简言之,始于那些前辈物理学家希望以关于电子结构、力的性质、以及以太动力学的初始假定加以证明的假定。
不久,依照爱因斯坦采用直尺和协同时钟提出关于时空的半操作性定义,一代物理学家包括温纳·海森伯(Werner Heisenberg)和尼尔斯·玻尔(Niels Bohr)仿造出了量子认识论。
对维也纳学派的哲学家包括莫里兹·石里克(Moritz Schlick)、鲁道夫·卡尔纳普(Rudolf Carnap)、以及菲利浦·弗兰克(Philipp Frank)来说,爱因斯坦狭义相对论的文章也是一个转折点,成为科学哲学的一面永远飘扬的旗帜。
因为所有这些原因,爱因斯坦1905年“关于动体的电动力学”成为20世纪著名的物理学论文。
爱因斯坦的理论,正如通常所理解的那样,与旧经典力学的“现实”世界是如此激进的背离,以至于这个工作成为革命性分水岭的典范。
Richard II,《理查德二世》莎士比亚
Critics
Literary critic Hugh M. Richmond notes that Richard's beliefs about the Divine Right of Kings tend to fall more in line with the medieval view of the throne. Bolingbroke on the other hand represents a more modern view of the throne, arguing that not only bloodline but also intellect and political savvy contribute to the makings of a good king. Richard believes that as king he is chosen and guided by God, that he is not subject to human frailty, and that the English people are his to do with as he pleases.
马修·帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变
㊀2024年第1期No.1㊀2024四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)Journal of Sichuan University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition )总第250期Sum No.250ɦ历史学研究ɦ马修·帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变陈志坚摘㊀要:13世纪中后期,英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯及其后继者在圣奥尔本斯修道院创作了一系列行程地图㊂这些地图原是编年史抄本序章中的一部分,不仅包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的分段路线图,还包含作为此行程出发地与目的地 不列颠与巴勒斯坦的区域地图㊂长期以来,研究者多以传统的宗教进路来解读这些行程地图,视其为一种精神的朝圣之旅,认为作者旨在为那些不能亲临圣地的修士开启一次通往天上耶路撒冷的富有想象力的旅程㊂然而,以抄本古文字学与古抄本学方法考察这些行程地图可发现,它们不仅在外观上呈现出与传统基督教地图迥然不同的特征,还在很大程度上呼应了金雀花王朝统治者扩张领土以建立帝国的野心与欲求㊂不仅如此,基于新近复兴的古典地理学知识,这些行程地图的实用性㊁精确性与科学性也在一定程度上得到增强㊂关键词:马修㊃帕里斯;世界之布;行程地图;中世纪;世界观中图分类号:K561.32㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀文章编号:1006-0766(2024)01-0129-14作者简介:陈志坚,首都师范大学历史学院教授(北京㊀100089)①㊀Simon Lloyd and Rebecca Reader, Paris,Matthew (c.1200-1259),Historian,Benedictine Monk,and Polymath, in H.C.G.Matthew and Brian Harrison,eds.,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography :From the Earliest Times to the Year 2000,vol.42,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004,p.622.②㊀Richard Vaughan, The Handwriting of Matthew Pairs, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society ,vol.1,no.5(1953),p.389;Richard Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1958,pp.236-243;Suzanne Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1987,pp.321-323;Evelyn Edson,Mapping Time and Space :How Medieval Mapmakers Viewed Their World ,London:The BritishLibrary,1997,pp.118-120.13世纪的英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯(Matthew Paris)是一位历史学家,其本职工作是为其所属的圣奥尔本斯修道院(St Albans Abbey)创作一部编年史,即为后人所熟知的‘大编年史“(Chronica Maiora )㊂除此之外,马修还是一名地图制作者,他先后绘制了4种包含伦敦至阿普利亚(Apulia)的路线图(以下简称 路线图 )以及巴勒斯坦区域地图㊁不列颠区域地图在内的行程地图(以下简称 行程地图 )㊂马修的这些地图 具有重要意义,这并不是因为它们所具有的时代影响力,而是因为它们的独创性,马修正在尝试他那个时代不为人知的制图理念,而且这些制图理念在当时还没有被普遍理解 ㊂①在马修生活的年代,体现基督教宗教理念的T -O 地图居于主导地位,势头正盛㊂与之相比,马修的地图在基本方向㊁实用性与精确性方面呈现出极大的创新性㊂从某种意义上来说,马修是一名早熟的制图者,其地图所呈现的先进制图理念一直处于领先地位,直到中世纪末期波特兰海图(portolan chart)的诞生㊂自吉尔森于1928年将马修绘制的4种不列颠地图制版刊行以来,学者对于这些不列颠地图以及与之密切相关的行程地图给予了广泛关注㊂研究者首先对于行程地图的创作者及创作时间进行初步探讨并普遍认可抄本古文字学家理查德㊃沃恩通过分析马修的字体得出的结论,即认为 这些行程地图均是圣奥尔本斯修道院修士马修及其后继者创作的 ㊂②马修不仅是一位出色的编年史家,还是一921四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期位杰出的抄本缩微图画家,他在绘制抄本缩微图㊁地图㊁人物画像时擅长用稀释颜料对深色墨水勾勒的草图进行着色以制造一种水洗的效果,从而开创了一种 着色绘画 (tinted drawings)的风格㊂正因如此,在后来的艺术史中,这一类型的彩色绘画往往被称为 圣奥尔本斯流派 (School of St Albans)或 马修㊃帕里斯流派 (School of Matthew Paris)㊂有学者以绘画风格为标准对行程地图进行研究,也印证了沃恩的上述结论㊂①另外,行程地图的来源也从一个侧面佐证了上述观点 它们大都来自马修及其后继者所编纂的编年史抄本之中,部分来自圣奥尔本斯修道院官方文献汇编或者马修最好的合作伙伴兼衣钵继承人沃灵福德的约翰(John of Wallingford)的札记簿㊂②然而,在上述一致的观点之外,学者在很多问题上仍存疑问㊂例如,行程地图中包含的小单元,如路线图㊁不列颠区域地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图,是独立的存在,抑或是一个有机的整体?马修及其后继者绘制这些行程地图的意义何在?它们又反映了制图者的何种观念?早期研究者倾向于否认路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图与不列颠地图之间的联系,认为它们只是因为抄本装帧而被偶然并置,彼此之间并无必然联系㊂例如,沃恩以及更早的研究者比兹利就持这种观点㊂③不仅如此,早期研究者还倾向于认为,行程地图与编年史插图具有同样的功能,是作者为了阐释㊁说明编年史文本而制作,目的是将编年史中提到的城市㊁城镇㊁河流㊁山脉等等风物具象化㊁空间化,从而帮助阅读者更好地理解编年史㊂持这一观点的主要有苏珊娜㊃刘易斯与伊芙琳㊃埃德森㊂④进入21世纪以来,研究者有了两类新发现㊂其一,学者逐渐认识到,路线图与区域地图并非编年史的附属物,编年史中所提及的很多地名如耶路撒冷㊁阿卡与开罗等,与地图上的地名并无一一对应关系㊂换言之,绘制地图并非为了向读者展示上述地名所在的位置,在很大程度上,路线图㊁区域地图与编年史是一种平行关系㊂⑤其二,学者通过进一步研究发现了路线图与区域地图之间的联系㊂例如,在阿普利亚地图的左上角,马修标记了如下文字: 此为通过阿普利亚去往阿克的路线㊂ 再如,在不列颠地图中也隐藏着伦敦与多佛之间的路线图,这在很大程度上可被视为路线图中的英格兰部分㊂再如,在西西里岛的最末端一个叫特拉帕尼(Trapes)的地方,马修标注道: 理查德伯爵从圣地返回时曾经过这里㊂ ⑥这些发现让绝大多数学者相信,路线图与区域地图之间存在联系,并构成一个有机的整体㊂以此为基础,学者开始构建这些路线图与区域地图的整体性意义㊂丹尼尔㊃康诺利提出了 想象的朝圣 的概念,认为路线图㊁巴勒斯坦地图与不列颠地图构成了一套完整的行程地图,从而为那些不能离开圣奥尔本斯修道院远行的修士打造了一次精神的朝圣之旅㊂康诺利还指出,这种行程地图与修道院回廊中所绘制的朝圣图有异曲同工之妙,但前者效果更佳,因为修士在阅读中自然会用手去翻动书叶,然后目光跟着路线图上下移动,口中默念着地图中的说明文字㊂到达阿普利亚所在叶面时,修士还可通过操作可折叠的侧翼,想象着后续的海上路线㊂如此一来,修士的手㊁眼㊁心㊁口等身体部位将会深度参与这一想象的朝圣之旅,从而在更大程度上营造出身临其境的031①②③④⑤⑥M.R.James, The Drawings of Matthew Paris, The Walpole Society ,vol.14(1925-1926),pp.1-26.有证据表明,沃灵福德的约翰曾对一幅从马修那里获得的不列颠地图增补了系列内容,参见Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243;也有学者指出,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 很有可能是马修的后继者为了呼应爱德华一世对苏格兰的领土主张而制作,参见Daniel K.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris:Itinerary Fit for A King, in Palmira Brummett,ed.,The Book of Travels :Genre ,Ethnology ,and Pilgrimage ,1250-1700,Leiden:Brill,2009,pp.196-199.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.247;C.R.Beazley,The Dawn of Modern Geography :A History of Exploration and Geographical Science from the Close of the Ninth to the Middle of the Thirteenth Century c .900-1260,vol.2,London:Henry Frowde,Amen Corner,1901,p.588.Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,pp.324-325;Edson,Mapping Time and Space ,pp.123-124.P.D.A.Harvey,Medieval Maps of the Holy Land ,London:The British Library,2012,pp.74-75.Katharine Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem:Matthew Paris ̓s First Map of Britain in Its Manuscript Context, Representations ,vol.89,no.1(Winter 2005),pp.73,77.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期氛围㊂①凯瑟琳㊃布林则更进一步,将往往被置于最后的不列颠区域地图理解为朝圣行程的返程部分,从而构建了一个更加完整的朝圣行程㊂②尽管在中世纪基督教制图观念占主导地位的大背景下,以精神朝圣的思路理解行程地图颇有阐释力,但仍无法完整地解释其中的一些元素,特别是相对于主流的基督教制图观念而言颇具创新性的部分,诸如:路线图以南为上,不列颠地图以北为上的朝向;路线图中精确标注里程的条状直线;对南意大利的关注程度远远胜过罗马;在巴勒斯坦地图中,对阿克城墙㊁城堡等军事防御设施描述的详细程度远远胜过耶路撒冷;4种不列颠区域地图自身存在的差异及流变等㊂近年来,有学者已意识到这些问题,并开始尝试在宗教观念之外的政治㊁历史语境中解读行程地图㊂如维多利亚㊃莫尔斯注意到地图的政治用途在13世纪的英国得到长足发展,并认为马修的路线图与区域地图在一定程度上展示了地图作为统治和知识象征的力量,或许正是在此意义上,西西里和阿克分别在南意大利与巴勒斯坦区域地图中被重点强调㊂③丹尼尔㊃伯克霍尔茨追溯了亨利三世与爱德华一世对地图的兴趣,并认为他们很有可能利用地图体现其对领土与权力的野心㊂④康诺利的最新研究表明,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 实际上呼应了爱德华一世对苏格兰领土的主张㊂⑤由此可见,近年来学者的研究虽然开启了一个全新的研究路径,但相关研究成果或失之于简,仅是一个初步的判断;或无意做整体性探讨,仅涉及问题的一个方面㊂笔者拟以抄本古文字学(paleography)与古抄本学(codicology)方法考察马修绘制的行程地图,以期在梳理传统基督教制图观念的基础上揭示其全新的制图理念,并尝试评估金雀花王朝的政治诉求于此过程中所扮演的角色㊂一㊁马修㊃帕里斯其人及其行程地图马修㊃帕里斯,亦称巴黎人马修(Matthew the Parisian),出生于1200年左右,并于1217年进入圣奥尔本斯修道院成为一名本笃会修士㊂圣奥尔本斯修道院于公元793年由麦西亚国王奥法(Offa)捐资修建,到马修生活的年代,也已存在400余年㊂该修道院不仅具有悠久的历史,更以其撰史传统而闻名,这在很大程度上得益于其与王室的密切关系㊂1236年,马修继承了该修道院编年史家温多弗的罗杰(Roger of Wendover)的衣钵,就此开始了其撰史生涯㊂在马修领衔撰史期间,修道院与王室的关系变得更为密切㊂不仅国王亨利三世经常到访修道院,马修也经常被邀请参加宫廷重要活动㊂据记载,亨利三世曾于1244至1257年间先后8次到访修道院,每次都捐赠大量布帛㊁财物㊂1251年,亨利三世到访时送给修道院3块丝绸布料,并且还特意询问马修他已向修道院捐赠了多少块丝绸布料,以及修道院是否已遵照他的命令,在这些丝绸布料上都写上 英王亨利三世捐 字样㊂国王得到的答案是31块,而且没有其他国王捐过如此之多㊂不仅如此,马修还与亨利三世保持着良好的个人关系,常常出入宫廷,有资格与国王共桌就餐㊁亲密交谈,甚至可以当面向国王抱怨其遭遇的不公㊂另外,国王还是马修的赞助人,曾亲自委托他撰写‘忏悔者爱德华生平“一书㊂1247年,在威斯敏斯特大厅举行的一场盛大仪式上,亨利三世发现了马修,特地让他坐在自己身边,并要求他记录当日发生之事㊂随后,国王还邀请马修共进晚餐㊂1257年,马修在国王的宫廷里逗留了一周,在此131①②③④⑤Daniel K.Connolly, Imagined Pilgrimage in the Itinerary Maps of Matthew Paris, The Art Bulletin ,vol.81,no.4(1999),pp.598-599;Daniel K.Connolly,The Maps of Matthew Paris :Medieval Journeys through Space ,Time and Liturgy ,Woodbridge:The Boydell Press,2009,pp.1-2.Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem, pp.63,87.Victoria Morse, The Role of Maps in Later Medieval Society:Twelfth to Fourteenth Century, in David Woodward,ed.,The History of Cartography ,vol .3,Cartography in the European Renaissance ,Part 1,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2007,pp.35,39,41-42.Daniel Birkholz,The King ̓s Two Maps :Cartography and Culture in Thirteenth-Century England ,New York &London:Routledge,2004,pp.12-13.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris, pp.196-199.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期期间与国王形影不离,无论国王 在餐桌边,在宫殿里,还是在房间里 ,由此,他从国王那里获得了大量信息㊂①遵循着圣奥尔本斯修道院的撰史传统,并基于不断从宫廷中获得的第一手资料,马修写出了大量历史著作㊂在马修撰写的史著中,‘大编年史“与‘英吉利人史“(Historia Anglorum )最负盛名㊂从著述体例上讲,前者属于普遍史,涵盖自创世至1259年的世界历史,是马修在温多弗的罗杰所著编年史‘历史之花“(Flores Historiarum )的基础之上编纂而成的㊂后者则属于专门史,侧重讲述英吉利人的历史,其绝大部分史料来源于‘大编年史“,实际上是‘大编年史“中与英吉利人相关史料的汇编本㊂除此之外,马修后来还在‘英吉利人史“的基础上推出一个更加简略的版本,名为‘英吉利人史简编“(Abbreuiatio Compendiosa Chronicorum Anglie )㊂本文所涉及的行程地图便主要来自这几部著作的序章部分㊂但不幸的是,这些著作均未能以其原始的形制完整地流传下来,而是在不断被拆分㊁重组㊁装帧的过程中形成了新的抄本,并由不同的图书馆收藏㊂同样地,行程地图在此过程中亦难免被拆分㊁重组的命运,并最终以零散的状态分处于几个新抄本中㊂马修的‘大编年史“是一部三卷本史书,现分处于三个不同的抄本中㊂其第一卷涵盖自创世至1188年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026的抄本之中(以下简称MS 026抄本)㊂该抄本的序章部分涵盖一套相对完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图1),包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图以及巴勒斯坦区域地图,但缺少不列颠区域地图㊂②其第二卷涵盖自1189至1253年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016的抄本之中(以下简称MS 016抄本)㊂该抄本中的行程地图(以下简称行程地图2)包含不完整的自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及一幅不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图B)㊂③其中,路线图仅残留自蓬特雷莫利(Pontremoli)至南意大利阿普利亚的部分㊂不仅如此,所有这些地图在MS 016抄本中均以半叶的形式存在㊂④其第三卷涵盖1254至1259年的历史,可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Royal MS 14C.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Royal 抄本)㊂该抄本序章部分包含一套完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图3),包括伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图D)㊂除了‘大编年史“第三卷,Royal 抄本中还包含马修的‘英吉利人史“㊂⑤二者在很大程度上共享抄本前面的序章部分㊂除此之外,在一部名为‘增补册“(Liber Additamentorum )的圣奥尔本斯修道院自用文献中,还存有一套不完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图4),它仅包含自伦敦至那不勒斯的路线图,可见于大英图书馆藏引证号为Cotton MS Nero D.I 的抄本(以下简称Nero 抄本)㊂⑥行程地图4虽然在风格上与行程地图1㊁2㊁3类似,但在形式和内容方面均相对简略,没有采用常规的一叶两栏形制,而是一叶三栏且忽略所有支线行程,仅绘制主线行程,很有可能是马修在正式绘制行程地图1㊁2㊁3之前的构思草图,后来作为备用资料被收录进修道院自用文献‘增补册“中,与修道院创始人‘奥法生平“(Vitae duorum Offarum )㊁‘历任修道院长生平“(Gesta Abbatum )等文献并列㊂不仅如此,马231①②③④⑤⑥David Carpenter,Henry III :The Rise to Power and Personal Rule ,1207-1258,New Haven and London:Yale University Press,2020,pp.171,454,521,541,551,615,715,521,399,403.Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026,fols.ir -ivv.1928年,吉尔森(J.P.Gilson)汇集了马修绘制的与其行程地图相关的4张不列颠地图,并将其制成彩色图版出版㊂在该书中,吉尔森将4张地图简称为:地图A㊁地图B㊁地图C㊁地图D,笔者在本文中沿用这一约定俗成的简称㊂参见J.P.Gilson,ed.,Four Maps of Great Britain Designed by Matthew Paris about A.D.1250,Produced from Three Manuscripts in the British Museum and One at Corpus Christi College ,Cambridge ,London:Printed by Order of the Trustees,Sold at the British Museum and by Bernard Quaritch,Ltd,1928,p.3.2003年,基督圣体学院图书馆又对MS 016号抄本进行了重新装帧㊂此时,该抄本又被分为上下两册,抄本前面的序章部分单独装订成册,并被命名为MS 016I,后面的正文部分单独成册,并被命名为MS 016II㊂正文中所述行程地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图及不列颠地图部分,参见Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016I,fols.iiir -ivv.Royal MS 14C.VII,fols.157r -231r,2r -5v,8v -156v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Nero D.I,fols.183v -184r,British Library,London.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期修绘制的另外两种不列颠地图明显也与行程地图密切相关,但由于种种原因已被单独装订在其他抄本中:其一,在马修以其‘英吉利人史“为基础缩编而成的‘英吉利人史简编“的序章部分,存在一幅马修绘制的不列颠地图(以下简称地图A),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Claudius D.VI 的抄本中(以下简称Claudius 抄本)㊂①该地图与布鲁图斯(Brutus)至亨利三世的系列国王画像,以及自阿尔弗雷德大帝至亨利三世国王世系图等重要文件并列,共同构成抄本的序章部分;其二,在马修后继者沃灵福德的约翰曾拥有的一本札记簿中,亦存在一幅不列颠地图(以下简称地图C),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Julius D.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Julius 抄本)㊂②该地图明显是由马修绘制,但从其所用色彩及内容看,仍属于较为初级的草图㊂沃灵福德的约翰肯定是从某种途径获得了这张地图并对其进行了一系列改造,包括继续在地图上标注地名,以及在地图背面空白处书写文字㊂最后,他还将该地图两次折叠后与其札记簿装帧在一起㊂该札记簿的核心内容是沃灵福德的约翰摘抄的系列编年史史料,主要摘自马修的‘大编年史“,在一定程度上反映了他向马修学习撰写编年史的实践㊂③二㊁世界之布:中世纪基督教主流制图观念中世纪的地图一般被称作 Mappamundi ㊂其中, mappa 一词在中世纪拉丁语中意为 桌布 或 餐巾 ,可意译为 地图 ;④而 mundi 则是 mundus 一词的拉丁文属格单数形式,意思是 世界的 (of the world)㊂如此一来,具有 世界地图 之意的 Mappamundi 一词其实可直译为 世界之布 ㊂这个词语在古典时代晚期的拉丁语中从来没有被使用过,彼时用来描述地图的词汇一般是 forma (图形)㊁ figura (图像)㊁ orbispictus (区域图)或者 orbisterrarumdescriptio (区域地理描述)㊂尽管在中世纪,世界之布的称谓是最常见的,但在谈及地图时,人们亦有一些其他的表达形式,如 inmaginesmundi (世界的图像)㊁ pictura (图像)㊁ descriptio (描述)㊁ tabula (图表),甚或赫里福德地图中使用的 estoire (历史)㊂⑤但在上述词汇中, 世界之布 词义最为稳定,自8世纪至中世纪末期一直被用来指代以基督教观念描绘世界的图像或文字㊂迄今为止,计有1100余幅这样的地图幸存了下来,其中大部分可见于中世纪的抄本之中,也有独立存在且尺寸相当大的地图,很可能是作为教堂或修道院的挂图使用,例如外形类似房屋山墙的赫里福德地图(Hereford Map),其最长㊁最宽处分别是1.59米和1.34米,是现存最大的 世界之布 ㊂⑥虽名为地图,但 世界之布 并不像今天的地图一样客观地反映空间的比例与尺寸,亦不能为人们出行提供精确的信息,而是一种集合了时间㊁空间㊁事件㊁概念㊁色彩㊁文本㊁意象等元素的复杂集合体,集中反映了基督教有关 神学㊁宇宙学㊁哲学㊁政治学㊁历史学㊁动物学㊁人种学 等知识的理念,是基督教徒眼中的世界形象㊂⑦一般而言,这些地图具有以下特点:它们不仅比例严重失调,以东为上,还呈现出T -O 的特殊形态;整个版面不仅充斥着自创世之日至末日审判的所有重要的圣经事件,还杂以各式各样的奇幻动物和恐怖种族;作为圣地的耶路撒冷一般被安放在地图中心位置,而末日审判的意象则往往被置于地图顶端,这表明 顶部 (新耶路撒冷)而非 中心 (地331①②③④⑤⑥⑦Cotton MS Claudius D.VI,f.12v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Julius D.VII,fols.50v -53r,British Library,London.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243.Jerry Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,New York:Viking Penguin,2013,pp.94-95.David Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in J.B.Harley and David Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1:Cartography in Prehistoric ,Ancient ,and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1987,p.287.The Hereford Mappa Mundi Trustee Company Ltd,Hereford.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.95.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期上耶路撒冷)才是中世纪朝圣者最终的目的地,也是手持 世界之布 的信徒目光最终驻留的地方;①世界之布不仅是空间的展开,还涉及时间,在地图上自东向西(自上而下)包含着一个从创世到救赎的完整叙事;世界之布虽以基督教神学世界观为核心,但也包含一定程度的古典知识,这是早期教父与古典天文㊁自然㊁地理知识成就达成妥协的结果㊂由此,在以下部分笔者将以T -O 形态㊁以东为上㊁中心与朝圣㊁象征主义意象㊁ 历史 叙事㊁奇幻动物与恐怖种族为重点,以赫里福德地图㊁埃布斯托地图(The Ebstorf Map)㊁②诗篇地图(The Psalter Map)㊁③梭利地图(The Sawley Map)④等中世纪地图为主要案例,撮述 世界之布 的典型特征㊂其一,T -O 形态㊂T -O 形态地图是中世纪最为经典的地图样式,其整体外观呈圆形,看起来像一个巨大的字母O,由此标识出地图的边界,其外围环绕着海洋㊂圆形内部的三大水系整体上呈现为一个巨大的大写字母T 形态,从而将圆形大陆分成三大块㊂T 字母横笔画左侧㊁右侧及竖笔画部分分别代表顿河㊁尼罗河和地中海㊂⑤在由字母O 与T 建构的空间之中,上方的半圆是亚洲,下方位于T 字母竖笔画左右两边的区域则是欧洲和非洲,这三大洲又分别代表诺亚(Noah)的三个儿子闪(Shem)㊁雅弗(Japheth)㊁含(Ham)及其后代最初定居的区域㊂⑥实际上,T -O 地图本身亦是古典文化与中世纪基督教观念相互妥协的产物㊂在古典晚期向中世纪过渡的关键期,部分早期教父如德尔图良(Tertullian)㊁圣西普里安(St Cyprian)和圣安布罗斯(St Ambrose)等都极端敌视古代的学术成就,而与此同时也有一部分早期教父如奥古斯丁(St Augustine)㊁圣哲罗姆(St Jerome)以及圣伊西多尔(Isidore of Seville)等则主张吸收与借鉴古典学术成就㊂例如奥古斯丁就认为, 如果缺乏对天㊁地㊁世界等要素的相关知识,我们就无法更好地理解圣经 ,他还声称, 为了更好地理解神的造物,在研习圣经的时间和历史时,也须了解空间与地理 ㊂圣哲罗姆遵从奥古斯丁的建议,在翻译圣经之余还撰写了一部名为‘地点之书“(Liber locorum )的著作,并在书中给出了巴勒斯坦和亚洲的区域地图㊂⑦圣伊西多尔则在借鉴古典历史学家萨卢斯特(Sallustius)关于三大洲的相关记载的基础上,首次提出了T -O 地图的构想,其著作‘论事物的本质“(De natura rerum )与‘关于词源学的二十卷书“(Etymologiarum sive originum libri XX )被认为是最早包含T -O 地图意象的作品㊂⑧因早期的T -O 地图在本质上只是一种简要的示意图,仅标注三大洲名称或诺亚三个儿子的名字,很少有其他地名,所以其在T -O 地图的整体分类法中也常常被称作是概要性三部分T -O 地图(Schematic Tripartite)㊂8至11世纪,T -O 地图继续吸收来自马克罗比乌斯(Macrobius)和奥罗修斯(Orosius)等古典学者作品中的知识,发展出了非概要性三部分T -O 地图(Nonschematic Tripartite)㊂这一新子类虽仍将有人居住的大陆分成三部分,但并不严格按照T -O 模式绘制,而是按照各部分的历史及其起源进一步细化与划分各自的区域㊂它们通常强调地中海,并倾向于将海岸线绘制成参差不齐的效果㊂⑨总之,T -O 地图是古典知识与中世纪基督教世界观不断融合的结果,早期教父吸收了古典时代学者将有人居住的世界分成三部分的描述,并将其与创世纪中的世界起源观念结合起来,奠定了中世431①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨包慧怡:‘感官地图上的灵魂朝圣之旅 中古英语长诗 珍珠⓪的空间结构“,‘外国文学评论“2007年第2期㊂Kloster Ebstorf,Ebstorf,Germandy (destroyed in 1943,20th replica).Additional MS 28681,f.9r,British Library,London.有时亦称 美茵茨的亨利地图 (Henry of Map),参见Cambridge,Corpus Chisti College,MS 66,p.2.Catherine Delano-Smith, The Intelligent Pilgrim:Maps and Medieval Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in Rosamund Allen,ed.,Eastward Bound :Travel and Travellers ,1050-1550,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2004,pp.110-111;Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.105.Saint Bede,On Genesis ,trans.Calvin B.Kendall,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,2008,p.24;Naomi Reed Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought :The Hereford Paradigm ,Woodbridge:Boydell Press,2003,p.13.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,pp.102-103.Burgerbibliothek,cod.417,f.88v,Bern;Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought ,p.13.Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in Harley and Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1,pp.343,347.。
21世纪大学英语读写教程第二册第一课内容讲解
21世纪大学英语读写教程第二册第一课内容讲解21世纪大学英语读写教程第二册第一课内容讲解导语:英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔生活的另一部分就是绘画,下面YJBYS店铺分享一篇关于英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔绘画精神的英语课文,欢迎大家来阅读!Pre-reading ActivitiesFirst Listening1. You're about to hear a conversation about Winston Churchill. Before you listen, take a look at the words below. Which do you think you're likely to hear when people discuss Churchill? Then, as you listen to the tape the first time, circle the words you hear.prime minister author painter politician World War I romantic fearless serious passionate World War IISecond ListeningRead the following questions first to prepare yourself to answer them to the best of your ability.2. What was the argument about? Which side do you believe?3. What do you know about Winston Churchill as British prime minister? What about his personality—do you have any impressions of him as a human being?Winston Churchill—His Other LifeMary SoamesMy father, Winston Churchill, began his love affair with painting in his 40s, amid disastrous circumstances. As First Lord of the Admiralty in 1915, he had been deeply involved in a campaign in the Dardanelles that could have shortened the course of a bloody world war. But when the mission failed, with great loss of life, Churchill paid the price, both publicly andprivately: He was removed from the Admiralty and lost his position of political influence.Overwhelmed by the disaster — "I thought he would die of grief," said his wife, Clementine — he retired with his family to Hoe Farm, a country retreat in Surrey. There, as Churchill later recalled, "The muse of painting came to my rescue!"One day when he was wandering in the garden, he chanced upon his sister-in-law sketching with watercolours. He watched her for a few minutes, then borrowed her brush and tried his hand — and the muse worked her magic. From that day forward, Winston was in love with painting.Delighted with anything that distracted Winston from the dark thoughts that overwhelmed him, Clementine rushed off to buy whatever paints and materials she could find. Watercolours, oil paints, paper, canvas —Hoe Farm was soon filled with everything a painter could want or need.Painting in oils turned out to be Winston's great love — but the first steps were strangely difficult. He contemplated the blank whiteness of his first canvas with unaccustomed nervousness. He later recalled:"Very hesitantly I selected a tube of blue paint, and with infinite precaution made a mark about as big as a bean on the snow-white field. At that moment I heard the sound of a motorcar in the drive and threw down my brush in a panic. I was even more alarmed when I saw who stepped from the car: the wife of Sir John Lavery, the celebrated painter who lived nearby."'Painting!' she declared. 'What fun. But what are you waiting for? Let me have the brush — the big one.' She plunged into the paints and before I knew it, she had swept several fierce strokes and slashes of blue on the absolutely terrified canvas. Anyonecould see it could not hit back. I hesitated no more. I seized the largest brush and fell upon my wretched victim with wild fury. I have never felt any fear of a canvas since."Lavery, who later tutored Churchill in his art, said of his unusual pupil's artistic abilities: "Had he chosen painting instead of politics, he would have been a great master with the brush."In painting, Churchill had discovered a companion with whom he was to walk for the greater part of his life. Painting would be his comfort when, in 1921, the death of his mother was followed two months later by the loss of his and Clementine's beloved three-year-old daughter, Marigold. Overcome by grief, Winston took refuge at the home of friends in Scotland — and in his painting. He wrote to Clementine: "I went out and painted a beautiful river in the afternoon light with red and golden hills in the background. Many loving thoughts.... Alas, I keep feeling the hurt of Marigold."Life and love and hope slowly revived. In September 1922 another child was born to Clementine and Winston: myself. In the same year, Winston bought Chartwell, the beloved home he was to paint in all its different aspects for the next 40 years.My father must have felt a glow of satisfaction when in the mid-1920s he won first prize in a prestigious amateur art exhibition held in London. Entries were anonymous, and some of the judges insisted that Winston's picture — one of his first of Chartwell — was the work of a professional, not an amateur, and should be disqualified. But in the end, they agreed to rely on the artist's honesty and were delighted when they learned that the picture had been painted by Churchill.Historians have called the decade after 1929, when Winston again fell from office, his barren years. Politically barren they mayhave been, as his lonely voice struggled to awaken Britain to the menace of Hitler, but artistically those years bore abundant fruit: of the 500-odd Churchill canvases in existence, roughly half date from 1930 to 1939.Painting remained a joy to Churchill to the end of his life. "Happy are the painters," he had written in his book Painting as a Pastime, "for they shall not be lonely. Light and colour, peace and hope, will keep them company to the end of the day." And so it was for my father.New Wordsamidprep.in the middle of, among 在…之中* disastrousa. extremely bad; terrible 灾难性的,糟透的lordn. (in Britain) title of some officials of very high rank(英)大臣;大人,阁下admiraltyn. (the A~)(in Britain) government department in charge of the navy (英)海军部campaignn. 1. a series of planned military actions 战役2. a planned series of activities, esp. in politics and business 运动bloodya. 1. very violent, with a lot of wounding and killing 血腥的2. covered with blood 血污的missionn. 1. (usu. military) duty or purpose for which people are sent somewhere [常指军事]任务2. 天职,使命privatelyad. 1. not publicly 非公开地2. personally; secretly 在涉及私(个)人方面;秘密地privatea. 1. personal; secret 私(个)人的;秘密的2. not public 非公开的disastern. (a)sudden great misfortune 灾难,天灾;祸患* griefn. a feeling of extreme sadness 悲哀* grievev. suffer from grief or great sadness (为…而)悲伤;伤心retreatn. 1. a place into which one can go for peace and safety 隐居处2. 撤退;避难vi. move back or leave a center of fighting or other activity 撤退;退避muse, Musen. 1. (in Greek mythology) one of the nine goddesses of poetry, music, etc. 缪斯(希腊神话中司文艺的九位女神之一)2. a force or person that inspires sb. to write, paint, etc. 创作灵感rescuen. help which gets sb. out of a dangerous or unpleasant situation 救助;救援vt. 救助;救援sister-in-lawn. sister of one's husband or wife 姑子;姨子;嫂子;弟媳sketchv. make a quick, rough drawing (of sth.) 素描,速写n. 素描,速写watercolo(u)rn. 水彩(颜料);水彩画magicn. 魔法,法术a. 有魔力的* distractvt. (from) take (one's mind, sb.) off sth. 转移(注意力); 使转移注意力* canvasn. 1. a piece of strong heavy cloth used for an oil painting 帆布画布2. a completed oil painting 油画* contemplatevt. look at in a serious or quiet way, often for some time (默默地)注视,凝视blanka. 1. without writing, print or other marks 空白的2. expressionless;without understanding 无表情的;茫然的unaccustomeda. not used (to sth.); not usual (对某物)不习惯的;不寻常的accustomeda. regular; usual 惯常的,通常的hesitantlyad. not doing sth. quickly or immediately for one's uncertainty or worry about it 犹豫不决地infinitea. extremely great in degree or amount; without limits or end无限的';极大的precautionn. 1. carefulness 防备,预防2. an action taken to avoid sth. dangerous or unpleasant 预防措施beann. 豆;蚕豆motorcarn. a car 汽车alarmvt. excite with sudden fear or anxiety 使惊恐;使忧虑n. 1. a sudden feeling of fear or anxiety 惊恐;忧虑2. a warning of danger 警报plungevi. (into, in) 1. rush suddenly and deeply into sth. 投身于2. suddenly fall in a particular direction 纵身投入;一头扎入fiercea. 1. angry, violent and cruel 暴怒的;凶猛的;残酷的2. (of heat, strong feelings) very great 强烈的* slashn. a long sweeping cut or blow 砍;挥击vt. cut with long sweeping forceful strokes;move or force with this kind of cutting movement 砍,砍击;猛挥absolutelyad. completely;without conditions 完全地;绝对地* terrifyvt. fill with terror or fear 恐吓,使惊吓* wretcheda. very unhappy or unfortunate 不幸的;可怜的victimn. sb. or sth. hurt or killed as a result of other people's actions, or of illness, bad luck, etc. 牺牲者,受害者;牺牲品* furyn. 1. a wildly excited state (of feeling or activity) 狂热;激烈2. (a state of) very great anger 狂怒artistica. 1. of. concerning art or artists 艺术的;艺术家的2. made with inventive skill or imagination 富有艺术性的companionn. mate; one who associates with or accompanies another 同伴;伴侣beloveda. much loved; darling 深爱的;亲爱的overcomevt. 1. (often pass.) (by, with) (of feelings) take control and influence one's behavior [常被动](感情等)压倒,使受不了2. win a victory over; defeat 克服;战胜* refugen. (a place that provides) protection or shelter from harm, danger or unhappiness 避难(所);庇护(所)alasint. a cry expressing grief, sorrow or fear 唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等)* revivev. 1. regain strength, consciousness, life, etc.;bring (sb. or sth.) back to strength, consciousness, life, etc. (使)复苏;(使)重振活力2. become active, popular, or successful again 恢复生机;复兴;重新流行glown. a feeling of warmth or pleasure 热烈vi. emit a soft light 发光amateura. & n. (a person who is) not professional 业余(水平)的(运动员、艺术家等)entryn. 1. a person or thing taking part in a competition, race, etc. 参赛一员2. entrance; the act of entering or the right to enter 进入;进入权* anonymousa. (of a person) with name unknown;(of a letter, painting, etc.) written or created by an unidentified person 名字不详的;匿名的disqualifyvt. make or declare unfit, unsuitable, or unable to do sth. 取消…的资格;使不适合;使不能relyvi. (on, upon) 1. have trust or confidence (in) 信任;信赖2. depend with full trust or confidence 依赖* historiann. a person who studies history and/or writes about it 历史学家* barrena. (of land) unproductive (土地等)贫瘠的,荒芜的awakenvt. 1. (to) cause to become conscious of 使意识到2. cause to wake up 唤醒* menacen. a threat or danger 威胁abundanta. plentiful; more than enough 丰富的;充足的abundancen. a great quantity; plenty 丰富;充裕;大量odda. 1. (infml.) (after numbers) a little more than the stated number [常用以构成复合词]…以上的;…出头的2. strange or unusual 奇特的;古怪的3. 奇数的,单数的existencen. the state of existing 存在;实有* pastimen. hobby;sth. done to pass time in a pleasant way 消遣,娱乐Phrases and Expressionspay the priceexperience sth. unpleasant because one has done sth. wrong, made a mistake, etc. 付出代价come to sb.'s rescuehelp sb. when he/she is in danger or difficulty 解救某人,救助某人chance uponmeet by chance; find by chance 偶然碰见;偶然发现try one's handattempt (to do sth.), esp. for the first time 尝试plunge intobegin to do sth. suddenly; enter without hesitation 突然或仓促地开始某事;突然冲入before one knows itbefore one has time to consider the course of events 转眼之间,瞬息之间fall uponattack fiercely 猛攻,猛扑take refugeseek protection from danger or unhappiness 避难rely ontrust, or confidently depend on 依赖,依靠fall from officelose a position of authority to which sb. was elected or appointed 离位,下台awaken tocause to become conscious of 使意识到bear fruitproduce successful results 结果实;有成果date fromhave existed since 始自keep sb. companystay with sb. so that he/she is not alone 陪伴某人Proper NamesWinston Churchill温斯顿·丘吉尔(1874—1965,英国保守党政治家、首相[1940—1945,1951—1955]、作家)Mary Soames玛丽·索姆斯First Lord of the Admiralty(英国)海军大臣Dardanelles达达尼尔海峡(位于亚洲小亚细亚半岛同欧洲巴尔干半岛之间)Clementine克莱门泰因(女子名)Surrey萨里郡(英国英格兰郡名)John Lavery约翰·莱佛利Marigold玛丽戈尔德(女子名)Chartwell查特威尔(宅名)Adolf. Hitler希特勒(1889—1945,纳粹德国元首)。
高一英语听力文章:以色列发现最古老希伯莱文字
高一英语听力文章:以色列发现最古老希伯莱文字An Israeli archeologist in Jerusalem believes a ceramic shard found in the ruins of an ancient town bears the oldest Hebrew inscription ever discovered.The site overlooks the Elah Valley, said to be the scene of the slingshot showdown between David and the Philistine giant Goliath.The five lines of faded characters have yet to be deciphered, but the finding indicates that a powerfulIsraelite Kingdo m existed at the time of the Old Testament’s King David."This is the oldest Hebrew inscription ever found. It is three thousand years old from the time of King David , first found in archeological excavations this summer at Hirbet Qeiyafa."Carbon-14 analysis of burnt olive pits found in the same layer of the site dated the shard to between 1000 and 975B.C., the same time as David’s rule in Jerusalem. History's best known Hebrew text, the Dead Sea scrolls were written 850 years later.Other scholars, however, are hesitant to embrace Garfinkel's interpretation of the find, debating whether the Bible's account of events and geography is meant to be taken literally. There is also doubt that the text is Hebrew and not a related language spoken in the area at that time. Some scholars and archeologists argue that the Bible's account ofDavid's time inflates his importance and that of his kingdom and is essentially myth, perhaps rooted in ashred of fact.Modern Zionism has traditionally seen archaeology as a way of strengthening the Jewish claim to Israel. So if Garfinkel's claim is supported, it would bolster the case for the Bible's accuracy, indicating that the settlement was probably inhabited by Israelites.。
英国文学史及选读Chapter1
英国文学史及选读Chapter1英国文学史及选读Chapter1发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:32 共270人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Anglo-Saxon PeriodI. Fill in the blanks.1.After the fall of the Roman Empire and athe withdrawl of Roman troops from Albion,the aboriginal __ population of the larger part of the island was soon conquerered and almost totally exterminated by the Teutonic tribes of ____,_____ ,and _____ who came from the continent and settled in the island,naming its central part a,or England.2.For nearly ______ years prior to the coming of the English,British had been a Roman province. In _____,the Rome withdrew their legions from Britain to protect herself against swarms of Teutonic invaders.3.The literature of early period falls naturally into teo divisions,and ____.The former represents the poetry which ____the Anglso-Saxons probably brought with them in the form of _____ ,the crude material out of which literature was slowly developed on English soil;the later represents the writings developed under the teaching of ______ .4._____can be justly termed England’s national epic and its hero _____---one of the national heros of the English people.5.The Song of Beowulf reflects events which took place on the ______ approximately at the beginning of the_____century,when the forefathers of the Jutes lived in the southern part of the _____ and maintained close relations with kindred tribes,e.g.with the ______ who lived on the other side of the straits.6.Among the early Anglo-Saxon poets we may mention______ who lived in the latter half of the ______ century and who wrote a poetic Paraphase of the Blible.7.____ is the first known religious poets of England. He is known as the father of English song.8.The didac tic poem “The Christ” was produced by ________.II. Choose the best answer for each blank.9.The most important work of _______ is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,which is regarded as the best monument of the old English prose.a. Alfred the Greatb. Caedmonc. Cynewulfd. Venerable Bede2. Who is the monster half-huamn who had mingled thirty warriors in The Song of Beowulf?a. Hrothgat.b. Heorot.c. Grendel.d. Beowulf.3. _____ is the first important religious poet in English Literature.a. Cynewulfb.Caedmonc. Shakepeare.d. Adam Bede4. The epic,The Song of Beowulf,represents the spirit of ______.a. monksb. romanticistsc. sentimentalistd. paganIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write your answers in the brackets.1. ()The author of The Song of Beowulf is Cynewulf.2. ()The setting of The Song of Beowulf is in Scotland.3. ()Alfred the Great compiles The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.4. ()Venerable Bede wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.5. ()The author of Paraphase is Caedmon.IV. Define the liretary terms listed below.Alliteration Epic.V. Answer the following questions.1.What do you know about the Teutors.2.Please give a brief description of The Song of Boewulf.英国文学史及选读Chapter2发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:31 共93人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Anglo-Norman PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.In the year___,at the battle of ___,the ____ headed by William,Duke of Normandy,defeated the Anglo-Saxons.2.The literature which Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright,____ tales of _______ and _______,in marked contrast with the ___ and ______ of Anglo-Saxon poetry.3.English literature is also a combination of ____and _____ elements.4.In the 14th century,the two most important writers are ___ and Chaucer.5.In the 15th century,there is only one important prose writer whose name is _____. He wrote an important work called Morte d’ Arthur.II. Define the leterature terms listed below.1.Canto2.legend3.Arthurian Legend.III. Read the excerpt of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight carefully,and then make a brief comment on it.IV. Answer the following questions.1.What is the consequence of the Norman Conquest?2.Make a brief survey of the middle English literature.英国文学史及选读Chapter3发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:31 共68人浏览[大] [中] [小]Geoffrey ChaucerI. Fill in the following blanks.1.Chaucer’s masterpiece is _____,one of the most famous works in all literature.2.Chaucer created in The Canterbury Tales a strikingly brilliant and picturesque panorama of _______.3.There are various kinds of ballads _______,______,______,_____,and ______.4.Bishop ____ was among the first to take a literary interest in ballads.5.The name of the “jolly innkeeper” in The CanterburyTales is ______,who proposes that each pilgrim of the ____ should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back.6.In contradistinction to the ______ verse of Anglo-Saxon poetry,Chaucer chose the metrical form which laid the foundation of the English _____ verse.II. Choose the best answer.1.Who is the “father of English poetry” and one of the greatest narrative poets of England?a. Christopher Marlowb. Geoffrey Chaucerc. W. Shakespeared. Alfred the Great2. Chaucer’s earlist work of any length is his “______” a transl ation of the French “Roman de la Rose” by Gaillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung,which was a love allegory enjoying widespread popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries not only in France but throught Europe.a. Troilus and Criseydeb. A Red,Red Rosec. Romance of the Rosed. Piers the Plowman3. In his literary development,Chaucer was influenced by three literatures,which one is not true?a. French literature.b. Italian literaturec. English literatured. American literatureIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write your answers in the brackets.1. ()The 32 pilgrims,according to Chaucer’s plan,was to exceed that of Baccoccio’s Decameron.2. ()The Prologue is a splendid masterpiece of Romantic portray,the first of its kind in the history of English literature.3. ()The Canterbury Tales is a vivid and brilliant reflection of 15th century in England.4. ()Chaucer’s poetry traces out a path to the literature of English Renaissance.IV. Define the leterary terms listed below.1.Romance.2.Fable.3.BalladV. Anwer the following question.1.What is the social significance of The Canterbury Tales ?英国文学史及选读Chapter4发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:30 共66人浏览[大] [中] [小]The RenaissanceI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to the textbook.1.Shakespeare’s first priginal play written in about 1590 was _________.2.Hamlet,Othello,King Lear,and _______ are generally regarded as Shakespeare’s four great tragedies.3.The Tragical History of Doct or Faustus is one of _______’s best known sonnets.4.Absolute monarchy in England reached its summit during the reign of ______.5.Bacon’s works may be divided into three classes,the ______,the _______,the _______ works.6.Together with the development of bourgeois relationships and formation of the English national state this period is marked by a flourishing of national culture known as the_________.7.Edmund Spenser was the author of the greatest epic poem of _______.II. Find out the author and his works.⑴The author and their works1. ()Thomas More a. Gorge Green2. ()Enmund Spenser b. Eupheus3. ()John Lyly c.The Fairy Queen4. ()Marlowe d. Utopia5. ()Robert Greene e. The Jew of Malta⑵The characters in the play1. ()Desdemona a. The Merchant of Venice2. ()Cordelia b. As you like it3. ()Juliet c.Hamlet4. ()Ophelia d. King Lear5. ()Portia e. Othello6. ()Rosalind f. Romeo and JulietIII. Define the leterary terms listed below.1.Renaissance2.sonnet3.Spenserian Stanza4.Humanism5.dramatic irony6.tragedy7.allusionIV. Answer the following questions.1.Give a summary about the English literature during the Renaissance period.2.What is the main idea of Hamlet?3.Give a brief introduction to Thomas More’s Utopia.4.Wh en were Shakespeare’s main tragedies written?what did he write about in his tragedies?英国文学史及选读Chapter5发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:29 共40人浏览[大] [中] [小]Chapter Five The Period of Revolution and RestorationI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to th etextbook.1.The 17th century was a period when ______ impeded the further development of capitalism in England and the ______ could no longer bear the sway of _______.2.England became a commomwealth under the leadership of _______.3.The Glorious Revolution in _____ meant three things the supremacy of ________,the beginning of _______,and the final truiumph of the principle of _______.4.Restoration created a literature of its own,that was often ______ and _______,but on the whole _______ and _______.5.The first thing to strik e the reader is Donne’s extraordinary _____ and penetrating_______. The next is the ______ which marks certain of the lighter poems and which represents a conscious reation from the extreme _______ of woman encouraged by the Petrachan tradition.6.Parad ise Lost presents the author’s view in an ______,_______ form. It is based on the _______legend of the imaginary progenitors of the human race-______,and _______,and involves God and his eternal adversary _____in its plot.7.Bunyan’s most important wo rk is _________,written in the old-fashioned,medieval form of ________ and _________.8.Christia has two objects,---to get rid of his ______,which holds the sins and fears of his life,and to make his way.II. Find out the work from column A and its content from column B.1. ()II Penseroso a. defense of the Revolution2. ()Lycidas b. Satan against God3. ()Comas c. about dear friend4. ()Areopagitica d. happiness5. ()Eikonolastes e. meditation6. ()Defense for the English People f. masque7. ()Paradise Lost g. attack on the censorship8. ()L’Allegro h. justifying the excutionIII.Define the leterature terms listed below.1 .Blank Verse2. Three Unities3. Conceit4. Stanza5. Elegy6 .Allegory7. GenreLiterary CriticismIV. Answer the following questions.1.What are the different aspects between the literature of Elizabeth period and that of the Revolution period?2.Give a brief analysis of Satan,the central figure in ParadiseLost.3.Why do people say Samson is Milton?4.In your opinion,why is “The Pilgrim’s P rogress” successful?英国文学史及选读Chapter6发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:29 共34人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Age of Enlightenment EnglandI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to th etextbook.1.The Revolution of 1688,which banished the last of the _____ kings,marks the end of the long struggle for political freedom in England.2.Another feature of the age was the rapid development of _________.3.It is simply for convenience that we study 18th century writings in three main divisions:the reign of so-called _____,the revival of _______ poetry,and the beginnings of the _______.4.The philosophy of the nlighteners,though ________ ________ and _________ in its essence,did not exclude senses,or sentiments,as a means of perception and learning.5.The most outstanding figure of English sentimentalism was ________.6.The Tarler and _______ _________ were Steele and Addison’s chief contribution to English literature.7.Robinson Crusoe is largely an ______ ________ ________ story,rather than the study of ______ _______ which Defoe probably intended it to be.8.Gulliver’s adventures begins with ______________,who are so small that Gulliver isa giant among them.9.The poem,which Addison named ______ _______,was hailed throughout England as a great work.10.In the essays of the 16th century,French writer ____ set the model for more familiar,personal and discursive discussion.11.Fielding’s laternovels are _______________,was inspired by the success of Ri chardson’s novel Pamela.12.As________,Goldsmith is among the best of the century.13. The greatest of _______ poets is Robert Burns.II. Match the theirs works in column A writers/genres with in column B.⑴1. ()The Deserted Village a. Thomas Gary2. ()The Village b. George Crabble3. ()Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard c. Oliver Goldsmith4. ()The Seasons d. James Thomson5. ()The Rape of the Lock e. William Blake6. ()The Chimney Sweeper f. Alexander Pope7. () A Red,Red Rose g. Robert Burns⑵1. ()A Sentimental Journey a. Daniel Defoe2. ()The Vicar of Wakefield b. Jonathan Swift3. ()The School for Scandal c.John Bunyan4. ()The History of a Young Lady d. Horace Walpole5. ()Tom Jones e. Laurence Sterne6. ()The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle f. Oliver Goldsmith7. ()Robinson Crusoe g. Richard B. Sheridam8. ()Gulliver’s Tra vels h. Samuel Richardson9. ()The Castle of Otranto i. T. G. Smollet10.()The Pilgrim’s Progress j. Fielding.⑶1. ()The Vicar of Wakefield a. essay2. ()She Stoops to Conquerb. poem3. ()The Citizen of the world c. novel4. ()The Deserted Village d. comedyIII.Define the leterature terms listed below.1.Enlightenment Movement2.Realistic Novel3.Gothic novel4.Heroic Couplet5.Mock Epic6.Bildungsroman7.Epitaph8.Farce9.Imagism10.RhymeIV. Answer the following questions.1.What is Pope’s position in English literature?2.What are the features of Sterne’s novels?3.What are the narrative festures of Gulliver’s Travel?4.What is Dr. Johnson’s comment on Addison’s prose?5.What is Fielding’s style?6.Why is Burn’s poetry important?英国文学史及选读Chapter7发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:28 共27人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Romantic PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.With the publication of William Wordworth’s _____ in Collaboration with S. T. Coleridge,________ began to bloom and found a firm place in the history of English literature.2.The most important and decisive factor in the develoment of literature is _____,English Romanticism was greatly influenced by the _______ and _______.3.The greatest historical novelist _____ was produced in the Romantic Age.4.Byron is chiefly known for his two long poems,one is Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage,the other is ________.5.Shelley’s poem _______ (1816),is vaguely autobiographical acount of a youn g poet’s unsuccessful attempt to recapture his envisional ideal.6.Ode to a Nightingale was written by _______.II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The Romantics emphasized the special qualities of each individual’s mind.2.The brilliant literary criticiam Biographis literaria is written by Samuel Johnson.III. Write the author of the following literary works.1. Song of Innocence2. The Prelude3. Kubla Khan4. Don Juan5. Prometheus Unbound6. Ode to the West Wind7. Ode on a Greciam Urn8. Pride and Prejudice9. Poor RelationsIV. Match the authors in column A with the works in columnB.1. Dante a. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud2.Byron b. Ode to a Nightingale3. Wordsworth c. Gain4. Keats d. Prometheus Unbound5. Shelley e. Divine ComedyV. Define the following terms.1.Romanticism/doc/a410999246.htmlke poetsVI. Answer the following questions.1.How does Wordsworth define the poet?2.What kinds of stylistic devices are used in Ode to the West Wind?3.Co mment on Austen’s writing festures.英国文学史及选读Chapter7发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:28 共27人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Romantic PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.With the publication of William Wordworth’s _____ in Collaboration with S. T. Coleridge,________ began to bloom and found a firm place in the history of English literature.2.The most important and decisive factor in the develomentof literature is _____,English Romanticism was greatly influenced by the _______ and _______.3.The greatest historical novelist _____ was produced in the Romantic Age.4.Byron is chiefly known for his two long poems,one is Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage,the other is ________.5.Shelley’s poem _______ (1816),is vaguely autobiographical acount of a young poet’s unsuccessful attempt to recapture his envisional ideal.6.Ode to a Nightingale was written by _______.II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The Romantics emphasized the special qualities of each individual’s mind.2.The brilliant literary criticiam Biographis literaria is written by Samuel Johnson.III. Write the author of the following literary works.1. Song of Innocence2. The Prelude3. Kubla Khan4. Don Juan5. Prometheus Unbound6. Ode to the West Wind7. Ode on a Greciam Urn8. Pride and Prejudice9. Poor RelationsIV. Match the authors in column A with the works in columnB.1. Dante a. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud2.Byron b. Ode to a Nightingale3. Wordsworth c. Gain4. Keats d. Prometheus Unbound5. Shelley e. Divine ComedyV. Define the following terms.1.Romanticism/doc/a410999246.htmlke poetsVI. Answer the following questions.1.How does Wordsworth define the poet?2.What kinds of stylistic devices are used in Ode to the West Wind?/doc/a410999246.htmlment on Austen’s writing festures.英国文学史及选读Chapter9发布人:圣才学习网发布日期:2010-08-16 17:26 共37人浏览[大] [中] [小]The 20TH Century LiteratureI. Fill in the following blanks.1.Those “novels of character and enviorement” by T homas Hardy are the most representative of him as both a _______ and a critical realist writer.2.The trilogy “The Forsyte Saga” consists of The Man of Propert y,In Chancery and_________./doc/a410999246.htmlwrence first novel,_________________,was received with respect.4.Virginia Woolf’s novel ________________,published in 1925,made her reputation as an important psychological writer.5._________is the m ost outstanding stream of consciousnessnovelist.II. Define the literary terms.1.Imagism2.ModernismIII. Find the relevant match from column B for each item in column A.1. James Joyce a. Neo-classicism2. Ezra Pound b. An active romantic3. William Wordsworth c. Humanism4. Oscar Wilde d. Transcendantalism5. Walter Scott e. A radical enlightenner6. Alezander Pope f. Imagism7. Johanthan Swift g. Aestheticism8. Percy Bysshe Shelley h. A lake Poet9. William Shakespeare i. Stream of consciousness10. Henry,David Thoreau j. A historical novelistIV. Give a brief comment on the c haracteristic of Hardy’s novels.。
法国七月王朝 英文
The July Monarchy 1830-48
• Family connection with the Bourbons • Father had sympathised with the Revolution • Critic of Charles X • Family was one of the wealthiest in France
Political Changes
• King could no longer suspend laws & rule by decree • Assembly could now propose legislation • Electorate increased from 94,000 to almost 130,000 • Power of Church reduced - now the religion „practised by the majority‟
STABILITY
POLITICAL
STAGNATION
Challenges to Louis-Philippe
Bonapartists – gave support to Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. Wanted return to days of glory. 2 failed coups, 1836 & 1840 Legitimists – gave support to son of Duc de Berri. Attempted coup 1832
Foreign Policy (2)
• Support given to Mehemet Ali in his conflict with Turkey • Other Great Powers opted to support Sultan so France left isolated • MA‟s forces pushed out of Syria and was further punished • Loss of face for the French
鲁迅滴一生 英文版
Lu xun, was born on September 25, 1882 in shaoxing duchang fang mouth a feudal Confucian family, enlightenment age of 7, 12 years old at sanwei bookroom,, enquiry to produce strong interest in painting art, since then to lay a solid cultural foundation.Shaoxing has a long history and splendid culture, to lu xun's thoughts with great influence and impact. Left home in the spring of 1898, lu xun, full of new hope in life, was admitted to the nanjing jiangnan navy academy in 1902, lu xun graduated with high honors, be thegovernment-sent to Japan to study abroad. On the eve of the revolution of lu xun's return to the motherland.Russia after the October revolution victory, encouraged by lu xun, with many of the advanced intellectuals such as li dazhao, Chen duxiu, writing articles, the magazine, has opened the prologue of the May 4th movement in China. In 1918, he published the first article on China's modern literature vernacular novel "the diary of a madmanOn October 19, 1936, lu xun mainland new apartment in Shanghai, at the age of 55.鲁迅,1882年9月25日出生于绍兴都昌坊口一个封建士大夫家庭,7岁启蒙,12岁就读于三味书屋,勤学好问,对绘画艺术产生浓厚兴趣,自此打下坚实的文化基础。
弗兰西斯·培根的英语介绍(中英对照11Ps)
Introduction of Francis Bacon(中英对照)Excerpt of the Chapter VII of < A History of Western Philosophy>Written by BERTRAND RUSSELL, Audio file < 307 Francis Bacon > delivered by BiHui.摘自伯特兰·罗素所著《西方哲学史》第七章,音频文件< 307 Francis Bacon >已由必辉提供。
FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626), although his philosophy is in many ways unsatisfactory, has permanent importance as the founder of modern inductive method and the pioneer in the attempt at logical systematization of scientic procedure.He was a son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and his aunt was the wife of Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley; he thus grew up in the atmosphere of state affairs.He entered Parliament at the age of twenty-three, and became adviser to Essex. None the less, when Essex fell from favour he helped in his prosecution. For this he has been severely blamed:Lytton Strachey, for example, in his Elizabeth and Essex, represents Bacon as a monster of treachery and ingratitude. This is quite unjust. He worked with Essex while Essex was loyal, but abandoned him when continued loyalty to him would have been treasonable; in this there was nothing that even the most rigid moralist of the age could condemn.In spite of his abandonment of Essex, he was never completely in favour during the lifetime of Queen Elizabeth. With James's accession, however, his prospects improved. In 1617 he acquired his father's office of Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1618 he became Lord Chancellor. But after he had held this great position for only two years, he was prosecuted for accepting bribes from litigants. He admitted the truth of accusation, pleading only that presents never influenced his decision. As to that, any one may form his own opinion, since there can be no evidence as to the decisions that Bacon would have come to in other circumstances. He was condemned to a fine of £40,000, to imprisonment in the Tower during the king's pleasure, to perpetual banishment from court and inability to hold office. This sentence was only very partially executed. He was not forced to pay the fine, and he was kept in the Tower for only four days. But he was compelled to abandon public life, and to spend the remainder of his days in writing important books.The ethics of the legal profession, in those days, were somewhat lax. Almost every judge accepted presents, usually from both sides. Nowadays we think it atrocious for a judge to take bribes, but even more atrocious, after taking them, to decide against the givers of them. In those days, presents were a matter of course, and a judge showed his "virtue" by not being influenced by them. Bacon was condemned as an incident in a party squabble, not because he was exceptionally guilty. He was not a man of outstanding moral eminence, like his forerunner Sir Thomas More, but he was also not exceptionally wicked. Morally, he was an average man, no better and no worse than the bulk of his contemporaries.After five years spent in retirement, he died of a chill caught while experimenting on refrigeration by stuffing a chicken full of snow.Bacon's most important book, The Advancement of Learning, is in many waysremarkably modern. He is commonly regarded as the originator of the saying "Knowledge is power," and though he may have had predecessors who said the same thing, he said it with new emphasis. The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions. He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately blended with it as in scholasticism. He accepted orthodox religion; he was not the man to quarrel with the government on such a matter. But while he thought that reason could show the existence of God, he regarded everything else in theology as known only by revelation. Indeed he held that the triumph of faith is greatest when to the unaided reason a dogma appears most absurd. Philosophy, however, should depend only upon reason. He was thus an advocate of the doctrine of "double truth," that of reason and that of revelation. This doctrine had been preached by certain Averroists in the thirteenth century, but had been condemned by the Church. The "triumph of faith" was, for the orthodox, a dangerous device. Bayle, in the late seventeenth century, made ironical use of it, setting forth at great length all that reason could say against some orthodox belief, and then concluding "so much the greater is the triumph of faith in nevertheless believing." How far Bacon's orthodoxy was sincere it is impossible to know.Bacon was the first of the long line of scientifically minded philosophers who have emphasized the importance of induction as opposed to deduction. Like most of his successors, he tried to find some better kind of induction than what is called "induction by simple enumeration." Induction by simple enumeration may be illustrated by a parable. There was once upon a time a census officer who had to record the names of all householders in a certain Welsh village. The first that he questioned was called William Williams; so were the second, third, fourth, . . . At last he said to himself: "This is tedious; evidently they are all called William Williams. I shall put them down so and take a holiday." But he was wrong; there was just one whose name was John Jones. This shows that we may go astray if we trust too implicitly in induction by simple enumeration.Bacon believed that he had a method by which induction could be made something better than this. He wished, for example, to discover the nature of heat, which he supposed (rightly) to consist of rapid irregular motions of the small parts of bodies. His method was to make lists of hot bodies, lists of cold bodies, and lists of bodies of varying degrees of heat. He hoped that these lists would show some characteristic always present in hot bodies and absent in cold bodies, and present in varying degrees in bodies of different degress of heat. By this method he expected to arrive at general laws, having, in the first instance, the lowest degree of generality. From a number of such laws he hoped to reach laws of the second degree of generality, and so on. A suggested law should be tested by being applied in new circumstances; if it worked in these circumstances it was to that extent confirmed. Some instances are specially valuable because they enable us to decide between two theories, each possible so far as previous observations are concerned; such instances are called "prerogative" instances.Bacon not only despised the syllogism, but undervalued mathematics, presumably as insufficiently experimental. He was virulently hostile to Aristotle, but thought very highly of Democritus.Although he did not deny that the course of nature exemplifies a Divine purpose, he objected to any admixture of teleological explanation in the actual investigation ofphenomena; everything, he held, should be explained as following necessarily from efficient causes.He valued his method as showing how to arrange the observational data upon which science must be based. We ought, he says, to be neither like spiders, which spin things out of their own insides, nor like ants, which merely collect, but like bees, which both collect and arrange. This is somewhat unfair to the ants, but it illustrates Bacon's meaning.One of the most famous parts of Bacon's philosophy is his enumeration of what he calls "idols," by which he means bad habits of mind that cause people to fall into error. Of these he enumerates five kinds. "Idols of the tribe" are those that are inherent in human nature; he mentions in particular the habit of expecting more order in natural phenomena than is actually to be found."Idols of the cave" are personal prejudices, characteristic of the particular investigator. "Idols of the market-place" are those that have to do with the tyranny of words and the difficulty of escaping from their influence over our minds. "Idols of the theatre" are those that have to do with received systems of thought; of these, naturally Aristotle and the scholastics afforded him the most noteworthy instances. Lastly there are "idols of the schools," which consist in thinking that some blind rule (such as the syllogism) can take the place of judgement in investigation.Although science was what interested Bacon, and although his general outlook was scientific, he missed most of what was being done in science in his day. He rejected the Copernican theory, which was excusable so far as Copernicus himself was concerned, since he did not advance any very solid arguments. But Bacon ought to have been convinced by Kepler, whose New Astronomy appeared in 1609. Bacon appears not to have known of the work of Vesalius, the pioneer of modern anatomy, or of Gilbert, whose work on magnetism brilliantly illustrated inductive method.Still more surprising, he seemed unconscious of the work of Harvey, although Harvey was his medical attendant. It is true that Harvey did not publish his discovery of the circulation of the blood until after Bacon's death, but one would have supposed that Bacon would have been aware of his researches. Harvey had no very high opinion of him, saying "he writes philosophy like a Lord Chancellor." No doubt Bacon could have done better if he had been less concerned with worldly success.Bacon's inductive method is faulty through insufficient emphasis on hypothesis. He hoped that mere orderly arrangement of data would make the right hypothesis obvious, but this is seldom the case. As a rule, the framing of hypotheses is the most difficult part of scientific work, and the part where great ability is indispensable. So far, no method has been found which would make it possible to invent hypotheses by rule. Usually some hypothesis is a necessary preliminary to the collection of facts, since the selection of facts demands some way of determining relevance. Without something of this kind, the mere multiplicity of facts is baffling.The part played by deduction in science is greater than Bacon supposed. Often, when a hypothesis has to be tested, there is a long deductive journey from the hypothesis to some consequence that can be tested by observation. Usually the deduction is mathematical, and in this respect Bacon underestimated the importance of mathematics in scientific investigation.The problem of induction by simple enumeration remains unsolved to this day. Bacon was quite right in rejecting simple enumeration where the details of scientific investigation are concerned, for in dealing with details we may assume general laws on the basis of which, so long as they are taken as valid, more or less cogent methods can be built up. John Stuart Mill framed four canons of inductive method, which can be usefully employed so long as the law of causality is assumed; but this law itself, he had to confess, is to be accepted solely on the basis of induction by simple enumeration. The thing that is achieved by the theoretical organization of science is the collection of all subordinate inductions into a few that are very comprehensive --perhaps only one. Such comprehensive inductions are confirmed by so many instances that it is thought legitimate to accept, as regards them, an induction by simple enumeration. This situation is profoundly unsatisfactory, but neither Bacon nor any of his successors have found a way out of it.第七章弗兰西斯·培根弗兰西斯·培根(Francis Bacon,1561-1626)是近代归纳法的创始人,又是给科学研究程序进行逻辑组织化的先驱,所以尽管他的哲学有许多地方欠圆满,他仍旧占有永久不倒的重要地位。
08Petropolitics_Friedman
Get a free year of FP! Two years for only $24.95.The First Law of PetropoliticsBy Thomas L. FriedmanMay/June 2006Iran’s president denies the Holocaust, Hugo Chávez tells Western leaders to go to hell, and Vladimir Putin is cracking the whip. Why? They know that the price of oil and the pace of freedom always move in opposite directions. It’s the First Law of Petropolitics, and it may be the axiom to explain our age.Oil at $105 a gal $5 Gas Shock will effect every investment you own. Free report on impact. ID Media Communications Technology Meets Political Strategy Political Email, Fundraising & More George Bush Bill Clinto Who Is A Better President? Who's Winning!When I heard the president of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, declare that the Holocaust was a “myth,”I couldn’t help asking myself: “I wonder if the president of Iran would be talking this way if the price of oil were $20 a barrel today rather than $60 a barrel.” When I heard Venezuela’s President HugoChávez telling British Prime Minister Tony Blair to “go right to hell” and telling his supporters that the U.S.-sponsored Free Trade Area of the Americas “can go to hell,” too, I couldn’t help saying to myself, “I wonder if the president of Venezuela would be saying all these things if the price of oil today were $20 a barrel rather than $60 a barrel, and his country had to make a living by empowering its own entrepreneurs, not just drilling wells.”As I followed events in the Persian Gulf during the past few years, I noticed that the first Arab Gulf state to hold a free and fair election, in which women could run and vote, and the first Arab Gulf state to undertake a total overhaul of its labor laws to make its own people more employable and less dependent on imported labor, was Bahrain. Bahrain happened to be the first Arab Gulf state expected to run out of oil. It was also the first in the region to sign a free trade agreement with the United States. I couldn’t help asking myself: “Could that all just be a coincidence? Finally, when I looked across the Arab world, and watched the popular democracy activists in Lebanon pushing Syrian troops out of their country, I couldn’t help saying to myself: “Is it an accident that the Arab world’s first and only real democracy happens not to have a drop of oil?”The more I pondered these questions, the more it seemed obvious to me that there must be a correlation—a literal correlation that could be measured and graphed—between the price of oil and the pace, scope, and sustainability of political freedoms and economic reforms in certain countries. A few months ago I approached the editors of this magazine and asked them to see if we could do just that—try to quantify this intuition in graph form. Along one axis we would plot the average global price of crude oil, and along the other axis we would plot the pace of expanding or contracting freedoms, both economic and political, as best as research organizations such as Freedom House could measure them. We would look at free and fair elections held, newspapers opened or closed, arbitrary arrests, reformers elected to parliaments, economic reform projects started or stopped, companies privatized and companies nationalized, and so on.I would be the first to acknowledge that this is not a scientific lab experiment, because the rise and fall of economic and political freedom in a society can never be perfectly quantifiable or interchangeable. But because I am not trying to get tenure anywhere, but rather to substantiate a hunch and stimulate a discussion, I think there is value in trying to demonstrate this very real correlation between the price of oil and the pace of freedom, even with its imperfections. Because the rising price of crude is certain to be a major factor shaping international relations for the near future, we must try to understand any connections it has with the character and direction of global politics. And the graphs assembled here certainly do suggest a strong correlation between the price of oil and the pace of freedom—so strong, in fact, that I would like to spark this discussion by offering the First Law of Petropolitics.The First Law of Petropolitics posits the following: The price of oil and the pace of freedom always move in opposite directions in oil-rich petrolist states. According to the First Law of Petropolitics, the higher the average global crude oil price rises, the more free speech, free press, free and fair elections, an independent judiciary, the rule of law, and independent political parties are eroded. And these negative trends are reinforced by the fact that the higher the price goes, the less petrolist leaders are sensitive to what the world thinks or says about them. Conversely, according to the First Law of Petropolitics, the lower the price of oil, the more petrolist countries are forced to move toward a political system and a society that is more transparent, more sensitive to opposition voices, and more focused on building the legal and educational structures that will maximize their people’s ability, both men’s and women’s, to compete, start new companies, and attract investments from abroad. The lower the price of crude oil falls, the more petrolist leaders are sensitive to what outside forces think of them.I would define petrolist states as states that are both dependent on oil production for the bulk of theirexports or gross domestic product and have weak state institutions or outright authoritarian governments. High on my list of petrolist states would be Azerbaijan, Angola, Chad, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Iran, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Uzbekistan, and Venezuela. (Countries that have a lot of crude oil but were well-established states, with solid democratic institutions and diversified economies before their oil was discovered—Britain, Norway, the United States, for example—would not be subject to the First Law of Petropolitics.)To be sure, professional economists have, for a long time, pointed out in general the negative economic and political impacts that an abundance of natural resources can have on a country. This phenomenon has been variously diagnosed as “Dutch Disease” or the “resource curse.” Dutch Disease refers to the process of deindustrialization that can result from a sudden natural resource windfall. The term was coined in the Netherlands in the 1960s, after it discovered huge deposits of natural gas. What happens in countries with Dutch Disease is that the value of their currency rises, thanks to the sudden influx of cash from oil, gold, gas, diamonds, or some other natural resource discovery. That then makes the country’s manufactured exports uncompetitive and its imports very cheap. The citizens, flush with cash, start importing like crazy, the domestic industrial sector gets wiped out and, presto, you have deindustrialization. The “resource curse” can refer to the same economic phenomenon, as well as, more broadly speaking, the way a dependence on natural resources always skews a country’s politics and investment and educational priorities, so that everything revolves around who controls the oil tap and who gets how much from it—not how to compete, innovate, and produce real products for real markets.Beyond these general theories, some political scientists have explored how an abundance of oil wealth, in particular, can reverse or erode democratizing trends. One of the most trenchant analyses that I have come across is the work of UCLA political scientist Michael L. Ross. Using a statistical analysis from 113 states between 1971 and 1997, Ross concluded that a state’s “reliance on either oil or mineral exports tends to make it less democratic; that this effect is not caused by other types of primary exports; that it is not limited to the Arabian Peninsula, to the Middle East, or sub-Saharan Africa; and that it is not limited to small states.”What I find particularly useful about Ross’s analysis is his list of the precise mechanisms by which excessive oil wealth impedes democracy. First, he argues, there is the “taxation effect.” Oil-rich governments tend to use their revenues to “relieve social pressures that might otherwise lead to demands for greater accountability” from, or representation in, the governing authority. I like to put it this way: The motto of the American Revolution was “no taxation without representation.” The motto of the petrolist authoritarian is “no representation without taxation.” Oil-backed regimes that do not have to tax their people in order to survive, because they can simply drill an oil well, also do not have to listen to their people or represent their wishes.The second mechanism through which oil dampens democratization, argues Ross, is the “spending effect.” Oil wealth leads to greater patronage spending, which in turn dampens pressures for democratization. The third mechanism he cites is the “group formation effect.” When oil revenues provide an authoritarian state with a cash windfall, the government can use its newfound wealth to prevent independent social groups—precisely those most inclined to demand political rights—from forming. In addition, he argues, an overabundance of oil revenues can create a “repression effect,” because it allows governments to spend excessively on police, internal security, and intelligence forces that can be used to choke democratic movements. Finally, Ross sees a “modernization effect” at work.A massive influx of oil wealth can diminish social pressures for occupational specialization, urbanization, and the securing of higher levels of education—trends that normally accompany broad economic development and that also produce a public that is more articulate, better able to organize, bargain, and communicate, and endowed with economic power centers of its own.The First Law of Petropolitics tries to build on such arguments but to take the correlation between oil and politics one step further. What I am arguing in positing the First Law of Petropolitics is not only that an overdependence on crude oil can be a curse in general but also that one can actually correlate rises and falls in the price of oil with rises and falls in the pace of freedom in petrolist countries. The connection is very real. As these graphs demonstrate, the pace of freedom really starts to decline as the price of oil really starts to take off.An Axis of Oil?The reason this connection between the price of oil and the pace of freedom is worth focusing on today is that we appear to be at the onset of a structural rise in global crude oil prices. If that is the case, this higher price level is almost certain to have a long-term effect on the character of politics in many weak or authoritarian states. That, in turn, could have a negative global impact on the post-Cold War world as we have come to know it. In other words, the price of crude should now be a daily preoccupation of the U.S. secretary of state, not just the treasury secretary.Since 9/11, oil prices have structurally shifted from the $20–$40 range to the $40–$60 range. Part of this move has to do with a general sense of insecurity in global oil markets due to violence in Iraq, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Sudan, but even more appears to be the result of what I call the “flattening” of the world and the rapid influx into the global marketplace of 3 billion new consumers, from China, Brazil, India, and the former Soviet Empire, all dreaming of a house, a car, a microwave, and a refrigerator. Their rising energy appetites are enormous. This already is, and will continue to be, a steady source of pressure on the price of oil. Without a dramatic move toward conservation in the West, or the discovery of an alternative to fossil fuels, we are going to be in this $40-to-$60 range, or higher, for the foreseeable future.Politically, that will mean that a whole group of petrolist states with weak institutions or outright authoritarian governments will likely experience an erosion of freedoms and an increase in corruption and autocratic, antidemocratic behaviors. Leaders in these countries can expect to have a significant increase in their disposable income to build up security forces, bribe opponents, buy votes or public support, and resist international norms and conventions. One need only pick up the newspaper on anyday of the week to see evidence of this trend.Consider a February 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal about how the mullahs in Tehran—who now are flush with cash thanks to high oil prices—are turning their backs on some foreign investors instead of rolling out the welcome mat. Turkcell, a Turkish mobile-phone operator, had signed a deal with Tehran to build the country’s first privately owned cell-phone network. It was an attractive deal: Turkcell agreed to pay Iran $300 million for the license and invest $2.25 billion in the venture, which would have created 20,000 Iranian jobs. But the mullahs in the Iranian Parliament had the contract frozen, claiming it might help foreigners spy on Iran. Ali Ansari, an Iran expert at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, told the Journal that Iranian analysts had been arguing in favor of economic reform for 10 years. “In actual fact, the scenario is worse now,” said Ansari. “They have all this money with the high oil price, and they don’t need to do anything about reforming the economy.”Or, how about a Feb. 11, 2006, story in The Economist about Iran, which stated: “Nationalism is easier on a full stomach and Mr. Ahmadinejad is the rare and fortunate president who expects to receive, over the coming Iranian year, some $36 billion in oil export revenues to help buy loyalty. In his first budget bill, now before parliament, the government has promised to build 300,000 housing units, two-thirds of them outside big towns, and to maintain energy subsidies that amount to a staggering 10% of [gross domestic product].”Or, consider the drama now unfolding in Nigeria. Nigeria has a term limit for its presidents—two four-year terms. President Olusegun Obasanjo came to office in 1999, after a period of military rule, and was then reelected by a popular vote in 2003. When he took over from the generals in 1999, Obasanjo made headlines by investigating human rights abuses by the Nigerian military, releasing political prisoners, and even making a real attempt to root out corruption. That was when oil was around $25 a barrel. Today, with oil at $60 a barrel, Obasanjo is trying to persuade the Nigerian legislature to amend the constitution to allow him to serve a third term. A Nigerian opposition leader in the House of Representatives, Wunmi Bewaji, has alleged that bribes of $1 million were being offered to lawmakers who would vote to extend Obasanjo’s tenure. “What they are touting now is $1 million per vote,” Bewaji was quoted as saying in a March 11, 2006, article by VOA News. “And it has been coordinated by a principal officer in the Senate and a principal officer in the House.”Clement Nwankwo, one of Nigeria’s leading human rights campaigners, told me during a visit to Washington in March that since the price of oil has started to climb, “civil liberties [have been] on a huge decline—people have been arbitrarily arrested, political opponents have been killed, and institutions of democracy have been crippled.” Oil accounts for 90 percent of Nigeria’s exports, added Nwankwo, and that explains, in part, why there has been a sudden upsurge in the kidnapping of foreign oil workers in Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta. Many Nigerians think they must be stealing oil, because so little of the revenue is trickling down to the Nigerian people.Very often in petrolist states, not only do all politics revolve around who controls the oil tap, but the public develops a distorted notion of what development is all about. If they are poor and the leaders are rich, it is not because their country has failed to promote education, innovation, rule of law, and entrepreneurship. It is because someone is getting the oil money and they are not. People start to think that, to get rich, all they have to do is stop those who are stealing the country’s oil, not build a society that promotes education, innovation, and entrepreneurship. “If Nigeria had no oil, then the entire political equation would be different,” said Nwankwo. “The income would not be coming from oil and therefore the diversification of the economy would become an issue and private enterprise would matter more, and people would have to expand their own creativity.”Indeed, the link between oil prices and the pace of freedom is so tight in some countries that even a far-sighted leadership can be diverted from the path of economic and political reform by a suddenspike in crude prices. Consider Bahrain, which knows it is running out of oil, and has been a case study of how falling oil revenues can spur reform. Even it has not been able to resist the temporary seduction of higher oil prices. “We are having good times now because of high oil prices. This may lead officials to be complacent,” Jasim Husain Ali, head of the University of Bahrain’s economic research unit, recently told the Gulf Daily News. “This is a very dangerous trend, as oil income is not sustainable. [Bahrain’s] [d]iversification may be enough by Gulf standards, but not by international standards.” No wonder a young Iranian journalist once remarked to me while we were on a stroll in Tehran: “If only we didn’t have oil, we could be just like Japan.”Geology Trumps IdeologyWith all due respect to Ronald Reagan, I do not believe he brought down the Soviet Union. There were obviously many factors, but the collapse in global oil prices around the late 1980s and early 1990s surely played a key role. (When the Soviet Union officially dissolved on Christmas Day 1991, the price of a barrel of oil was hovering around $17.) And lower oil prices also surely helped tilt the postcommunist Boris Yeltsin government toward more rule of law, more openness to the outside world, and more sensitivity to the legal structures demanded by global investors. And then came Russian President Vladimir Putin. Think about the difference between Putin when oil was in the $20–$40 range and now, when it is $40–$60. When oil was $20–$40, we had what I would call “Putin I.” President Bush said after their first meeting in 2001 that he had looked into Putin’s “soul” and saw in there a man he could trust. If Bush looked into Putin’s soul today—Putin II, the Putin of $60 a barrel—it would look very black down there, black as oil. He would see that Putin has used his oil windfall to swallow (nationalize) the huge Russian oil company, Gazprom, various newspapers and television stations, and all sorts of other Russian businesses and once independent institutions.When oil prices were at a nadir in the early 1990s, even Arab oil states, such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt, which has substantial gas deposits, were at least talking about economic reform, if not baby-step political reforms. But as prices started to climb, the whole reform process slowed, particularly on the political side.As more and more oil wealth piles up in petrolist countries, it could really begin to distort the whole international system and the very character of the post-Cold War world. When the Berlin Wall fell, there was a widespread belief that an unstoppable tide of free markets and democratization had also been unleashed. The proliferation of free elections around the world for the next decade made that tide very real. But that tide is now running into an unanticipated counter-wave of petro-authoritarianism, made possible by $60-a-barrel oil. Suddenly, regimes such as those in Iran, Nigeria, Russia, and Venezuela are retreating from what once seemed like an unstoppable process of democratization, with elected autocrats in each country using their sudden oil windfalls to ensconce themselves in power, buy up opponents and supporters, and extend their state’s chokehold into the private sector, after many thought it had permanently receded. The unstoppable tide of democratization that followed the fall of the Berlin Wall seems to have met its match in the black tide of petro-authoritarianism.Although petro-authoritariansim does not represent the sort of broad strategic and ideological threat that communism posed to the West, its long-term impact could nevertheless corrode world stability. Not only will some of the worst regimes in the world have extra cash for longer than ever to do the worst things, but decent, democratic countries—India and Japan, for instance—will be forced to kowtow or turn a blind eye to the behavior of petro-authoritarians, such as Iran or Sudan, because of their heavy dependence on them for oil. That cannot be good for global stability.Let me stress again that I know that the correlations suggested by these graphs are not perfect and, no doubt, there are exceptions that readers will surely point out. But I do believe they illustrate a general trend that one can see reflected in the news every day: The rising price of oil clearly has a negative impact on the pace of freedom in many countries, and when you get enough countries with enough negative impacts, you start to poison global politics.Although we cannot affect the supply of oil in any country, we can affect the global price of oil by altering the amounts and types of energy we consume. When I say “we,” I mean the United States in particular, which consumes about 25 percent of the world’s energy, and the oil-importing countries in general. Thinking about how to alter our energy consumption patterns to bring down the price of oil is no longer simply a hobby for high-minded environmentalists or some personal virtue. It is now a national security imperative.Therefore, any American democracy-promotion strategy that does not also include a credible and sustainable strategy for finding alternatives to oil and bringing down the price of crude is utterly meaningless and doomed to fail. Today, no matter where you are on the foreign-policy spectrum, youhave to think like a Geo-Green. You cannot be either an effective foreign-policy realist or an effective democracy-promoting idealist without also being an effective energy environmentalist.Thomas L. Friedman is a columnist for the New York Times and author of, most recently, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005).。
史记华兹生英文版
史记华兹生英文版Watson, full name Burton Watson, born in 1925, is a renowned Asian language translator who has had a profound influence in the translation of Chinese classics. His main translated works include the works of pre Qin scholars as well as the poems of Du Fu, Su Shi, Lu You, and others. His translations are simple and elegant, and are deeply loved by readers.Of particular note is Watson's translation work on The Records of the Grand Historian. "Records of the Grand Historian" is the first biographical general history in Chinese history and an important work in ancient Chinese historiography. Professor Watson translated 80 out of 130 volumes of Records of the Grand Historian into English from 1950 to 1993. His translations have high readability and literary value, and have been reprinted multiple times, creating brilliant achievements in the translation and publication of Chinese classics. In addition, Watson has also released multiple versions of Selected Translations of Records of the Grand Historian, such as the Selected Translations of Records of the Grand Historian published in 1969. This version includes 13 translations and 5 new translations that he translated in the 1961 version,mainly involving biographies of characters. The goal is to provide an easy to read and rich version for ordinary readers.。
肖邦的英文介绍
Works Appreciation
❖ 《圆舞曲》
Waltz was considered as one of the greatest music genre of Chopin, and it is the vitality of Chopin comparable with the immortal works of others.
Musical style
His music, romantic and lyrical(抒情的) in nature, is characterized by exquisite melody of great originality(创意), subtle rhythm(微妙的节奏), and poetic beauty(诗意美).
Famous Composer
Chopin 肖邦
Introduction
Introduction Life Musical style Works Works appreciation
Introduction
Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin 弗里德里克·弗朗索瓦·肖邦 (1810-1846)
Works
❖ Over 230 works of Chopin survived; some compositions from early childhood have been lost.
❖ All his known works involve the piano, and only a few range beyond solo piano music (钢琴独奏乐), as either piano concertos(钢 琴协奏曲), songs or chamber music(歌曲及室 内乐).
加缪维基英文
Literary careerDuring the war Camus joined the French Resistance cell Combat, which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the nom de guerre Beauchard. Camus became the paper's editor in 1943. He first met Sartre at the dress rehearsal of Sartre's play, The Flies, in June 1943. [12] When the Allies liberated Paris in August 1944, Camus witnessed and reported the last of the fighting. Soon after the event on 6 August 1945, he was one of the few French editors to publicly express opposition and disgust to the United States' dropping the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. He resigned from Combat in 1947 when it became a commercial paper. After the war, Camus began frequenting the Café de Flore on the Boulevard Saint-Germain in Paris with Sartre and others. He also toured the United States to lecture about French thought. Although he leaned left, politically, his strong criticisms of Communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the Communist parties and eventually alienated Sartre.In 1949, his TB returned and Camus lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951, he published The Rebel, a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which expressed his rejection of communism. Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France, the book brought about the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed Camus; he began to translate plays. Camus's first significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd. He saw it as the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he expressed in The Myth of Sisyphus and incorporated into many of his other works, such as The Stranger and The Plague. Despite his split from his "study partner", Sartre, some[who?] still argue that Camus falls into the existentialist camp. He specifically rejected that label in his essay "Enigma" and elsewhere (see: The Lyrical and Critical Essays of Albert Camus). The current confusion arises, in part, because many recent applications of existentialism have much in common with many of Camus's practical ideas (see: Resistance, Rebellion, and Death). But, his personal understanding of the world (e.g., "a benign indifference", in The Stranger), and every vision he had for its progress (e.g., vanquishing the "adolescent furies" of history and society, in The Rebel) undoubtedly set him apart.In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain as a member under the leadership of General Franco. In 1953, he criticized Soviet methods to crush a workers' strike in East Berlin. In 1956, he protested against similar methods in Poland (protests in Poznań) and the Soviet repression of the Hungarian revolution in October.The monument to Camus built in the small town of V illeblevin, France where he died in an automobile accident on 4 January 1960Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment.The bronze plaque on the monument to Camus in the town of V illeblevin, France. The plaque reads: "From the General Council of the Y onne Department, in homage to the writer Albert Camus whose remains lay in vigil at the V illeblevin town hall on the night of 4 to 5 January 1960." When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the pied-noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued that the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States'.[13] Although favouring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides, who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty.From 1955 to 1956, Camus wrote for L'Express. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature "for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times", not for his novel The Fall, published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay "Réflexions sur la Guillotine" (Reflections on the Guillotine). When he spoke to students at the University of Stockholm, he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question; he stated that he was worried about what might happen to his mother, who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals.[edit] Revolutionary Union Movement and EuropeAs he wrote in L'Homme révolté (in the chapter about "The Thought on Midday"), Camus was a follower of the ancient Greek 'Solar Tradition' (la pensée solaire). In 1947–48 he founded the Revolutionary Union Movement (Groupes de liaison internationale–GLI)[10] a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism (Syndicalisme révolutionnaire). According to Olivier Todd, in his biography, 'Albert Camus, une vie', it was a group opposed to sometendencies of the Surrealist movement of André Breton. For more, see the book Alfred Rosmer et le mouvement révolutionnaire internationale by Christian Gras.His colleagues were Nicolas Lazarévitch, Louis Mercier, Roger Lapeyre, Paul Chauvet, Auguste Largentier, Jean de Boë(see the article: "Nicolas Lazarévitch, Itinéraire d'un syndicaliste révolutionnaire" by Sylvain Boulouque in the review Communisme, n° 61, 2000). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton.From 1943, Albert Camus had correspondence with Altiero Spinelli who founded the European Federalist Movement in Milan—see V entotene Manifesto and the book "Unire l'Europa, superare gli stati", Altiero Spinelli nel Partito d'Azione del Nord Italia e in Francia dal 1944 al 1945-annexed a letter by Altiero Spinelli to Albert Camus.In 1944 Camus founded the "French Committee for the European Federation" (Comité Français pour la Féderation Européene– CFFE) declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy and peace if the nation states become a federation."From 22–25 March 1945, the first conference of the European Federalist Movement was organised in Paris with the participation of Albert Camus, George Orwell, Emmanuel Mounier, Lewis Mumford, André Philip, Daniel Mayer, François Bondy and Altiero Spinelli (see the book The Biography of Europe by Pan Drakopoulos). This specific branch of the European Federalist Movement disintegrated in 1957 after Winston Churchill's ideas about the European integration rose to dominance.[edit] DeathCamus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of V illeblevin. In his coat pocket was an unused train ticket. He had planned to travel by train with his wife and children, but at the last minute he accepted his publisher's proposal to travel with him.[14]Albert Camus' gravestoneThe driver of the Facel V ega car, Michel Gallimard, who was Camus' publisher and close friend, also died in the accident.[15] In August 2011, the Milan newspaper Corriere della Sera reported a theory that the writer had been the victim of a Soviet plot, but Camus biographer Olivier Todd did not consider it credible.[16] Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Lourmarin, V aucluse, France.He was survived by his wife and twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work.Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first, entitled A Happy Death (1970), featured a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Stranger's Meursault. There is scholarly debate as to the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, The First Man(1995), which Camus was writing before he died. The novel was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria.[edit] Summary of absurdismMany writers have addressed the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd is and what comprises its importance. For example, Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience, while Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of certain religious truths prevent us from reaching God rationally. Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus). To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus' Absurd".[citation needed]His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers et l'endroit (The Two Sides Of The Coin) in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an absurd life as L'Étranger (The Stranger). In the same year he released Le Mythe de Sisyphe(The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He also wrote a play about Caligula, a Roman Emperor, pursuing an absurd logic. The play was not performed until 1945.The turning point in Camus' attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés, in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand (Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death.[edit] Ideas on the AbsurdThis section needs additional citations for verification.(November 2011)Camus presents the reader with dualisms such as happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He emphasizes the fact that happiness is fleeting and that the human condition is one of mortality; for Camus, this is cause for a greater appreciation for life and happiness. In Le Mythe, dualism becomes a paradox: we value our own lives in spite of our mortality and in spite of the universe's silence. While we can live with a dualism (I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come), we cannot live with the paradox (I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless). In Le Mythe, Camus investigates our experience of the Absurd and asks how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves?[17]In Le Mythe, Camus suggests that 'creation of meaning', would entail a logical leap or a kind of philosophical suicide in order to find psychological comfort.[18] But Camus wants to know if hecan live with what logic and lucidity has uncovered – if one can build a foundation on what one knows and nothing more. Creation of meaning is not a viable alternative but a logical leap and an evasion of the problem. He gives examples of how others would seem to make this kind of leap. The alternative option, namely suicide, would entail another kind of leap, where one attempts to kill absurdity by destroying one of its terms (the human being). Camus points out, however, that there is no more meaning in death than there is in life, and that it simply evades the problem yet again. Camus concludes, that we must instead 'entertain' both death and the absurd, while never agreeing to their terms.Meursault, the absurdist hero of L'Étranger,has killed a man and is scheduled to be executed. Caligula ends up admitting his absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, while Camus possibly suggests that Caligula's absurd reasoning is wrong, the play's anti-hero does get the last word, as the author similarly exalts Meursault's final moments.[19]Camus made a significant contribution to a viewpoint of the Absurd, and always rejected nihilism as a valid response."If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning." Second Letter to a German Friend, December 1943.Camus' understanding of the Absurd promotes public debate; his various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus, though they are most likely sources of 'relative' versus 'absolute' meaning. In The Rebel, Camus identifies rebellion (or rather, the values indicated by rebellion) as a basis for human solidarity."When he rebels, a man identifies himself with other men and so surpasses himself, and from this point of view human solidarity is metaphysical. But for the moment we are only talking of the kind of solidarity that is born in chains."[20][edit] Religious beliefs and absurdismWhile writing his thesis on Plotinus and Saint Augustine of Hippo, Camus became very strongly influenced by their works, especially that of St. Augustine. In his work, Confessions (consisting of 13 books), Augustine promotes the idea of a connection between God and the rest of the world. Camus identified with the idea that a personal experience could become a reference point for his philosophical and literary writings. Camus later came to tout the idea that the absence of religious belief can simultaneously be accompanied by a longing for "salvation and meaning". This line of thinking presented an ostensible paradox and became a major thread in defining the idea of absurdism in Camus' writings.[21][edit] Opposition to totalitarianismThroughout his life, Camus spoke out against and actively opposed totalitarianism in its many forms.[22] Early on, Camus was active within the French Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, even directing the famous Resistance journal, Combat. On the French collaboration with Nazi occupiers he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people."[23] After liberation, Camus remarked, "This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just."[24]The reality of the bloody postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.[24]Camus' well-known falling out with Sartre is linked to this opposition to totalitarianism. Camus detected a reflexive totalitarianism in the mass politics espoused by Sartre in the name of radical Marxism. This was apparent in his work L'Homme Révolté(The Rebel) which not only was an assault on the Soviet police state, but also questioned the very nature of mass revolutionary politics. Camus continued to speak out against the atrocities of the Soviet Union, a sentiment captured in his 1957 speech, The Blood of the Hungarians, commemorating the anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, an uprising crushed in a bloody assault by the Red Army。
西方文明史-基督教
Early Christianity: A World Religion
Origins of Christianity As confidence in human reason and
hope for happiness in this world waned in the last centuries of the Roman Empire, a new outlook began to take hold.
The Appeal of Christianity
The triumph of Christianity was related to a corresponding decline in the vitality of Hellenism and a shift in cultural emphasis—a movement from reason to emotion and revelation. The Christian message of a divine Savior, a concerned Father, and brotherly love inspired people who were dissatisfied with the world of the here-andnow and who felt no attachment to city or empire, derived no inspiration from philosophy, and suffered from a profound sense of loneliness.
Spread and Triumph of Christianity
Originating in the first century, Christianity took firm root in the second, grew extensively in the third, and became the official religion of the Roman Empire at the end of the fourth century.
弗朗西斯 佩顿 劳斯
HEREDITAS (Beijing) 2007年1月, 29(1): 1―2 ISSN 0253-9772 封面人物DOI: 10.1360/yc-007-0001弗朗西斯・佩顿・劳斯任本命西安文理学院生物系, 西安 710061Department of Biology, Xi ’an Collage of Arts and Science, Xi ’an 710061, China弗朗西斯・佩顿・劳斯(Francis Peyton Rous)于1879年10月5日出生于美国德克萨斯(一说马里兰州巴尔的摩), 父亲查尔斯・劳斯, 母亲弗朗西斯。
劳斯年仅11岁时父亲去世, 母亲带着他们的3个孩子回到巴尔的摩艰难度日, 并使孩子们接受最好的教育, 劳斯兄弟们就在巴尔的摩长大成人。
劳斯很早就显示出对科学的兴趣。
在18~19岁时, 他就为《巴尔的摩太阳报》编写“每月之花”专栏。
对生物学的兴趣导致他中学毕业后进入巴尔的摩的约翰斯・霍普金斯大学接受教育, 并于1900年毕业。
接着劳斯又进入该校医学院学习, 攻读学位, 在学习期间, 由于做尸体解剖时不慎染上了结核并转移至腋下腺, 切除后学校让其退学养病。
劳斯来到德克萨斯, 一位舅舅给他在农场找了份工作以维持生计。
不久, 一个朋友带他去100多英里的“山嘴农场”(Spur Ranch )放牛, 在这里, 他受到了在学校没有受到的锻炼和教育, 这使他终身难忘, 他认为这段时间难得的经历始终是他精神长期振奋的源泉。
一年以后, 他重新回到医学院, 1905年毕业, 获得医学博士学位并成为该校附属医院一名实习医生。
但是工作一段时间后, 他发现自己的兴趣在于对疾病的研究而不是治疗, 他认为自己并不适合做一名“真正的临床医生”, 于是转而进行医学研究。
为此, 他来到密歇根大学担任病理学讲师, 虽然薪金很少, 但由于系主任阿尔弗雷德・瓦尔辛(Alfred Warthin)教授的帮助, 提供给他在“暑期学校”教书的机会, 由此劳斯挣得一份额外的收入。
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the year of Friedrich's death, is now quite gone,--the Book
undiscoverable. But the Paper was reprinted in an ANEKDOTEN-
discharge in 1769, and got, before long, into this employment.
A man of excellent disposition and temper; with a solid and heavy
stroke of work in him, whatever he might be set to; and who in this
(where I hope it still is); who had a "Temple-of-Honor," or little
Garden-house so named, with Portraits of his Friends hung in it;
who put Jean Paul VERY SOON there, with a great explosion of
and outlay; and he ordered Fromme to attend him in the expedition.
Which took effect accordingly; Fromme riding swiftly at the left
wheel of Friedrich's carriage, and loudly answering questions of
was unusually conscientious to do it. For it so happened, in July,
1779 (23d July), Friedrich, just home from his troublesome Bavarian
War, [Had arrived at Berlin May 27th (Rodenbeck, iii. 201).] and
Korte,' being unattainable otherwise! The two copies differ
slightly here and there,--not always to Dr. Korte's advantage, or
rather hardly ever. I keep them both before me in translating"
Appendix to History of Friedrich II of Prussia
by Thomas Carlyle
This Piece, it would seem, was translated sixteen years ago;
some four or five years before any part of the present HISTORY OF
OBERAMTMANNSHIP "became highly esteemed." He died in 1798; and has
left sons (now perhaps grandsons or great-grandsons), who continue
estimable in like situations under the Prussian Government.
praises; and who, in short, seems to have been a very good
effervescent creature, at last rather wealthy too, and able to
effervesce with some comfort;--Oberamtmann Fromme, I say, was this
songs" in, or in reference to, the Seven-Years War, songs still
printed, but worth little; who begged once, after Friedrich's
death, an OLD HAT of his, and took it with him to Halberstadt
Gleim's Nephew; and stood as a kind of Royal Land-Bailiff under
Frederick the Great, in a tract of country called the RHYN-LUCH (a
dreadfully moory country of sands and quagmires, all green and
anything. Fromme gave the Paper to Uncle Gleim; who, in his
enthusiasm, showed it extensively about, and so soon as there was
liberty, had it "printed, at his own expense, for the benefit of
ANEKDOTEN-SAMMLUNG (Halberstadt, 1830, 4tes STUCK, a rather
slovenly Book), where it is given out as one of the rarest of all
rarities, and as having been specially 'furnished by a Dr. W.
his, all day.--Directly on getting home, Fromme consulted his
excellent memory, and wrote down everything; a considerable Paper,
--of which you shall now have an exact Translation, if it be worth
Peatbog-and-Sand countries. "LUCH," it appears, signifies LOCH (or
Hole, Hollow); and "Rhyn-Luch" will mean, to Prussian ears, the
Peatbog Quagmire drained by the RHYN.--New Ruppin, where this
beautiful black Stream first becomes considerable, and of steadily
GULPER SEE, and a few miles farther, into the Elbe itself, it
conveys, after a course of say 50 English miles circuitously
southwest, the black drainings of those dreary and intricate
down from Ruppin Country, and certain lakes and plashes there, in a
southwest direction, towards the am; into which latter, through another plash or lake called
has been diligent, I have not thought of changing, where not
compelled. Here and there, especially in the Introductory Part,
some slight additions have crept in;--which the above kind of
fertile now, some twenty or thirty miles northwest of Berlin);
busy there in 1779, and had been for some years past. He had
originally been an Officer of the Artillery; but obtained his
A DAY WITH FRIEDRICH.
(23d July, 1779.)
"OBERAMTMANN (Head-Manager) Fromme" was a sister's son of Poet,
Gleim,--Gleim Canon of Halberstadt, who wrote Prussian "grenadier-
again looking into everything with his own eyes, determined to have
a personal view of those Moor Regions of Fromme's; to take a day's
driving through that RHYN-LUCH which had cost him so much effort