Group relatedness and kin discrimination in honey bees Apis

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ferrara共识标准

ferrara共识标准是指一种共识机制，旨在通过共识算法达成多个参与者之间的共识，以确保数据的可靠性和一致性。

这种机制通常用于区块链技术中的共识算法，以实现去中心化和安全性。

Ferrara共识标准的特点包括：
1.去中心化：参与者可以在不依赖中心化机构的情况下达成共识，
从而实现去中心化。

2.安全性：参与者可以通过加密算法和安全协议来确保数据的安
全性和隐私性。

3.一致性：参与者可以通过共识算法达成一致的决策，以确保数
据的可靠性和一致性。

4.高可用性：参与者可以随时加入或退出共识机制，并且不会影
响已经达成共识的数据的可靠性和一致性。

Ferrara共识标准的具体实现方式可能因不同的区块链项目而异，但通常包括以下步骤：
1.参与者将自己的数据提交给共识算法；
2.共识算法根据一定的规则对数据进行排序或筛选；
3.参与者根据共识算法的规则投票或签署数据；
4.共识算法根据投票结果或签署情况确定数据的可靠性和一致性；
5.共识算法将可靠和一致的数据写入区块链。

Ferrara共识标准是一种重要的区块链技术，可以提高数据的安全性和一致性，同时还可以实现去中心化和可扩展性。

感官与技术：传播研究中身体问题的文献综述

感官与技术：传播研究中身体问题的文献综述传播研究中的身体问题主要包括以下几个方面：感官体验、身体权力、身体与性别、身体与身份、身体与技术等。

感官体验方面，戴维·麦克切斯尼（David MacDougall）提出了“多感官体验”的概念，指的是通过将视觉、听觉、触觉等感官体验结合在一起，来帮助观众更好地理解和感知影片世界。

同时，感官体验也成为了广告和媒介文化中的重要元素，许多广告和媒介通过使用声音、图像和互动等元素来刺激观众的感官，从而达到更好的传播效果。

身体权力方面，米歇尔·福柯（Michel Foucault）提出了“身体与权力”的概念，认为权力是一种普遍而广泛的社会现象，它通过对身体的规训、监控和控制，对个体施加影响和管理。

身体权力的观念在传播研究中也有所体现。

在电视节目制作中，制片人通过挑选演员的外貌来制定角色形象，从而控制观众对角色的看法。

同时，许多社交媒体平台也通过对用户的互动行为和言论进行监控和管理，从而对用户施加影响和控制。

身体与性别方面，传播研究也对身体和性别之间的关系进行了深入的探讨。

身体在性别建构中的作用被广泛地关注。

传媒对于男性和女性的刻板印象表达和传递，深刻影响着人们对于性别角色和身份的认知。

同时，对于LGBT群体的认识和接纳，也涉及着传播媒介的角色和影响。

身体与身份方面，身体在身份建构中的作用也受到了广泛的关注。

传播研究指出，身体通过形成与“自我认同”的关系来构建身份感受。

各种身体表现，如文化跨界时的语言、风俗习惯和格调习惯等，都反映了人们对于自己身份的认识和表现。

身体与技术方面，随着数字技术的发展，人们的身体体验和认知也在快速改变。

移动设备、虚拟现实、增强现实等技术让身体的感知和互动方式发生了深刻的变化。

同时，技术也改变了传播行为的形式和方式，让信息传播更加快捷和多样化。

综上所述，传播研究中对于身体的关注已成为一个不可忽视的议题。

在身体与传播关系的探讨中，身体在信息、意义和权力产生、展示和传递中的作用已得到更加深刻的理解和关注。

组织认同的基础理论、测量及相关变量

-950-
心理科学进展
2007 年
这 3 类观点从不同角度分析了组织认同过程，当中也不免存在一些相互交叉的现象（见表 2）。
类型
表 2 组织认同三类理论观点对比
内容构成
作用途径
相关研究
差异论
组织内认同与组织外认同
差异冲突、参照对比
Ravasi D, Schultz M[12]
信息论资源论
形象性信息与说服性信息有形资源与无形资源
沟通、认定宣示组织形象、独特资源
Cheney G[14] Sillince J. A.[5]
2.1 差异论观点差异论观点认为，组织认同是一个由异到同的
历程，需要透过差异和冲突来完成认同构建。成员只有通过与他人的对比参照，才能认知个人在组织中的同一性与背离性。此类观点持有者比较关注同化过程中的心理变化，正如 Hogg 指出的，学者把重点放在了比较（ comparison ）、类属（categorization）、辨别（distinctiveness）和定位（definition）等 4 个基本过程之上。研究者还将组织认同划分为“组织内认同”和“组织外认同”两部分，“组织内认同”更多是在寻找个体与其他人的不一致过程中，通过自我调整使自己获得与众相同的同一性；“组织外认同”则是寻找组织与其他组织的差异，通过自我认知和外部反馈获得与众不同的独特性。经过这两个认同过程的相互作用，成员完成了从“我”变成“我们”的历程。 2.2 信息论观点
组织认同具有持久性、多重性两个主要特性，所谓持久性是指成员不管在不在组织内部都会保持着组织认同。认同是一种社会结构，这种结构为特定受众设计了“身份”，使其具有与组织一致的自我构念，因此，带有一定持久性[4]。具体表现为组织成员情愿留在组织中延续组织认同，即便是离开组织，组织认同仍然会继续起作用。当然，在组织认同的形成过程中，会有一些动态调整，出现一些矛盾并最终达到平衡。组织认同的第二个特性是多重性，Albert和Whetten指出，拥有多重认同的组织，往往同时具有标准的、道德的认同和理性的、经济的认同。在特定环境下，其中一种组织认同会变成主要认同。正如Sillince所举的例子，医院就有多重认同，包括平衡预算的经济组织和提供医疗服务的社会组织，当市场状况不容乐观时，经济认同可能会成为主要认同[5]。组织认同的多重性还表现在它内部具有多个层面，Sluss和Ashforth提出，组织认同除了角色层面（ role-based ）和个人层面（person-based）外，还存在第三个层面——人际层面（interpersonal level），这个层面的认同被称之为关系认同（relational identification），它是在上司和下属的相互影响中产生的[6]。 1.2 相关概念对比

社会认同理论及其发展

社会认同理论及其发展摘要社会认同理论是由T ajfel和Turner等人提出的,它对群体行为做出了新的解释,并成为群体关系研究中最有影响的理论。

社会认同理论产生于对群体间行为解释,它认为个体对群体的认同是群体行为的基础。

新近的研究也为社会认同理论提供了一定的证据。

社会认同理论是欧洲心理学本土化的重要成果,对社会心理学具有重要的贡献,同时它也有待于进一步完善。

关键词种族中心主义,社会认同,自我分类,社会比较,积极区分。

群体行为是社会心理学的一个重要课题,而社会认同理论已成为这一领域最有影响的理论之一。

社会认同理论是Tajfel 等人在20 世纪70 年代提出, 并在群体行为的研究中不断发展起来。

后来 Turner 又提出了自我归类理论,进一步完善了这一理论。

社会认同理论强调了社会认同对群体行为的解释作用,它的提出促进了社会心理学在相关领域的发展,为群体心理学的研究做出了巨大贡献[1]。

本文将从以下几个方面对社会认同理论进行阐述。

1 社会认同理论的背景1.1 种族中心主义社会认同理论产生于解释群体间行为的种族中心主义(ethnoentrism)。

种族中心主义是指内群体偏好(in-group favoritism)和外群体歧视 (out-group derogation)。

群体内行为和群体间行为显现了明显的种族中心主义特征[2]。

对“群体行为普遍的种族中心特征”的第一次论述要追溯到1906 年萨默的记述。

最初对种族中心主义的解释最有影响的是现实冲突理论(realistic conflict theory)。

1.2 现实冲突理论在 Tajfel 之前,对群体间行为较早的研究是 Sherif在1961年进行的儿童夏令营实地实验。

研究中 Sherif 将来自于各地互相独立不认识的儿童,在到达夏令营之后就分为“响尾蛇”与“老鹰”两组, 刚开始只是从事小组内的活动,例如爬山;后来当两组从事竞争性质的活动,如球类比赛,两组成员的冲突与对立与日俱增。

产业集聚研究方法

产业集聚研究方法
产业集聚的研究方法主要包括以下几种：
1. 归纳与演绎相结合的方法：这种方法是将归纳和演绎两种方法结合起来，通过对各种类型的产业集聚进行归纳，总结出一般规律和共同特征，然后根据这些一般性原理演绎出创意产业集聚等特定产业的集聚特征。

这种方法有助于使研究更全面和深入。

2. 规范研究与实证研究相结合：规范研究主要关注产业集聚“应该是怎样的”，而实证研究则主要关注产业集聚“是什么”。

通过规范研究和实证研究的结合，可以更全面地理解产业集聚的实际运作和效果。

3. 格里芬指数(Gini coefficient)：格里芬指数最初用于测算个体之间的收入不平等程度，后来也被应用于衡量产业集聚度。

通过收集区域内所有企业的市场份额数据，按照从小到大的顺序排列，并计算企业市场份额的累计占比，然后根据累计占比计算格里芬系数，可以得出产业集聚度的值。

4. 默顿指数(Herfindahl index)：默顿指数用于衡量市场份额集中度，也可
以用于衡量产业集聚度。

通过收集区域内所有企业的市场份额数据，按照从小到大的顺序排列，并计算企业市场份额的平方，将所有企业的市场份额平方相加得到总和，然后根据总和计算默顿指数，可以得出产业集聚度的值。

这些研究方法各具特点，应根据具体的研究目标和问题选择合适的方法。

同时，为了使研究更具科学性和可信度，通常会综合运用多种方法进行研究。

语言的群体间偏差研究

语言的群体间偏差研究个体在用语言来描述他人的行为时，会因为描述对象的群体种类不同而有偏差，具体表现为在描述群体内成员的积极行为和群体外成员的负向行为时，会使用较高抽象水平的词；在描述群体外成员的积极行为和群体内成员的负向行为时，会使用较低抽象水平的词。

这种抽象水平的差异由语言范畴模型来具体表明。

Maass等人把这种描述上的偏差命名为语言的群体间偏差，并认为在这一现象下有两种机制：动机机制和认知机制，研究表明认知机制能解释大部分语言的群体间偏差现象，而动机机制会在群体内形象受到威胁时发挥作用。

标签：语言的群体间偏差；语言范畴模型；词语的抽象水平人们每天都使用语言向他人传递信息，由于描述对象的不同所使用的语言也有差异，这些差异有的是人们能够意识到的，但也有一些是人们无意识做出的。

一般来说，在交流中人们会尽力做到客观和真实，但尽管如此，表达出的语言还是会受到许多因素的影响，如人们自己的观念、无意识动机、交流的对象属于何种群体等因素。

例如，记者在报道政治事件，即使他想做到客观真实，仍会由于报道对象的不同而在语言表达上存在差异，而这种差异会在很大程度上影响着人们对报道对象的看法。

语言的表达差异有多种形式，一个重要的表现是语言中使用的词语抽象水平的差异，这一差异可以由Semin和Fiedler提出的语言范畴模型（Linguistic Category Model，简称为LCM）来说明［1，2］，Maass等人根据这一差异发现了语言的群体间偏差现象（Linguistic Intergroup Bias，简称LIB）［3］。

1 语言范畴模型Semin和Fiedler对描述人的行为的单词进行了研究，提出了语言范畴模型。

这个模型将描述人行为的词语进行分类，根据它们抽象程度的不同分成了四个水平，抽象水平从低到高依次为：描述行为动词（Descriptive Action Verbs，简称为DA V）、解释行为动词（Interpretive Action Verbs，简称为IA V）、状态动词(State Verbs，简称为SVs)和形容词(Adjectives，简称为Adj)［1］。

尊重差异之包容的英语作文

In our increasingly globalized world,the importance of respecting and embracing differences cannot be overstated.Diversity in culture,language,religion,and personal beliefs enriches our societies and fosters a more inclusive environment.Here is an essay that highlights the significance of respecting differences and promoting inclusivity.Title:The Importance of Respecting Differences and Promoting InclusivityIn an everevolving world,it is crucial to acknowledge and respect the differences that make each individual unique.From cultural backgrounds to personal beliefs,these differences contribute to the rich tapestry of our global community.Embracing diversity and promoting inclusivity are not just moral imperatives they are essential for building a harmonious and progressive society.Firstly,respecting differences fosters a sense of unity and understanding among people from various walks of life.When we appreciate the unique qualities that each person brings to the table,we create an atmosphere of mutual respect and cooperation.This understanding can lead to more effective collaboration and problemsolving,as diverse perspectives can offer innovative solutions to complex issues.Secondly,promoting inclusivity ensures that everyone has an equal opportunity to contribute to society.By creating an environment where all voices are heard and valued, we can tap into the full potential of our diverse population.This inclusivity can lead to more informed decisionmaking,as it takes into account the needs and experiences of a broader range of individuals.Moreover,respecting differences and promoting inclusivity can help to break down barriers and stereotypes.When we take the time to learn about and appreciate the cultures, beliefs,and experiences of others,we can challenge our preconceived notions and develop a more nuanced understanding of the world around us.This can lead to greater empathy and compassion,as we recognize the common humanity that unites us all.However,achieving true inclusivity requires more than just lip service.It involves actively working to dismantle systemic barriers that may prevent certain groups from participating fully in society.This may include addressing issues such as discrimination, unequal access to resources,and the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes.By actively addressing these issues,we can create a more equitable and just society for all.In conclusion,respecting differences and promoting inclusivity are essential for building a stronger,more harmonious society.By embracing diversity and ensuring that all voices are heard,we can unlock the full potential of our global community and work together toaddress the challenges of the21st century.It is our collective responsibility to create an inclusive environment where everyone can thrive,and it is only through our shared efforts that we can achieve this goal.。

representative selection

代表性选择是指在样本中选择代表整体裙体的个体或元素。

在各个领域，代表性选择都是十分重要的，因为样本的代表性决定了研究的可靠性和泛化性。

在心理学、教育学、社会学、统计学、市场调研等领域，都会用到代表性选择的概念。

本文将讨论代表性选择的影响因素、方法和应用，并探讨如何进行有效的代表性选择。

一、代表性选择的影响因素1.总体特征：样本的代表性取决于样本的总体特征，包括人口特征、地域特征、时间特征等。

如果样本的总体特征与目标总体特征相似，那么样本就具有较好的代表性。

2.抽样方法：抽样方法对样本的代表性有重要影响。

常见的抽样方法包括随机抽样、分层抽样、整裙抽样等。

合适的抽样方法可以有效地保证样本的代表性。

3.样本容量：样本容量也是影响代表性的重要因素。

样本容量越大，样本的代表性越好，能够更准确地反映总体的特征。

二、代表性选择的方法1.随机抽样：随机抽样是指每个个体被抽中的概率相等，且相互独立。

随机抽样能够保证样本的代表性，是保证样本代表性的一种有效方法。

2.分层抽样：分层抽样是根据总体的某些特征进行分层，然后从每个层中随机抽取样本。

分层抽样可以保证样本在各个层中的代表性，适用于总体结构复杂的情况。

3.整裙抽样：整裙抽样是将总体分成若干裙，然后随机选择若干裙作为样本。

这种方法适用于裙体特征明显、裙体内个体相似的情况。

4.方便抽样：方便抽样是指选择最易接触到的个体作为样本。

这种抽样方法容易引起样本的偏倚，因此在科学研究中很少采用。

5.道德抽样：道德抽样是指在尊重被调查者的基础上进行抽样，保护被调查者的权益。

在心理学、医学等涉及个体隐私和权益的领域，道德抽样显得尤为重要。

三、代表性选择的应用1.市场调研：在市场调研中，代表性选择能够确保样本能够准确地反映目标受众的特征，为产品定位、市场营销提供有效的依据。

2.社会调查：社会调查涉及到人口、社会、经济、文化等多方面因素，代表性选择能够确保调查结果的客观性和可靠性。

3.科学研究：在心理学、教育学、社会学等领域的科学研究中，代表性选择是保证研究结果通用性和可靠性的基础。

社会学专业词汇中英文对照

学而不思则惘，思而不学则殆社会学专业词汇（按中文拼音首字母排序）B暴民：mob比拟法：analogical method比例抽样：proportionate sample不可知论：agnosticism变态心理学：abnormal psychology不完全归纳：incomplete induction边际效用递减：law of diminishing marginal utility 柏拉图式爱情：Platonic loveC丛众：conformity残疾人：the handicapped参考书目：bibliography参考群体：reference group成人教育：adult education初婚年龄：age at first marriage垂直流动：vertical mobility出身群体：descent group抽样误差：sampling error抽样范围：sampling frame参与式观察：participant observationD代沟：generation gap对照分析：contrastive analysis定性分析：qualititive analysis定量分析：quantitative analysis定额抽样：quota sample多重人格：multiple personality地位流动：status mobility第一手资料：primary data第二手资料：raw data单因素实验：single-factor experiment地域性流动：geographical mobilityF法人：fictitions person反隔离：desegregation犯罪学：criminology父居家庭：patrilocal family父系亲属：agnate 父子关系：filiation分析性研究：analytical research封闭式监管：close custody封闭型问题：closed question分层随机抽样：stratified random sample G规范：norms更年期：menopause过激主义：ultraism个案研究：case study个人主义：individualism归属需求：need to belong个人崇拜：personality cult功能主义：functionalismH行话，黑话：argot横坐标：abscissa合理趋势：rational trend霍桑效应：Hawthorne effect婚姻调适：marriage adjustment宏观分析：macroscopic analysis黄金分割：golden section互补角色：complementary roleJ家谱：family religrees截点：cut-off point拒答率：refusal rate绝对值：absolute value监护人：chaperonage角色冲突：role conflict角色距离：role distance角色紧张：role strain金钱崇拜：mammon worship间接暗示：indirect suggestion价值中立：value free价值判断：value judgement集体行动：collective action家庭规模：family size家庭不和：disharmony of family家庭制度：family institution近亲繁殖：inbreeding寄宿学校：boarding school教育程度：educational attainment继嗣规则：descent rule阶级分化：class differentiation教条主义：dogmatism经验主义：empiricism介入变量：intervening variable集思广益法：brainstorming method 经验我、客体我：empirical selfK克己：self-denial控制论：cybernetics控制组：control group刻板印象：stereotype可婚年龄：marriageable age框架分析：frame analysis跨文化方法：cross-cultural methodL量变：quantitative change列表：tabulation理想类型：ideal type利他主义：altruism利己主义：egoism老年痴呆：senile dementiaM目测：eye measure民法：civil law母爱：maternal love疯人院：mad house美国化：americanization母居家庭：matrilocal family民意测验：public opinion poll描述性概念：descriptive concept摩擦性失业：frictional unemployment 迷惘的一代：lost generationN能动性：activeness年龄优势：age domination年龄构成：age composition男性女化：effemination内化角色：internalized roleandrocentric theorymean agehorizontal mobility universal patternpair analysisbystander effectkin groupgroup climate groupthinkmass actiontrend analysisemotional contagion emotional traumadissociation of personality need for cognition identity crisis humanitarianismupward mobilityfittest to survivedepth/intensive interview tree analysisdual attitudesfair sampleaberrant behavior社会适应：social adaptation社会惯性：social inertia受控试验：controlled experiment试点调查：pilot investigation睡眠者效应：sleeper effect适应性反应：adaptation reaction社会决定论：agelicism社会改善论：meliorism生物决定论：biological determinism 双职工家庭：dual-career family随机化设计：randomized design实验室实验：laboratory experiment 说明性分析：explanatory studyT他杀：homicide胎儿：fetus推论：deduction同化：assimilation特殊性：particularism退伍军人：veteran统计假象：statistical artifact态度量表：attitude scale通俗文化：popular culture逃避现实：retreat from reality探索性研究：exploratory studyW问卷：questionnaire伪科学：pseudo-science文化促进：cultural acceleration微观分析：microscopic外来援助：extrinsic aid外显行为：manifest behavior文献研究：library research外向性格的人：extrovertX酗酒：alcoholism信度：credibility刑法：criminal law谢金：acknowledgement money享乐主义：hedonism雪球效应：snowball effect信息过滤：information filtering文化偏见：bias of culture sexismmental agepsychic gratificationmental healingdownward mobilityactualismacademic freedomaction schemesystematic sampleliner trendlearned helplessnesssmall group researchselective retentionnature-nurture debatedemand-deficiency unemploymentmail questionnaireabnormal curveaccidental pregnancycausal nexusraw datalogic-in-useempathysample statisticsfinite populationgrouped datamonogamous familyspecial vocabularyguilt complexgrowth curvegenocracyautosuggestionnatural selectionself-awarenessself-concept自我表露：self-disclosure 自我展示：self-presentation 自我监控：self-monitoring 祖先崇拜：ancestor cult self-administered questionnaire focused interviewdefensive sensitivity。

尊重差异心灵交汇的英语作文

Respecting differences is a fundamental aspect of human interaction that allows for the flourishing of diverse perspectives and ideas.It is through the recognition and appreciation of these differences that we can truly understand and appreciate the richness of our global community.In our daily lives,we encounter individuals from various backgrounds,each with their unique experiences,beliefs,and values.Embracing these differences is not only a sign of maturity but also an opportunity for personal growth.By respecting and valuing the perspectives of others,we can broaden our horizons,challenge our preconceived notions, and develop a more nuanced understanding of the world around us.One of the key benefits of respecting differences is the promotion of empathy and understanding.When we take the time to listen to and appreciate the experiences of others,we develop a deeper sense of compassion and empathy.This,in turn,can lead to stronger relationships and a more cohesive society.Moreover,respecting differences can foster creativity and innovation.Diverse perspectives can lead to the generation of new ideas and solutions to problems that might not have been considered otherwise.In a world that is constantly evolving and facing new challenges,the ability to think outside the box and consider alternative viewpoints is more important than ever.However,respecting differences also requires a certain level of humility and openmindedness.It means being willing to challenge our own beliefs and assumptions and to be open to the possibility that our understanding of the world may be incomplete or limited.This can be a difficult process,but it is ultimately a rewarding one that can lead to personal growth and a deeper understanding of the world around us.In conclusion,respecting differences is an essential aspect of human interaction that can lead to a more empathetic,innovative,and cohesive society.By embracing the unique perspectives and experiences of others,we can broaden our horizons,challenge our preconceived notions,and ultimately enrich our own lives.It is through the intersection of diverse minds that we can truly appreciate the beauty and complexity of the human experience.。

一个具有双重反馈作用的异类经纪人herding模型

（州大学瓯江学院，江温州３５３）温浙２０５
Байду номын сангаас
摘要：个具有双重反馈作用的异类经纪人ｈｒｉ一ｅｄｇ模型被提出．模型认为，融市场是由不同大小和行为ｎ该金
倾向的经纪人集团组成．两个不同行为倾向的经纪人集团相遇时，们有可能发生一次交易；两个同种行为当他当
ｔｎ。２１３（）：６５ｉ）Ｏ０，７１４ — ０ｏＡｂｔａｔｓｒｃ：Ａｅｅｏｅｅｕｇｎｅｄｎｄｌｔｕｌｅｄａｋｉｔｒｃｉｎｒｐｓｄｈｔｒｇｎｏｓａｅｔｈｒｉｇｍｏｅｈｄａｅｂｃｎｅａｔｏｓｉｐｏｏｅ，ｗｈｃｕｇｓｓｔａｈｗｉｆｓｉｈｓｇｅｔｈｔｔｅｆａｃｌｒｅｓｃｎｉｔｏｇｎｌｓｅｓｗｉｉｅｅｔｓｚｓａｄｔｎｅｃｅ．Ｗｈｎｔｅｅｏｅｅｕｇｎｌｓｉｎｉｎａｍａｋｔｏｓｓｆａｅｔｃｕｔｒｔｄｆｒｎｉｅｎｅｄｎｉｓｈｆｅｗｏｈｔｒｇｎｏｓａｅｔｃｕ — ｔｒｎｏｎｅ，ａｘｈｎｅｍａｃｕ；ｗｈｌｔｏｇｎｏｓｏｅｅ，ｔｅｙｍｅｇｔｉｇｒｏｅｅｓｅｃｕｔｒｎｅｃａｇｙｏｃｒｉｗｏｈｍｏｅｅｕｎｓｍｅｔｈｙｍａｒｅｉｏａｂｇｅｎ．Ｔｈｅｎｅｒｔｆｓｃｅｓｕｘｈｎｅｏｒｉｇｄｐｎｓｏｈｌｃｕｔｇｄｇｅｆｔｅｌｓｃｉｎａｉｏｕｃｓｆｌｅｃａｇｒｍｅｇｎｅｅｄｎｔｅｆｔａｉｅｒｅｏｈａｔａｔ．Ａｆｅｈｘｈｎｅｈｏｕｎｏｔｒｔｅｅｃａｇ，ｔｅａｅｔｃｕｔｒｗｈｏｅｎｙｍａｉｓｌｅａｄｒｖｒｅｇｎｌｓｅｏｌｓｓｍｏｅｙｄｓｏｖｎｅｅｓ．ＴｈｒｂｂｌｙｏｈｉｓｌｔｎａｄｒｖｒａｅｅｄｎｅｐｏａｉｔｆｔｅｄｓｏｕｉｎｅｅｓｌｄｐｎｓｏｉｏｔｅｆｃｏｓｏｈｏｔｄｇｅｎｈａｔｎｔｅｍａｋｔＴｈｕｒａａｃｌｔｎｓｏｈｔｔｅｍｏｅｅｈｂｔｈａｔｒｆｔｅｌｓｅｒｅａｄｔｅｆｉｈｏｈｒｅ．ｅｎｍｅｉ１ｃｌｕａｉｈｗｓｔａｈｄｌｘｉｉｓｃｏｓｍｅｄｎｍｉｓｂｈｖｏｓａｄｃａａｔｒｓｉｓｗｈｃｒｌｓＯｒａｍａｋｔ．ｏｙａｃｅａｉｒｎｈｒｃｅｉｔｉｈａｅｃｏｅｔｅｌｒｅｓｃ

组织文化评价量表

组织文化评价量表宋联可杨东涛杨浩OCAI（Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument）是由美国密西根大学商学院的Quinn教授和凯斯西部保留大学商学院的Cameron教授在长期研究组织文化的基础上，开发出来的测量组织文化的量表。

该量表具有坚实的理论基础，在国外经过了大量的实证检验，已成为组织文化研究领域中最具影响力的量表之一。

为了帮助我国选用OCAI测量组织文化的人们更效地使用OCAI，本文从OCAI的发展背景、理论基础、设计和应用四个方面对其进行分析，并对在中国使用OCAI提出一些建议。

一、OCAI的发展背景OCAI是基于“企业界和学术界越来越关注组织文化；组织文化研究领域越来越强调定量研究”这样的背景下而开发出来的。

20世纪70年代末，日本企业在战后迅速成长，引起西方学者普遍关注。

通过比较分析，发现日本企业更关心“软”因素，这对当时强调理性和制度的西方管理思想提出了挑战。

20世纪80年代初，大内的《Z理论》（1981）、迪尔和肯尼迪的《企业文化》（1982）以及彼特和沃特曼的《追求卓越》（1982）三本著作的相继问世，掀起了OC研究和实践的热潮。

Barley （1988）认为20世纪80年代以后兴起OC热主要有两方面原因，一方面因为管理咨询顾问和应用型研究者写给管理者和实践者的文章引起强烈反响，另一方面因为理论研究者积极举办专题讨论会和发表学术论文。

21世纪初，OC在管理中的重要地位得到进一步确认，企业界在实践中发展了OC，也对其提出了新的课题；学术界对OC的研究更加丰富、深入、科学，跨国公司的OC、OC建设等问题成为新的研究热点。

OC受到普遍关注，如何研究OC也成为最具争议的问题之一。

由于研究方法不同，出现了两大学派，一个是以Edgar H.Schein为代表的定性研究学派，另一个是以Robert E.Quinn为代表的定量研究学派。

Rousseau（1990）归纳前人研究，认为主要是收集数据的方法影响着研究结果[1]。

认同还是承诺?国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为

认同还是承诺？国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为郭晟豪;萧鸣政【摘要】基于社会认同理论和社会交换理论,文章关注管理实践中的工作偏离行为,探讨员工在组织中的组织认同、团队认同、关系认同以及组织承诺的影响.采用三个时点追踪并结合他评的形式对394名国企员工及其对应主管领导进行问卷调查,使用潜变量结构方程进行效应检验.研究发现:认同不同于承诺,认同均有助于提升组织承诺,组织认同、团队认同抑制了人际指向偏离行为,组织承诺对人际指向偏离行为影响不显著;但是,组织承诺却显著助长了组织指向偏离行为,具体地,控制组织承诺后,组织认同、团队认同、关系认同抑制了组织指向偏离行为,但在组织承诺的削弱下,即认同促进承诺,经承诺反而又促进了偏离,最终组织认同、团队认同对组织指向偏离行为的总效应不显著,关系认同的总效应尽管仍为显著抑制,但影响力也被减弱.【期刊名称】《商业经济与管理》【年(卷),期】2017(000)008【总页数】11页(P48-58)【关键词】组织认同;团队认同;关系认同;组织承诺;工作偏离行为【作者】郭晟豪;萧鸣政【作者单位】北京大学政府管理学院,北京100871;北京大学人力资源开发与管理研究中心,北京100871;北京大学政府管理学院,北京100871;北京大学人力资源开发与管理研究中心,北京100871【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F270郭晟豪,萧鸣政.认同还是承诺？国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为[J].商业经济与管理，2017(8)：48-58.国有企业如今备受社会各界的关注[1]，对于国企员工，常有效率低下、人浮于事、勾心斗角的批评。

在学术研究中，上述行为属于工作偏离行为，一般而言，偏离行为关注的是员工在工作场所中的负面内容，即违反组织规范，并且影响组织和其他成员利益，可以具体为人际指向的偏离行为和组织指向的偏离行为[2]。

研究表明，偏离行为极大地影响着组织绩效[3]。

创造力的影响因素分析

创造力的影响因素分析徐树鹏(摘要：研究从三个方面总结了影响创造力的因素：紧张性刺激刺激，个体因素，和社会影响。

结果发现同一个因素对创造力的影响模式很少有统一的观点，不少研究甚至得出了截然相反的结论。

目前的研究试图采用元分析的技术和分析调节变量来解决这些冲突。

本文还简要阐述了当前的一些研究趋势，并提供了未来研究的一些建议。

关键词: 创造力；紧张性刺激；弱连带关系；元分析；调节变量0 前言目前学者们对于创造力的定义较为一致，一般将其定义为产生新颖的和合适的观点，问题解决方案或见解的能力(Runco, 2004)。

创造力的研究已有60年的历史，期间关于创造力影响因素的研究浩如烟海，且结论大多不统一。

如今越来越多地研究试图去弄清这些影响模式，且不再局限于简单的文献综述，而是采用更高级的研究方法，比如元分析技术。

Feist（1998）就用元分析技术分析了人格特质对科学和艺术领域创造力的影响；Kristin等人（2010）也使用元分析技术去研究紧张性刺激与创造力之间的复杂关系。

本研究总结了影响创造力的诸多因素，尤其关注了其中有冲突的观点，为今后进一步的元分析研究提供一些可供分析的领域。

此外本外还指出了目前研究的一些思路和方向，为后续的研究提供一些线索。

Zorana（2009）认为个体潜能和社会环境之间的交互作用将会决定创造力是否被表达以及如何表达。

本文根据该观点并结合已有文献内容从以下三个方面来分析创造力的影响因素：紧张性刺激刺激，个体因素，和社会影响。

1.紧张性刺激紧张性刺激指能够引起紧张或压力的刺激（Kristin，Shalini，& Deborah，2010），包括竞争，时间压力，表现评估等。

关于紧张性刺激和创造力的关系已做过大量的研究，但是研究结果却并不一致。

Little (引自Kristin，et al.2010)的研究表明与他人的竞争可以提高被试的创造力表现，但是也有研究表明竞争会导致创造力表现的降低（Gerrard, Poteat, & Ironsmith, 1996）。

SUBGROUP DYNAMICS IN INTERNATIONALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS ETHNOCENTRISM OR CROSS-NATIONAL LEARNING

SUBGROUP DYNAMICS IN INTERNATIONALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS:ETHNOCENTRISM OR CROSS-NATIONAL LEARNING? Catherine Durnell Cramton and Pamela J.HindsABSTRACTInternationally distributed teams are an ideal context in which to understand the formation,dynamics,and effects of subgroups within work teams. Although the members are interdependent,these teams frequently are composed of two or more collocated subgroups.Researchers have observed a tendency for tensions in such teams to coalesce–and escalate–between these subgroups.In this paper,we identify factors likely to promote and mitigate fracturing between subgroups and consider the impact of subgroup formation on task effectiveness.We build on Lau and Murnighan’s(1998) conceptualization of“faultlines,”which suggests that alignment of team members’demographic attributes increases the likelihood of subgroup dynamics.We extend this work into the domain of internationally distributed teams by showing how differences in location also can heighten subgroup dynamics.The most likely consequence is ethnocentrism,although we show that intergroup learning also is possible.Our analysis highlights conditions under which teams that encounter subgroup differences will be able to overcome the tendency toward ethnocentrism.Teams with an attitude Research in Organizational BehaviorResearch in Organizational Behavior,Volume26,231–263Copyright©2005by Elsevier Ltd.All rights of reproduction in anyform reservedISSN:0191-3085/doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(04)26006-3231232CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDSof mutual positive distinctiveness,we argue,will more likely learn from subgroup differences,becoming more sophisticated in their understanding of cross-national relationships and competent in their management of them.Throughout history,people have sought to achieve economic and social goods through international collaborations.Although such collaborations were transacted historically by travel and post(King&Frost,2002),recent advances in telecommunications and information technologies have offered new means by which globe-spanning work can be carried out.Businesses assemble teams comprised of members from multiple countries as a means of establishing a presence in distant markets,securing essential but scarce expertise,enabling localization of products,and tapping into low cost pools of expertise in developing countries.In a recent study,respondentﬁrms reported that63%of their new product development teams would be geographically distributed within the next few years, with22%expected to be globally distributed(McDonough,Kahn&Barczak, 2001).In this paper,we examine subgroup dynamics in such internationally distributed teams,and their impact on team effectiveness and potential to foster cross-national learning.Subgroup dynamics within work teams,particularly internationally distributed work teams,is an area of research that remains largely unexplored.There is, however,increasing evidence that internationally distributed teams are prone to subgroup dynamics characterized by an us-verses-them attitude across sites (Armstrong&Cole,1995;Cramton,2001;Hinds&Bailey,2003).Research over the last decade has begun to explore the ramiﬁcations of distributed work arrangements on the dynamics of the teams involved(see Gibson&Cohen, 2003;Hinds&Kiesler,2002).Although some of this work has alluded to subgroups coalescing based on geographic location,little work has yet considered the dynamics and effects of within-team subgroups on distributed,particularly internationally distributed,teams.Recent theoretical work offers a new perspective on subgroup phenomena in u and Murnighan(1998)suggest that,contrary to previous work,it is not the total amount of diversity in a group that threatens social integration.Rather,it is the extent to which key attributes of members are correlated rather than cutting across membership.They call this alignment of attributes faultlines and propose that the presence of faultlines increases the likelihood of subgroup formation and conﬂict.We build on and extend Lau and Murnighan’s work,inspired by its implications for internationally distributed teams that carry out interdependent tasks despite members being located in two or more countries.Our goals for this paper are threefold:(1)to develop a theoretical framework for understanding theSubgroup Dynamics in Internationally Distributed Teams233 factors that inﬂuence the subgroup dynamics of internationally distributed teams;(2)to model the relationship between subgroup dynamics and team effectiveness in internationally distributed teams;and(3)to extend existing theory on subgroup dynamics in work teams.Although a substantial amount of research has been conducted on subgroup dynamics,little has focused on enduring subgroups within work teams.One exception to this is research on cross-functional teams,which explores how the differing functional or professional identities of members drive ingroup/outgroup dynamics within the team(e.g.Northcraft,Polzer,Neale&Kramer,1995).Like the work on cross-functional teams,our work builds on the broader research literature concerning the formation and dynamics of subgroups,which includes work on social identity,intergroup relations,and coalition formation.Social identity theory helps us to understand the ways people use social categorizations as cognitive tools to understand themselves and others in the social environment (for example see Tajfel&Turner,1979).The closely related intergroup relations literature examines how people interact with one another in terms of their group identiﬁcations(for example see Alderfer,1987;Sherif,1966).Although moreFig.1.Factors Constituting Faultlines in Internationally Distributed Teams,Potential Consequences,and Moderators Affecting These Dynamics.234CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDS distant from our focus,the coalition formation literature highlights how subgroups form in order to control resources and decisions(for example see Hill,1973; Lawler&Youngs,1975;Mannix,1993).We extend this literature by developing a model for how subgroup salience is triggered within teams,particularly internationally distributed teams,and the effect of subgroup salience on team performance.To understand subgroup dynamics in internationally distributed teams,we consider how geographic distribution of team members increases the salience of subgroups,and how the alignment of compositional diversity and geographic distribution may make tension between subgroups likely.We posit that ethnocentrism–a bias toward one’s own subgroup and against other subgroups –along cultural and geographic faultlines is a natural but detrimental tendency in internationally distributed work and we describe the likely impact on team effectiveness.We also suggest an alternative outcome–cross-national team learning–and a set of moderating factors that we think determine whether subgroup salience results in ethnocentrism or learning.The next section articulates our model of these processes(see Fig.1).FAULTLINES AND SUBGROUP SALIENCECompositional Diversity and Group Faultlines Compositional diversity in organizational work groups stems from differences in group members’demographic attributes(e.g.ethnicity,age and sex),or other characteristics and afﬁliations(cation,tenure and hierarchical position). Such differences are associated with people having different worldviews,values, beliefs,goal priorities and norms,which affect how they deﬁne situations,see issues,and interact with others(see Alderfer,1987;Ely&Thomas,2001).In addition,individuals often are accorded different amounts of status and power in organizations and society on the basis of their demographic attributes and other afﬁliations(Alderfer,1987;Ely&Thomas,2001).Accordingly,members of a compositionally diverse organizational work group may have differing organizational and societal political interests and ideologies.As a result,diverse groups may be more creative–or experience more conﬂict–depending on the nature of their differences,how well they manage them,and forces in the larger environment in which they are embedded(Alderfer,1987;Jehn,1995;Pelled, Eisenhardt&Xin,1999).According to Lau and Murnighan(1998),the presence of faultlines in groups exacerbates the impact of compositional diversity,increasing the likelihood thatSubgroup Dynamics in Internationally Distributed Teams235 members will perceive subgroups to exist and experience subgroup conﬂict.A faultline is present if key attributes of members are correlated rather than cutting across group membership.For example,a group composed of equal numbers of engineers and designers and equal numbers of men and women would have stronger faultlines if all the engineers happened to be men and all the designers happened to be women than if there were equal numbers of engineers and designers of each sex. Lau and Murnighan(1998,p.327)describe faultlines as“an alignment of several characteristics that heightens the possibility of internal subgroup dynamics.”They are analogous to faultlines in the earth’s crust:They describe the pathways along which a group would most likely split into subgroups and the vulnerability of the group to this occurrence.The notion is quite similar to Brewer and Campbell’s (1976)description of“convergent boundaries.”Faultlines,by deﬁnition,reﬂect the potential of a team to fracture into subgroups. According to Lau and Murnighan(1998),they lie dormant in a group until activated by some event.When faultlines are activated,Lau and Murnighan describe consequences that include subgroup awareness,formation,polarization and conﬂict,but they are not explicit about the sequence of events.Building on their work,we offer speciﬁcation.We argue that the existence in a group of multiple demographic attributes or other afﬁliations that are aligned increases the likelihood that these subgroups will become noticeable to group members.In other words, we propose that theﬁrst consequence of the activation of faultlines is subgroup salience.Proposition1a.The presence in work teams of multiple demographic attributions or other afﬁliations that are aligned increases the likelihood of subgroup salience.The Impact of Geographic Distribution of Team MembersWe argue that geographic distribution contributes to faultlines and to subgroup salience within geographically distributed teams.Because of the rise in the use of geographically distributed work groups,social science research has taken a renewed interest in the impact of proximity and distance on work teams(see Hinds&Kiesler,2002).This reﬂects the availability of new telecommunication and information technologies that have made it increasingly feasible for work teams to carry out interdependent tasks despite members being physically distributed across locations,sometimes many time zones apart.When team members work from different locales,they are likely to experience different exogenous events,physical settings,constraints and practices(Cramton,236CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDS 2001,2002;Kiesler&Cummings,2002).Exogenous events include things such as local economic conditions or crises,for example a public transportation strike. Different physical settings and constraints might encompass differences in the features of buildings and equipment,distances,and routine trafﬁc conditions. Practices such as holiday observances,shop hours,and working hours also vary from location to location.Whereas demographic differences can result in individuals seeing issues differently,deﬁning situations differently,and having different political interests and ideologies or beliefs,differences in physical context or locale can result in members having different information,assumptions, preferences and constraints.Because of the absence of contextual information, group members are likely to notice,but not fully understand,patterns of preferences and behavior within their ranks that correlate with location.For example,group members based at a location with heavy trafﬁc,high gasoline prices and a good public transportation system may favor working hours that dovetail with the public transportation schedule and resist trips to the ofﬁce during odd hours.Their partners in another location may notice this pattern,but not grasp the reason for it.As a result,attributions about distant team members’behaviors may be inaccurate or harsh and local identiﬁcations strengthened.Thus,a product development team that is split between Germany and India is likely to perceive two subgroups–one in Germany and one in India.Proposition1b.Geographic distribution of work team members results in the salience of subgroups by location.We have argued that differences in demographic attributes and other afﬁliations tend to result in people having different worldviews,values,beliefs,goal priorities and behavioral norms,and being accorded different amounts of power and status.This leads them to deﬁne situations differently,see issues differently, and have different ideologies and political interests.We also have argued that working from different locations increases the likelihood that people will experience different exogenous events,physical settings,constraints and practices, resulting in their having different information,assumptions,preferences and constraints.In other words,both personal attributes and physical location impact preferences and behavior,albeit generally different aspects of these.Therefore when physical dispersion of team members aligns with demographic attributes or other afﬁliations,the pattern of differences between subgroups is likely to be more pervasive and noticeable.For example,assume we have a product development team split between India and Germany working on a new hand-held computer.If all of the mechanical engineers are in Germany and all of the software engineers in India,subgroups would be more salient than if the two types of engineersSubgroup Dynamics in Internationally Distributed Teams237 are distributed equally across sites.In other words,group faultlines will be strengthened and subgroup salience intensiﬁed.Proposition1c.When geographic distribution of work team members aligns with members’demographic attributes or other afﬁliations,subgroup salience by location is intensiﬁed.POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OFSUBGROUP SALIENCEThe Most Likely Consequence:EthnocentrismThe concept of ethnocentrism was introduced into social science by William Graham Sumner in1906.Sumner described ethnocentrism as“the technical name for this view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.”He says,“Each group nourishes its own pride and vanity,boasts itself superior,exalts its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders”(Sumner,1906,pp.12,13).Ethnocentrism and the ingroup/outgroup distinctions that derive from it have both cognitive and emotional foundations.With regard to cognition,researchers across a wide range of perspectives and disciplines agree that ethnocentrism results in stereotypic images of the outgroup(see LeVine&Campbell’s1972comprehensive review).This is accompanied by strong emotional attachment to the ingroup and hostile responses to the outgroup.Ethnocentrism has frequently been employed to understand clashes between large social groups such as ethnic or national groups(see LeVine &Campbell,1972)and has been applied on occasion to small social or familial groups(see Brewer&Miller,1996),however it has rarely been applied to the study of organizational groups.We submit that the powerful theoretical construct of ethnocentrism and its well developed research literature can be used effectively to understand internationally distributed teams and the subgroup dynamics that emerge in them.Considerable research evidence suggests that the mere recognition of subgroup differences tends to set in motion forces resulting in ethnocentrism.Social psychologists have incorporated the concept of ethnocentrism into social identity theory,suggesting that ethnocentrism results when people categorize themselves into emotionally signiﬁcant groups(Brewer&Miller,1996;Turner,1985).Within-group differences are minimized and between-group differences are exaggerated (Brewer,1986;Tajfel,1982;Tajfel&Turner,1986).According to Turner(1975), the process is driven by the desire for“positive distinctiveness,”an enhanced238CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDS sense of worth that comes from seeing one’s own group as distinctive from and better than a comparison group or outgroup.The exaggeration of differences and negative view of other groups relative to one’s own places groups in a competitive and conﬂictual relationship with one another.Although intergroup competition for resources and a history of hostility fuel the process(LeVine&Campbell,1972),they do not appear to be necessary conditions,as illustrated by one of Sherif’s studies(Sherif et al.,1961).As recounted by Tajfel(1982,p.23),“As soon as the groups became aware of each other’s existence,and before the competition between them was institutionalized, there was some evidence of competitive ingroup-outgroup attitudes.”Accumulated evidence shows that“intergroup discrimination can be caused by minimal social categorization,”(Tajfel,1982,p.23).Thus,merely being aware of the presence of subgroups is often adequate to trigger ingroup-outgroup dynamics. We argue that when subgroups become salient,ethnocentrism will likely result.Proposition2a.The presence of salient subgroups in a work team leads to subgroup ethnocentrism.A Positive Alternative:Ethnorelativistic LearningAlthough the natural tendency is for subgroup salience to lead to the creation of ethnocentric or ingroup-outgroup relationships,we propose that subgroup learning is an alternative outcome,depending on the conditions under which the subgroups are operating.To conceptualize subgroup learning in internationally distributed teams,we turn to the cross-cultural literature.This reﬂects our context of interest and is informative in a broad theoretical sense.Scholars of cross-cultural relationships have worked to identify alternatives to ethnocentrism and attempted to describe the process of cross-cultural learning and adaptation.The counterpoint to ethnocentrism is described as ethnorelativism(Bennett,1986;Brislin,Landis& Brandt,1983;Dinges,1983;Hoopes,1981).Ethnorelativistic thinking consists of taking the perspective of the other group and understanding the world,including one’s own group,through the other group’s eyes(Bennett,1986;Bennett& Bennett,2004).Ethnorelativistic behavior consists of adapting one’s behavior to be appropriate in the other group’s context–not just by following tips or rules but because it“feels right”in that context(Bennett,1986;Bennett&Bennett,2004). Thus,while ethnocentrism narrows and biases one’s thinking and is associated with competitive and hostile behavior in relation to another group,ethnorelativism expands one’s perspective and is associated with empathic behavior in relationSubgroup Dynamics in Internationally Distributed Teams239 to the other group.Ethnocentrism is characterized by greater rigidity in relation to the other group while ethnorelativism is characterized by greater adaptability.Because we are interested in both cultural differences and differences in physical location,we adapt this material concerning cross-cultural differences to conceptualize learning about cross-national differences.We argue that ethnorelativistic cross-national learning is an alternative to ethnocentrism in internationally distributed teams.By cross-national differences,we mean differences in both culture and locale(or physical context)encountered by members of internationally distributed teams.Because of our focus on work teams, we feel it is particularly important to broaden the notion of cultural differences between members to include differences in national situations and local practices that impact the ways in which work is done.Thus,by cross-national differences, we refer to behavior,constraints and values driven by either the cultures of origin of team members or the customs and situation of the country from which team members are working.For example,a person who grew up in Ethiopia might work from Holland as a member of an internationally distributed team.This person’s behavior,values and constraints probably will be affected by both his or her natal culture and the local work situation and practices in Holland.We carefully specify ethnorelativistic cross-national learning to distinguish it from other kinds of learning.The focus of ethnorelativistic cross-national learning is a human intergroup relationship,and the behaviors are perspective-taking,empathy and adaptability.Although little empirical work has examined cross-national or ethnorelativistic learning in work groups,there is some evidence that it is indeed important for group members to come to understand and respect their differences and develop practices that allow them to relate to each other across these differences.DiStefano and Maznevski(2000),for example,describe a multi-cultural consulting services team in Hong Kong that purposefully made their cultural differences explicit. By understanding team members’different interaction styles and perspectives, team members were able to interact more effectively and better leverage their respective skills.Similarly,Salk and Brannen(2000)found in a study of a German-Japanese joint venture that the most inﬂuential managers were those who learned about the local norms and adapted their decision making process ter in this paper,we describe the conditions that we think facilitate the occurrence of cross-national learning as opposed to ethnocentrism.Proposition2b.Under certain conditions,the presence of salient subgroups in an international work team can lead to cross-national learning.240CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDS SUBGROUP SALIENCE AND TEAM EFFECTIVENESS Impact of Subgroup Ethnocentrism on Team EffectivenessWe expect that subgroup ethnocentrism will have a negative effect on team performance.Ethnocentric groups are invested in seeing themselves positively, which usually means seeing other groups negatively.They deﬁne other groups by self-centered standards and accentuate differences between their own group and others.Their relationships with other groups typically come to be marked by competition and conﬂict.Thus,we can expect subgroup ethnocentrism to be accompanied by the withholding of information and cooperation from perceived outgroups and relational conﬂict,all of which have been associated with reduced team effectiveness(Cohen&Bailey,1997).Indeed,Kramer and Brewer(1984)report that subgroup differentiation interferes with cooperative group behavior.Armstrong and Cole(1995)and Cramton(2001) also describe how polarized subgroups in the distributed teams they studied withheld information from each other.Early and Mosakowski(2000)report that international teams with strong faultlines“showed many communication problems, relational conﬂict,and low levels of team identity”(2000,p.45).They note that “a lack of cross-cultural empathy and understanding appeared to contribute to the dysfunctional activities”of two of the teams they observed(p.36). Proposition3.Subgroup ethnocentrism is negatively associated with work team effectiveness.Impact of Cross-National Learning on Team EffectivenessBy contrast,we propose that cross-national team learning and adaptation will have a positive effect on team effectiveness as teams harness their diverse skills and perspectives on the team’s task and develop a sense of team efﬁcacy.In their study of three culturally diverse organizations,Ely and Thomas (2001)report that groups that use diversity as an opportunity for learning and adapting to others’perspectives subsequently have a higher sense of self-efﬁcacy and better work group functioning.Salk and Brannen(2000)describe a successful management team composed of German and Japanese members in which signiﬁcant differences in culturally preferred modes of decision-making are discovered and bridged.Members show“the volition to accept and adapt to local,emergent norms...rather than national subgroup based preferences”(Salk &Brannen,2000,p.200).Such bridging between cultures makes individualSubgroup Dynamics in Internationally Distributed Teams241 differences a source of insight that can be leveraged in the creativity and performance of the team(see Ely&Thomas,2001).We therefore propose that cross-national team learning will bring about better team performance. Proposition4a.Cross-national team learning is positively associated with work team effectiveness.Impact of Cross-National Team Learning on Future TeamsBeyond the immediate impacts on organizational effectiveness,we consider the transfer of cross-national learning from international teams to attitudes and behaviors beyond the immediate team.We argue that members of internationally distributed teams may experience a second order effect that has consequences for their work on future teams.The contact hypothesis suggests that being exposed to people different from ourselves builds an appreciation for others’perspectives (Pettigrew,1986).This suggests that as people create friendships,better understand the perspectives of colleagues in other countries,and become more competent in working across such differences,this capability will transfer to improved functioning on other internationally distributed teams.There is some evidence that positive contact with members of an outgroup results in positive views of the entire outgroup(see Pettigrew,1998).For example, Nesdale and Todd(1998)found that Asian and Australian students who had extensive contact with one another were more accepting and appreciative of cultural differences between the two groups than were students with little cross-cultural contact.In a meta-analysis,Pettigrew and Tropp(2003)conclude that reduced prejudice about an individual from an outgroup generally transfers to the entire outgroup.This suggests that when members of internationally distributed teams learn to appreciate one another’s differences,they are likely to generalize these positive views to future teammates from the same cultures and locations.A related line of research explores the acquisition of bicultural competence–the ability to develop and maintain competence in two cultures simultaneously (LaFromboise,Coleman&Gerton,1993).Bicultural competence developed on one team,we argue,will likely transfer to future teams with membership from those cultures in which team members have developed competence.Extensive research has examined peoples’ability to adapt to prolonged exposure to two cultures,identifying the skills required and the personal costs of doing so(e.g. Berry,1997,1999;Berry,Kim,Power,Young&Bujaki,1989;Rudmin,2003). LaFromboise and her colleagues(LaFromboise et al.,1993)argue that there are ﬁve models of second-culture acquisition,one of which–alternation–is especially242CATHERINE DURNELL CRAMTON AND PAMELA J.HINDS likely to lead to bicultural competence.Alternation,they argue,may be the most adaptive and least stressful method of adjusting because it does not require the loss of one’s original cultural identity.The alternation model assumes that people can understand and feel a sense of belonging to two different cultures and adapt their behavior to different cultural contexts as appropriate(LaFromboise et al., 1993).Sodowsky and Carey(1988),for example,describe howﬁrst-generation Asian Indians maintain their Indian cultural identity by wearing traditional clothes and eating Indian food at home,but express their American identity by speaking English and wearing Western clothes outside of the home.On internationally distributed teams,members have the opportunity to develop an understanding of the cultural beliefs and values of their distant colleagues, develop positive attitudes about the culture at the distant site,build conﬁdence in their ability to bridge cultures,improve their ability to communicate effectively with their distant colleagues,and develop stable social networks in their own country and at the distant site–all factors that promote bicultural competence(see LaFromboise et al.,1993).Team members who develop cultural competence in the culture at the distant site may be better prepared to work on future teams that are similarly distributed.We anticipate that cross-national learning also will transfer beyond the nationalities and locations represented in the team.For example,when cross-national understanding develops in a team composed of Asians and Europeans, we predict that these team members also will be more functional on future global teams with members from Latin America.We predict this,in part,because we posit that bicultural competence will translate into increased multicultural competence. Although knowledge of the speciﬁc culture may not be present,team members may bring with them more cognitiveﬂexibility and,perhaps,cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence is“a person’s capability to adapt effectively to new cultural contexts”(Earley,2002,p.274).Cognitiveﬂexibility and cognitive strategies that allow a person to create an accurate map of the social setting are crucial aspects of cultural intelligence.We posit that these aspects of cultural intelligence can be strengthened through experiences on internationally distributed teams,particularly for those who develop bicultural competence.Although we know of no empirical evidence,we argue that bicultural competence may provide a foundation for cultural intelligence.Research on the contact hypothesis also provides some support for the idea that cross-national learning will transfer to nationalities not represented in the immediate team.Pettigrew(1997,1998),for example,reports that having outgroup friends is associated with more acceptance of minorities from all groups.In a meta-analysis,Pettigrew and Tropp(2003)conclude that,although weaker,this rarely considered form of generalization–from the immediate outgroup to other。

family作文英语作文

Family is the cornerstone of society,providing a foundation of love,support,and stability for its members.Heres a detailed essay on the importance of family in our lives:Title:The Significance of Family in Our LivesIntroduction:The family unit is a fundamental institution in every culture,transcending geographical and linguistic barriers.It is the first social group we encounter and the primary source of our values,beliefs,and behaviors.The Role of Family in Early Development:From the moment we are born,our family plays a crucial role in our development. Parents and siblings provide the first models of social interaction,teaching us how to communicate,empathize,and cooperate.The emotional bonds formed during these early years lay the groundwork for our future relationships.Education and Learning:Families are the first educators,imparting both formal knowledge and life skills.They teach us the basics of language,mathematics,and science,but also more abstract concepts such as respect,honesty,and responsibility.The values instilled by family members often guide our decisions and actions throughout life.Emotional Support:One of the most significant contributions of a family is the emotional support it provides. In times of stress,family members offer comfort,reassurance,and a sense of belonging. This support network is vital for maintaining mental health and resilience. Economic Stability:Families also play a critical role in economic stability.They pool resources to meet the needs of all members,ensuring that everyone has access to food,shelter,and education. This collective effort can lead to better opportunities and improved living standards for the family as a whole.Cultural Identity:Families are the custodians of culture,passing down traditions,customs,and language from one generation to the next.This transmission of culture helps to preserve heritage and fosters a sense of identity and continuity.Conflict Resolution:Learning to navigate conflicts is an essential life skill,and families provide a safeenvironment to practice these skills.Through disagreements and reconciliations,family members learn to communicate effectively,compromise,and find solutions that benefit everyone.Conclusion:In conclusion,the family is a multifaceted institution that shapes our lives in countless ways.It is a source of love,learning,support,and identity.As we grow and evolve,the influence of our family remains a constant,guiding force that shapes who we are and who we aspire to be.Recognizing and valuing the role of family is essential for personal development and societal harmony.。

广告调查常用语简录

广告调查常用语简录AApplied research -------------------------------------应用型调查Attitude----------------------------------------------态度Allowable sampling error------------------------------允许抽样误差Analysis of variance （ANOVA）------------------------方差分析Attention span----------------------------------------注意力集中A priori segmentation---------------------------------先期市场细分Ad positioning statement tests------------------------广告定位宣传测试Ad concept testing------------------------------------广告概念测试Audience rating---------------------------------------收视率Ad tracking research----------------------------------广告跟踪调查BBasic research----------------------------------------基础性调查Balanced scales---------------------------------------平衡量表Bivariate techniques----------------------------------二元变量法Bivariate regression analysis-------------------------二元变量回归分析CConsumer orientation----------------------------------消费者导向Custom, or Ad hoc, marketingresearch firms----------------------------------------定制市场调查公司Causal studies----------------------------------------因果性研究Concomitant variation---------------------------------相随变化Cartoon tests-----------------------------------------漫画测试法Consumer drawings-------------------------------------消费者绘图Computer-assisted telephoneinterviewing（CATI）----------------------------------电脑辅助电话调查Content analysis--------------------------------------内容分析Causal research---------------------------------------因果调查Concomitant variation---------------------------------相关关系Contamination-----------------------------------------干扰Comparative scales------------------------------------比较性量表Constant sum scales-----------------------------------固定总数量表Closed-ended questions--------------------------------封闭式问题Call record sheets------------------------------------通话纪录单Census------------------------------------------------普查Cluster samples---------------------------------------整群抽样Convenience samples-----------------------------------便利抽样Central limit theorem---------------------------------中心极限定理Confidence level--------------------------------------置信度Coding------------------------------------------------编码Crosstablulation--------------------------------------交互分组表Coefficient of determination--------------------------可决系数Correlation analysis----------------------------------相关分析Collinearity------------------------------------------共线性Causation---------------------------------------------因果关系Cluster analysis--------------------------------------聚类分析Conjoint analysis-------------------------------------联合分析Consumer Satisfaction---------------------------------消费者满意度Communication-----------------------------------------沟通DDescriptive function----------------------------------描述功能Diagnostic function-----------------------------------诊断功能Descriptive studies-----------------------------------描述性研究Dependent variable------------------------------------因变量Database marketing------------------------------------数据库营销Database management system----------------------------数据库管理系统Discussion guide--------------------------------------讨论提纲Depth interview---------------------------------------深度访谈法Door-to-door interviewing-----------------------------入户访问Direct computer interviewing--------------------------电脑直接访问Disguised observation---------------------------------掩饰观察Dichotomous questions---------------------------------二项式问题Discriminate score------------------------------------判别分Discriminate coefficient------------------------------判别系数Downward communication--------------------------------下行沟通EExploratory research----------------------------------试探性调查Experiments-------------------------------------------实验Evaluative research-----------------------------------评估性调查Executive interviewing--------------------------------经理访谈Experiment--------------------------------------------实验法External validity-------------------------------------外在有效性Editing-----------------------------------------------编辑Error check routines----------------------------------错误检查程序Executive summary-------------------------------------执行性摘要Ethics------------------------------------------------伦理Field service firms----------------------------------实地调查公司Focus group interview（FGI）-------------------------焦点小组访谈法Focus group facility---------------------------------焦点小组测试室Focus group moderator--------------------------------焦点访谈主持人Frame error------------------------------------------抽样框误差Finite population correction factor------------------有限总体修正指数Factor analysis--------------------------------------因子分析Factor loadings--------------------------------------因子载荷GGoal orientation-------------------------------------目标导向Group dynamics---------------------------------------群体动力HHypothesis-------------------------------------------假设Humanistic inquiry-----------------------------------人文调查IIndependent variable---------------------------------自变量Internal database -----------------------------------内部数据库Interviewer error------------------------------------访问员误差Incidence rate---------------------------------------发生率Interval scales--------------------------------------等距量表Itemized rating scales-------------------------------列举评比量表Interviewer's instructions---------------------------调查员说明Interval estimates-----------------------------------区间估计Intelligent data entry-------------------------------智能数据录入JJudgment samples-------------------------------------判断抽样LLongitudinal study-----------------------------------纵向研究Likert scales----------------------------------------利克特量表Low ball pricing-------------------------------------虚报价格Marketing--------------------------------------------营销；行销Marketing concept------------------------------------市场营销观念Marketing mix----------------------------------------营销组合Marketing research-----------------------------------市场调查Marketing strategy-----------------------------------营销战略Marketing research problem---------------------------市场调查问题Marketing research objective-------------------------市场调查目标Management decision problem--------------------------管理决策问题Measurement------------------------------------------测量Measurement error------------------------------------测量误差Measurement instrument error-------------------------测量工具误差Mall intercept interviewing--------------------------街上拦截法Mail panels------------------------------------------固定邮寄样本调查Multidimensional scaling-----------------------------多维量表Multi-choice question--------------------------------多项选择题Machine cleaning of data-----------------------------数据自动清理Marginal Report--------------------------------------边际报告Mean-------------------------------------------------均值Median-----------------------------------------------中位数Mode-------------------------------------------------众数Multivariate analysis--------------------------------多变量分析Multiple regression analysis-------------------------多元回归分析Market segmentation----------------------------------市场细分NNonprobability samples-------------------------------非随机样本Nonresponses bias------------------------------------拒访误差Nominal scales---------------------------------------类别量表Nonbalanced scales-----------------------------------非平衡量表Normal distribution----------------------------------正态分布Noise------------------------------------------------噪音OObservation research---------------------------------观察调查法Open observation-------------------------------------共开观察One-way mirror observation---------------------------单向镜观察法Ordinal scales---------------------------------------顺序量表Open-ended questions---------------------------------开放式问题Optical scanning-------------------------------------光学扫描录入One-way frequency table------------------------------单向频数表On-air testing---------------------------------------实际播放测试PPredictive function----------------------------------预测功能Programmatic research--------------------------------计划性调查Probability samples----------------------------------随机样本Primary data-----------------------------------------原始资料Projective techniques--------------------------------投射法Photo sort-------------------------------------------照片归类法Population specification error-----------------------调查对象范围误差Processing error-------------------------------------处理过程误差People reader----------------------------------------阅读器Pupil meter------------------------------------------测瞳仪Purchase intent scales-------------------------------购买意向量表Paired comparison scales-----------------------------配对比较量表Pretest----------------------------------------------预先测试Population-------------------------------------------总体Proportional allocation------------------------------按比例分配Point estimates--------------------------------------点估计Population standard deviation------------------------总体的标准差Presentation software--------------------------------提案软件Profession-------------------------------------------职业Professionalism--------------------------------------专业水平Product positioning research-------------------------产品定位调查Post hoc segmentation--------------------------------后期市场细分Product prototype tests------------------------------产品原型测试Product pricing research-----------------------------产品定价研究Packaging tests--------------------------------------包装测试Product concept testing------------------------------产品概念测试QQualitative research---------------------------------定性调查Quantitative research--------------------------------定量调查Questionnaire----------------------------------------问卷Quota samples----------------------------------------配额抽样RResearch request-------------------------------------调查申请Response bias----------------------------------------回答误差Random error（random sampling error）----------------随机（抽样）误差Ratio scales-----------------------------------------等比量表Rule-------------------------------------------------规则Rank-order scales------------------------------------等级顺序量表Random digit dialing---------------------------------随机数字拨号Range------------------------------------------------全距Regression coefficients------------------------------回归系数Research management----------------------------------调查管理Reengineering----------------------------------------再造SSystem orientation-----------------------------------系统导向Syndicated service research firms--------------------辛迪加服务调查公司Strategic partnering---------------------------------战略伙伴关系Spurious association---------------------------------虚假联系Survey research--------------------------------------询问调查Selective research-----------------------------------选择性调查Secondary data---------------------------------------二手资料Sentence and story completion------------------------句子与故事完成法Self-administered questionnaire----------------------自我管理问卷Systematic error-------------------------------------系统误差Selection error--------------------------------------抽选误差Structured observation-------------------------------结构性观察Shopper patterns-------------------------------------购买者模式Shopper behavior research----------------------------购买者行为研究Simulated Test Marketing（STM）----------------------模拟市场测试Scaling----------------------------------------------量表Semantic difference----------------------------------语意差别法Staple scales----------------------------------------中心量表Survey objectives------------------------------------询问目标Screeners--------------------------------------------过滤性问题Scaled-response question-----------------------------量表式问题Supervisor's instructions----------------------------管理这说明Sample-----------------------------------------------样本Sample frame-----------------------------------------抽样框Simple random sampling-------------------------------简单随机抽样Systematic sampling----------------------------------等距抽样（系统抽样）Snowball samples-------------------------------------滚雪球抽样Stratified samples-----------------------------------分层抽样Sample distribution----------------------------------样本分布Sampling distribution of the sample mean-------------样本平均数的抽样分布Standard error of the mean---------------------------平均数的标准误差Sampling distribution of the population--------------比例抽样分布Standard normal distribution-------------------------标准正态分布Standard deviation-----------------------------------标准差Skip pattern------------------------------------------跳跃方式Selective perception----------------------------------选择性知觉Single-number research--------------------------------单一调查数据TTemporal sequence-------------------------------------时间序列Telephone focus groups--------------------------------电话焦点访谈法Two-way focus groups----------------------------------双向焦点访谈法Third-person techniques-------------------------------第三人称法UUnstructured observation------------------------------非结构性观察Unidimensional scaling--------------------------------一维量表Upward communication----------------------------------上行沟通Unstructured segmentation-----------------------------随意细分VVariable----------------------------------------------变量Variance ---------------------------------------------方差Validation--------------------------------------------确认WWord association tests--------------------------------语句联想法。

亲属寄养儿童分离与个体化发展的个案研究_戴柔儿(质化研究方法,整体内容分析)

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2.1.2
代养人提供给 F3 无所不能感
F3 出生后的主要照料
者为爷爷。她在爷爷奶奶身边的生活十分受宠，亲戚 “ 当然都让着我，然后我爷爷也不管（F3-222 ）”“ 我干什么他也不管（F3-225 ）”，“ 该上幼儿园了，那我（爷爷）去；该接了，早早就去等我。因为比如说我顺口说一句，爷爷今天我要第一个出校门，然后他就会第一个去等我（F3-202-203 ）”。 “ 我爷爷那个人特别慢、特别勤劳，就是那种每天不干别的，在家里打扫卫生，给我们做饭吃 …… 所以我爷爷当时带了我四年 …… 就
中国临床心理学杂志
2012 年
第 20 卷
第6期
· · 875 为由亲属代为抚养让自己变得比较 “ 独立（F2-51 、57 、59 ）”。 “ 因为一开始没有像其他的父母一样 …… 其他的父母一定是比较宠自己的女儿 …… 但因为那边是大家庭，所以也有其他的小孩子 …… 所以啊，也不可能只照顾我一个，也一定会让你有自由 …… 所以现在比较独立。 ”（F2-124-129 ）
其中分离个体化历程阶段又包括分化期练习期和解期个体化形成及情绪个体恒常期23esman等人都认为青少年时期有另一次类似婴幼儿时期的分离个体化历程主要是处理青少年与其家庭关系特别是处理与父母亲或重要照顾者的关系早年有亲属寄养经历的儿童一方面有面对新环境的体验另一方面又要面对初始照顾者的遗弃他们体验到的是双重的分离这样的分离将会如何影响个体的分离个体化发展本文将进行初步探索对象与方法11对象以典型抽样和方便抽样结合的方式选取四名符合研究界定的被试要求由外公外婆爷爷奶奶四名隔代亲属之一代为抚养时间超过年且期间不与父母共同生活

领导者上下关系认定与部属利社会行为：

98 51 1 121-138Chinese Journal of Psychology 2009, V ol. 51, No. 1, 121-138Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939 2005 Leader-member exchange model, LMX; Graen,1976; Graen, Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982LMX Graen et al., 1982 ； Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Weiss, 1978 ；領導者上下關係認定與部屬利社會行為：權力距離之調節效果06032 2006 8 2 2007 6 30 2008 1 25 2008 4 14 2008 11 4 2009 1 4106 E-mail: chengbor@.tw1 2 3 4 51 2 345； 795 ： 1 ； 2 ； 3 ：；： -1221995 1995LMX ； Graen, et al., 1982 ？？？？Brewer Gardner 1996 representation of the self Sluss Ashforth 2007 relational identity Flynn, 2005; Sluss & Ashforth, 2007Hsu, 1985 Ptolemian ； Galilean 2001 Hofstede 1980 Hofstede, 1980; Kim, Triandis, Kagiticibasi, Choi, & Yoon, 1994 ； Hofstede, 1980, 1991；？ relational self, Ho, 1995 1991 relational schema Baldwin, 1992; Baldwin, Carrell, & Lopez, 1990; Planalp, 1987 Fiske & Taylor, 1984 ； Baldwin, 19921991 glue Brewer & Gardner, 1996？Aryee Chen Sun Debrah 2007 trickle-down model123？ prosocial organizational behavior Katz, 1964 Baruch, O’ Creevy, Hind, & Vigoda-Gadot, 2004 organizational citizenship behavior O rg a n, 1988 e m p l o y e e-organization relationship, EOR Shore & Coyle-Shapiro, 2003 EOR 1 2 3 ？social cognitive dimensions 2001 power distance Bochner & Hesketh, 1994 ；？ ——leader-subordinate relational identity 1. 領導者與部屬關係vertical dyad linkage, VDL; Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975 leader-member exchange model, LMX; Graen, 1976; Graen, et al., 1982 VDL Dansereau et al., 1975 V D L L M X compatibility competence loyalty in-group out-group ：；Lincoln & Miller, 1979; Tsui & O’ Reilly, 1989; Zenger & Lawerence, 1989 Meglino, et al., 1989; Weiss, 1978 ；1995 ：；LMX LMX124？ LMXFlynn, 2005Wood, 1982 m i n i-culture Baxter, 1987 ； 2005 ：；；— consequence2. 領導者之上下關係認定：？1988 ： 11 ？； expressive ties ； instrumental ties ； mixed ties2001 Fiske, Haslam, & Susan, 1991Schein, 1991instrumental identity125？prosocial organizational behaviorsprosocial behaviors Brief & Motowidlo, 1986 Katz 1964 ： 1 ； 2 ； 3 prosocial organizational behaviorsBrief Motowidlo 1986 ： 1 ； 2 ； 3 ； Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; Organ, 1988multiple foci ：Brief Motowidlo 1986 LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002 ： 1 prosocial organizational behavior toward individual, POB-I ； 2 prosocial organizational behavior toward organization, POB-O Coleman & Borman, 2000; McNeely & Meglino, 1994prosocial organizational behavior toward leader, POB-L 1999 POB-L POB-I POB-O1988 Brewer Gardner 1996 Flynn 2005 11／／／；126Atkinson, 2004 ； 1988 ； 2001；Flynn, 2005 1988 2001 guanxi 2002 2001 2006 Flynn, 2005 1. 情感性關係認定與利社會組織行為— 1988 2005；Cheng, Chou, Huang, Wu, & Farh, 2004; Liden, Wayne, & Stilwell, 1993 Cheng, Huang, & Chou, 2002 2003？ social learning theory vicarious learning Bandura, 1977 Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Wat & Shaffer, 20051 ：假設1 主管的領導者－部屬關係之情感性關係認定與部屬利社會組織行為具正向關係。