Introduction to Linguistics 3 phonology

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Linguistics Chapter 3：Morphology

root
affix
inflectional affix derivational affix
morphemes
free morpheme bound morpheme
Lexical morpheme functional morpheme
bound root
affix
inflectional affix derivational affix
Basic notions of morphology
(1)‫‏‬
Morpheme —the minimal unit of meaning It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.
词素-最小的有意义的单位，语言中最小的构词单位
粘着词素指必须和至少一个自由或粘着词素一起出现的词素。
morphemes
free morpheme bound morpheme
Lexical morpheme functional morpheme
Lexical morphemes —the free morphemes which carry the content of messages we convey. e.g. N. (modernization) V. Modernize Adj. (modern)
出现在词干之前的叫前缀。
Suffix — morphemes that occur only after root or stem, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -tive, -tion, etc.
出现在词干之后的叫后缀。

LINGUISTICS——胡壮麟版

LINGUISTICSChapter one INTRODUCTION1. What is linguistics?⏹the scientific study of language2. What is language?⏹a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity)--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)⏹a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements(Chomsky,1957)—一种有限或无限的句子系列，每一句子的长度有限，并由一种有限的成分系统构成。

⏹--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)⏹a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ,ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols(Sapir,1921)—--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)⏹一种纯人类的和非本能的、⏹借助自发产生的符号以交流思想、⏹情感和意愿的方法。

⏹a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)3. (Design)Features of Human Language⏹Arbitrariness⏹Duality⏹Creativity⏹Displacement⏹duality二重性:language as a system with 2 subsystems/structures/levels---meaninglesssounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds⏹creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sendingmessages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. displacement:移位性can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future [no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.]⏹4.The functions of Language⏹ 6 functions(by Jacobson):referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、元语言功能)⏹ 4 functions(by Halliday):⏹the ideational function表意功能: language as a medium that links a person with the world⏹the interpersonal function人际功能: as a medium to get along in a community⏹the textual function篇章功能: create relevance to context⏹5.Some Important Distinctions⏹5.1 prescriptive vs. descriptive规定与描述: aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they not say.aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use;⏹5.2 synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study ; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.⏹5.3 Langue vs. parole语言与言语: by F. de. Saussure索绪尔. French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.⏹6.Branches of linguistics:⏹microlinguistics introduced in the charter behind.⏹macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics,etc.Chapter 2 PHONETICS1.What is phonetics语音学? The study of speech sounds2. Organs of speech: the pharyngeal cavity---the throatthe oral cavity—the mouth,the nasal cavity—the nose3 Broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a widely used standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent a sound.IPA provides it users with another set of symbols called diacritics. (变音符, 如façade上所加的变音符号或résumé上表示发高音的记号)●Broad transcription:letter-symbols only, used in dictionaries and textbooks for general purposes.●Narrow transcription:letter-symbols with diacritics, representing more fine details, used by phoneticians4.Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants---the obstruction of air-stream4.1 classification of vowels: they are differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth: the front---[]the central---the back---the openness of the mouth: the close ---the semi-close ---the semi-open---the open---the shape of the lips:the rounded---all the back vowels with the exception of [a]the un-rounded—all the front vowels and central vowels4.2 classification of consonants;Chapter3 PHONOLOGY⏹1. What is phonology音位学?The study of sound systems and patterns. focuses on three fundamental questions: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?⏹2. Phonology vs. phonetics: concerned with the same aspect of language---the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature . It is interested in all the speech sounds in all human languages.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion.⏹3. Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体:⏹3.1 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.⏹3.2 A phoneme is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.⏹3.3 An allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic context are called the allophones of that phoneme.⏹In words” feel” and” leaf”, there are four phones [f, i:, l, ł], but three phonemes/f, i:, l/, and phonemes, the dark [ł ]and clear[ l ]are the allophones of the phoneme/ l / .●4 Phonemic contrast: as two distinctive phonemes, /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]●5 Complementary distribution: allophones of the same phoneme occurring in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [ł]●6 Minimal pair: Two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, pill and bill,till and kill, kill and dill7.Some rules in phonologySequential rules: rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, blik but not lbki; there are rules governing the combination of three consonants clustering together (see p. 26); phonological patterning is language specific, e.g. [☠] not as initial inEnglish and standard Chinese, but can occur in Vietnamese, Shanghai dialect and Cantonese●Assimilation rules:when a sound is pronounced, the feature of the consonant which follows it is copied, vowels may be nasalized in bean, green, and team;and in incorrect [n] becomes [☠]; assimilation reflected in spelling: impossible for inpossible●Deletion rules: the sound is deleted when it occurs before a final nasalconsonant, e.g. sign, design, and paradigm8.Suprasegmental features : stress, tone, intonationAttention: such features also convey meanings.●Chapter4 MORPHOLOGY1.What is morphology形态学?The study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which the words are formed .2.Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added. For example: beatnik (a person who rejects or avoids conventional behavior)3.Closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new word are not usually added4.morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language.5.Classification of morphemes语素:5.1 free morphemes: roots, morphemes as words5.2 bound morphemes: affixes, morphemes attached to free morphemes to form new words5.3 inflectional morphemes: morphemes indicating case and number of n.s, tense and aspect of v.s, and degree of adj.s and adv.s5.4 derivational morphemes: bound morphemesadded to existing forms to construct new words6.Formation of English words6.1 derivation:forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once,it is possible to creae a derived word with a number of affixes.6.2 compounding:the combination of free morphemes.6.3 others: conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronyms and abbreviations, etc⏹Conversion:a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.This happens more frequently between n.s and v.s.e.g.LOOK in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.⏹Clipping :A process that shortens a word ,e.g.bus-omnibus,gym-gymnasium⏹Blending:To create a new word by combining one part of a word with one part of another word.e.g.motor+hotel=motel,breastfast+lunch=brunch⏹Backformation:To create a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.e.g.edit--editor⏹Acronym&abbreviation:Putting together the initial letters of some words.The difference between the two is the former can be read as a word .The latter,letter by letter.NATO,USA…….Chapter5 SYNTAX⏹1.What is syntax句法学?How words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.⏹2.Different approaches to syntax: Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school of grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax. Among all grammars, four appear to be well recognized, namely, traditional grammar, structural grammar, T.G grammar and systemic-functional grammar.⏹2.1 traditional G.:initially based on European languages, particularly on Latin and Greek. termed pedagogic grammar. In analyzing sentences, the method adopted is called parsing切分法.⏹1) identifying elements of the sentence,⏹2) identifying part of speech of each word⏹3) pointing out the inflection of the words,⏹4) describing the relationship between the words,⏹5) generalizing the order of the words.(3 weaknesses)⏹2.2 structural grammar:the early 20 century. American anthropologists and linguists. dying American Indian language. 2 concepts: form class形式类, immediate constituent 直接成分.⏹ A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituent. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis. This way of syntactic analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. IC analysis can accounting for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure, and, therefore, structural ambiguity .(but no pedagogic grammar of a language has been written following this approach )⏹2.3 T.G grammar转换生成语法: TO Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. The task of the linguist is to describe adequately this system of rules and explain how they wok.⏹ 2.3.1 The model of the standard theory 标准理论based on Chomsky1965 :⏹According to the model, we select words from the lexicon (our mental dictionary) and string them together, following P.S rules. The sentence structure at this stage is the deep structure, which will be further manipulated according to transformational rules. The actual form of the sentence is the surface structure, which is represented phonetically in speech or orthographically in writing. If this model is right, then writing a TG grammar of a language means working out 2 sets of rules which are followed by speakers of the language.⏹2.3.2 P.S rules短语规则: rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. They are part of speaker's syntactic knowledge. Such knowledge exists in the mind of speakers.4 tentative ps rules:⏹A)S →NP VP⏹B)NP →[(Det) (Adj) N⏹[Pron⏹C)VP →(Aux) V (NP)(PP)⏹D)PP →P NP⏹2.3.3转换及转换规则transformational rules⏹我们在谈及转换时需要引入两个概念：深层结构（Deep Structure简称DS）和表层结构（Surface Structure简称SS）。

Linguistics语言学归纳(可编辑修改word版)

Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license Undertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。

语言学杨忠第一章

Discussion:
What is language?
What does ‗language‘ mean?
General (broad) sense Used without articles. the universal properties of all human languages, i.e. the common features, not just one particular language.
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
A generally accepted definition:
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977).
What is language?
A medium of communication.
A system of code
A carrier of culture
An instrument for thinking
A glue of a community
A social institution
What is language?
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
(1) What is language?
Language is systematic. Language is symbolic. Language is arbitrary. Language is primarily vocal. Language is human specific.
What is language?

Linguistics演示文稿Chapter 1

1.1 Why study language
1.childre learn their native language swiftly’ efficiently and without instruction. nguage operates by rules. 3. All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and s system of semantics. 4. Everyone speaks a dialect. 5. Language slowly changes. …………………
1.1 Why study language

Language is only a means of communication. Language has a form-meaning correspondence. The function of language is to exchange information. English is more difficult to learn than Chinese. Black English is not standard and should be reformed…..
Chapter I Introduction to Linguistics

1.1 Why study language 1.2 The definition of language 1.3 Design features of language 1.4 The1.5 The definition of linguistics 1.6 The branches of linguistics 1.7 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.8 Features of modern linguistics

英语语言学引论

It is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the scientific description of speech sounds
It is divided into two subfields: academic phones and audit phones
The classification of vocabulary helps us understand the structure and organization of language
Physiological Changes of Words and Derived Words
01
Philosophy is the study of the internal structure of words
Semantic relationships and semantic fields
01
Semantics is the study of the meanings of words and how they are related to each other
02
Semantic relationships include synonymy (similar means), antonymy (potential means), and hybridization (specific to general means)
Linguistics is divided into different branches, including phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, and psychology

introduction of linguistics.

I. Explain the following terms: (15 points, 3 points each)1、Ideational function:Ideational function is the content function of language and allows us to conceptualize(概念化)the world for our own benefit and that of others.2、interpersonal functionInterpersonal function is the participatory function of language. It’s to establish, maintain and signal relationships between people.3、textual function,This function is using language to bring texts into being. It is to create written and spoken texts.4、prescriptive and descriptive,Language is de, not pre.Prescriptive prescribes rules of what is correct.Descriptivism claims that linguistics’ first task is to describe the way people actually speak and write their language, not to prescribe how they ought to speak and write5、competence and performanceCompetence is the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance is what we do when we speak of listen, that is , the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors. (COMPETENCE: Enabling a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities and stable. (Performance: Influenced by psychological and social factors, such as pressure, distress, anxiety, or embarrassment, etc.)6、functionalism and formalismp347、phoneticsScientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.(Deals with the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds.)8,transcription of soundsThe process of representing oral text in a writtenformat.9.phonologyPhonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.(Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.)10.phonemesThe smallest units of sound that can change the meaning of a word.11.allophoneA phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language – it is one of several similar speech sounds belonging to a phonemeplementary distributionWhen two or more sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.13.suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.14.morphologyThe study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.15.morphemeMorphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.16.inflectionInflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.17.word formationNew words may be added to the vocabulary or lexicon of a language by compounding, conversion, derivation and a number of other processes.18.lexiconLexicon is synonymous with vocabulary, which refers to all the words and phrases used in a language or that a particular person knows.19.lexemeLexeme is a more abstract and more technical term referring to the smaller unit of the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from another smaller unite.20.syntaxSyntax is a study of sentences.A traditional term for the study of the rules governing the way in which words are combined to form sentences in a language(The branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences)21.immediate constituentsIt’s of the same form class as the whole construction, and it’s the subordinating type.22.semanticsTraditionally defined as the study of meaning.23.referential/representational theoryReferential theory is a linguistic sign derives its meaning from that which refers to something in reality.Representational theory: It holds that language in general and words in particular are only an icon for an actual thing being symbolized.This suggests that there is one kind of “natural” resemblance or relationship between words and the things represented by them.24.semantic fieldSemantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system, which shows their relationship to one another.25.illocutinary actReferring to the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it(or with its explicit performative paraphrase).26.design featuresThe defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 27.speech act theoryOne of the basic theories of pragmatics.All linguistic activities are related to speech acts. Therefore, to speak a language is to perform a set of speech acts, such as statement, command, inquiry and commitment.28.politeness principle and its maximsaccording to this theory, everybody has face wants.i.e.the expectation concerning their public self-image. In order to maintain harmonious interpersonal relationships and ensure successful social interaction, we should be aware of the two aspects of another person’s face, i.e the positive face and the negative face.Politeness principle is based on the assumption that conversational implicatures arising from the flouting of the maxims of the cooperative principle are.(1) Tact maxim(2) Generosity maxim(3) Approbation maxim(4) Modesty maxim(5) Agreement maxim(6) Sympathy maxim29.cooperative principle and its maximsTacit agreement exists between the speaker and the hearer in all linguistic communicative activities.They follow a set of principles in order to achieve particular communicative goals.maximally efficient, rational and cooperativesincerely, relevantly and clearlywhile providing sufficient information⑴ The maxim of quality⑵ The maxim of quantity⑶ The maxim of relevance⑷ The maxim of manner30.indirect speech actIndirect speech act refers to an indirect relationship between the propositional content and illocutionary force of an utterance.31. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.32.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis as we know today can be broken down into two basic principles: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativityLinguistic determinism is Language determines the way people perceive the world.Linguistic relativity: Language influences the way people perceive the world.33.Critical Period Hypothesis,This hypothesis states that there is only a small window of time for a first language to be natively acquired.34.validity and reliabilityII. Answer the following questions briefly: (25 points, 5 points each)1.What are the functions of human language?Ideational: (also descriptive function)to organize a speaker‟s or writer‟s experience of the world and to convey information which can be stated ordenied and in some cases tested. It can be divided into experiential function and logical functionInterpersonal: (also social function)to establish, maintain and signal relationships between peopleTextual:to create written and spoken texts2.What are the sub-branches of linguistics within thelanguage system?Phonetics 语音学Phonology 音系／位学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Discourse Analysis 语篇分析Pragmatics 语用学3.What are the characteristics of English speech sounds?Common pattern:c onsonant-vowel-consonant: fit dig net sitconsonant clusters: stream glimpse task Consonants：voiced&voicelessVowelscharacteristic length: lip—lap—leapEnglish vowels & consonantsVoewls: 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs, 5tripthongs.4.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.Morphological rules is the rules, which determine how morphemes are combined into new words.5.What is endocentric construction/exocentricconstruction? Explain with examples.Endocentric construction is one whse distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of itsconstituents. A word or a group of words act as a definable center or headExocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.E.g.6. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.7. What are the major concerns of pragmatics?8. Explain the difference between inflectional and derivational affixes in terms of both function and position.9. Talk briefly about syllabus design.III. Make comments on the following topics. (40 points, 20 points each)(answersare open)该部分的答题思路是，先将理论要点陈述出来，再进行自己的评论和论述。

Introduction to Linguistics

Introduction to LinguisticsFromkin, Rodman, and HyamsCengage Learning2010Part 4: Language and Society10- Language in Society11- Language Change: The Syllables of Time12- Writing: the ABC’s of LanguageAlso, a strong focus on sign language and its relevance to the study of Linguistics.1.The Nature of Human LanguageLg- human invention or natural?Blank slate?Behaviorists- 1950Chomsky – innateness hypothesis – creative aspect – UG – Universal Grammar Linguistic competence - knowledgeLinguistic performanceEvidence of biological aspect – sign languages-deaf communities-acquire lg but not the same way-not sounds- visual gestures1 in 1,000 babies are born deaf75% of words can’t be lip readThe ability to develop language is biologically based – humans are designed for language, not for speechDeaf childrenBabbling – a stage of lg developmentSign themselves to sleep – babbling to sleepDream in sign languageSlips of the tongue (hands)90% are born to hearing parents or become deaf before acquiring language- many receive delayed language exposure – the earlier the betterSapir- WhorfLinguistic determinismLinguistic relativism (weaker)Euphemisms –Crippled- handicapped – disabled – challenged – differently abledAll languages have slang, euphemisms and taboo words2.Brain and LanguageTip of the tongue phenomenonCritical Age Hypothesis-biologically based-time based – birth to middle childhoodA six year old – 13,000 wordsAn eighteen year old – 60,000 wordsBloody, blooming, buggerASLSVOBut adjectives follow the head nounGrammar – eat, eating (sign for eat repeated twice)Topicalization –dogs, I’ve rescued manyRaise eyebrows and tilt head back – intonationSpellingGhotiTou gh, w o men, na ti onASL – phonetics – configuration – over 30 hand shapesMovement – away, towards, up, etc.Location of handBabies – respond to language – sucking (drinking milk) increases when hear human voices.Japanese babies can distinguish /r/ and /l/ until six months of age but not after unless exposed to speakers of other languages like EnglishRoughly six months – babbling – mama, gaga, dada, baba (95%)1 year – sounds of native languageHearing babies – limited gesturesDeaf babies – many gestures – babblingNext stage – one word sentences (holophrastic) – down –Also, usually monosyllabic words – consonant/vowelBaby Sign – Damaris-less frustration and less crying? (theory)Babies overextend meanings of words (up, dog)Babies limit meanings of word (dog to the family dog)Telegraphic stage – I go.I/you errors are commonBabies who use sign language make the same mistakes.“Help you” instead of “Help me”I always say, “Let me help you.”Braeden, “Dada, help you.”Hearing children of deaf parents acquire both languages equally –Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) studies.Deaf children born to hearing parents develop their own gestures – instinct Complete with grammar and rules –“home signs”But not a fully developed languageCodeswitching –L2 – critical age?3-8 – like a native speaker8-15- not- every year makes a difference in the level of proficiency- this process is similar to native lg stagesOverhearers – even children who overhear a language as a child will have more native pronunciation later in life if they study that particular languageBaby talk – choo choo, bow wow, tummyInteresting case – North Carolina (American south) – bomb threatArrest – suspect – phone call tapedGoodabyeSuspect – goobah (d-dropped)ReleasedCorpus – body of data (corpse)Part 4 – Language and SocietyAge, sex, social situations – when and where a language was learnedWord choice, pronunciation, grammarIdiolectDialect – systematic differencesMutually intelligibleEach person – both a dialect and idiolectWhat is a language? What is a dialect?Yugoslavia – Slavic lgCroats – Roman ScriptSerbs – Cyrillic Script-mutually intelligible but considered to be different languages todayDialect continuumDialect levelling – a movement towards uniformityRegional dialect - /r/ - Boston, New York and SavannahAccent –characteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect LuxuryAmerican, British, AustralianLuk, luxury or lugData – stress differenceApplicableLaboratoryYorkshire, East Anglia, West Country – descendents of earlier varieties – not London Word choice – lift, elevatorPublic school (in the U.K. must be paid for)DARE – Dictionary of American Regional EnglishSyntactic differencesJohn will eat and Mary will eat – John and Mary will eatOzark dialect (Missouri) – John will eat and Mary.-rule basedSocial dialects-socioeconomic status-religious-ethnic/racial differences-country of origin (Irish, Italian, French)-genderArabic is different in Baghdad based on whether the speaker is Muslim, Christian or JewishIndia – social castesLanguage purists –the “standard”SAE – Standard American English – an ideal that some nearly speakAmerican news – regional dialects –“celebrate diversity”BBC – before – RP- today – Welsh, Scottish and other regional dialects are featured BBC –“the speech of educated professionals”Prestige dialects1954 – Alan RossEnglish upper class – UU speakers’ goal is to avoid the speech of non-U speakers’ habitsNon-U speakers – lovely home (trying to sound refined)Other words used – wealthy and ever so (It is ever so nice) and recallU-speakers – rich and very and remember-hypercorrection –Banned languages- Soviet Union banned Ukrainian and other languagesLouisiana banned Cajun English and Cajun French in schoolAmerican Indian languagesShenzhen University?Japan banned the use of Korean during colonialism.France – The French Academy-forbids “Franglais”-le parking-le weekend-le hot dogBut used in every day life and in advertisingAfrican-American English-/r/ deletion except before vowels-/l/ deletion-Pen and pin – vowel sounds – similar to other southern dialects-Th and f-Multiple negations-Be verb deletion-Habitual “be” – He be happy means he is always happyLatino English-many varieties-Puerto Rican-Cuban-Mexican – Chicano English- American SWMany can also speak SAE – choiceGenderlects-Robin Lakoff – 1973-Women are more conservative-Some British dialects drop “H’s” – House – Women do less so-American English –dropping G’s –Running/Runnin’ – Women drop G’s less often as well.-Deborah Tannen – genderlect – coined the term-Japan-In Japan, guide dogs for the blind learn English because of the major differences in how men and women speak Japanese-Koasati – Louisiana – N.A. Indian Lg- final sound is different as women end words with an s and men with an l or n.-Thai, Bengali, Yana, Chiquitano (Bolivia)-Margaret Thatcher – altered her vocal pitch – lowered her voice and spoke more slowlySociolinguistic analysis –differences are by percentages. It’s not 100%For example: 80% and 20% (faucet and spigot)Labov – NY – department stores62% R – high end52% - mid-level21% - low-/r/ is socially stratifiedLanguages in contact-lingua franca-Frankish language – today it is Italian – a trade language-English-Past – French – diplomacy-Russian in the former Soviet Union-Latin – Roman Empire-Greek-Yiddish – for Jewish communities-Nigeria – Hausa-Hindi/Urdu- India and Pakistan-Putonghua (Mandarin)Pidgins and CreolesPidgins – 17th– 19th centuryColonial era-English, French, Dutch Portuguese-Hawaiian Pidgin English on plantations: workers from Japan, China, Philippines and Portugal-Chinook jargonThe dominant culture is the superstrate or lexifier lgSubstrateCreole –Pidginization- simplificationCreolization – expansionPidgins – fewer prepositions: in, on, at, etc.Reduplication – big and big-bigKomtok in Cameroon (English-based) – luk means to look – luk luk – stare Syntax – word order may be changeableCreoles – Tok Pisin, Hatian creole, Gullah, Louisiana Creole, Krio, Kiri Motu\Sign language – Nicaragua – 1980s –adult deaf people took “home signs” and later young children learned it and expanded it to become ISN (Nicaraguan Sign Language) BilingualismIndividualSocietalIndividuals may not be able to write in both languages or readCanada – QuebecSwitzerlandU.S. – 2000 – 18% of people over the age of 5 spoke a language other than English at home (60% Spanish)Codeswitching-style-bilingual-enrich the repertoire of the speaker-highly structured and rule-governedBorrowing – one word onlyLanguage in use(PC)- politically correctMail carrierWait staffFire fighterPolice officerChair/ChairpersonStyles and RegistersFormalInformalSlang – informal styleDisBarfPigCoolSuckSlang is universal but varies from time to time and from place to placePurpose? Meets social needs?Jargon and argot-ScienceProfessions, Trade, Occupations-unique vocabulary to particular groups and facilitates communication, bonding and excludes outsidersTabooWords can be filthy? Dirty? Clean? Obscene?4 letter wordsHarry Potter – You-Know-Who – VoldermortReligionSexBody FunctionsIn English, Latin words sound scientific while Anglo-Saxon words are often taboo VaginaPenisFecesEuphemismsPass away/Pass on/Kick the bucket/To buy the farm/with God/in a better place Racial and national epithets-slant-N-wordSexual orientation-fagLanguage and sexismAvoiding sexist language todayMarked/unmarked formHeir/heiressHero/heroineActor/actressHe – unmarked pronounThey is commonly used as the singular, general pronoun – not heSecret languagesNushu- women’s language – ChinaPig Latin – oday ouyay eakspay igpay atinlay? (keeping secrets from children) Hubog/buhog (Philippines) (salitang balbal)Language change: the syllables of timeAll living languages change over timeChange is slowWritten records reveal changesOld English (Of course they did not call it Old English)Today may be studied as a foreign languageBeowulf-Wolde guman findan pone pe him on sweofote sane geotode.-He wanted to find the man who harmed him while he slept1100-1500 – ChaucerWhen that Aprille with his shoures soote the droght of March hath perced to the roote. When April with its sweet showers the drought of March has pierced to the root.Shakespeare – A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm.449-1100 – Old English1100-1500- Middle1500-present –Arbitrary – 1016 – Norman ConquestHistorical and Comparative LinguisticsMouse – mus (moose)House – hus-sound shiftDialects from:1.Changes that don’t spread2.Changes that spread everywhere but to one area (conservative)Romance languages are dialects of Latin-French-Spanish-ItalianEnglish and German – proto-GermanicLatin and proto-Germanic – Indo-European (proto-Indo-European)Today – national languagesRelationshipF - PEnglish Romance LanguagesFishFather(German)1400-1600 – great vowel shiftMus – mouseWritten language is conservative-Chinese (1900)-The written and spoken languages were very different-Today written English represents how it used to be pronounced-Sometimes the change is carried over in one form of the word Divine/divinityAbound/abundantSerene/serenityFool/follySane/sanityLatin – case endingsBut were dropped from Romance lgsWolfLupusLupiLupoLupumLupeOld English had case endingsStoneStanStanasStanesStanumStaneLithuanian and Russian have retained this.Robert’s (retai ned in English) – possessivePronouns: he/she/him/her/his/her (retained as well)English has many prepositionsSyntactic changesChaucerShoures sootShowers sweet – sweet showersBut this was retained in phrases – a man alone, no man aliveAsleep formed from this – on and sleepOld English – VP – NP and V (Dutch and German)Modern – SVO – before was the SOVUntil Shakespeare this grammar was fine: Kisses the girl the boy often?BP – Brazilian Portuguese is changing-in Portuguese – subject, like Japanese, is not required but this is changing-2000 – 20% of sentences used this form-In 1850- 80%-Still used often in PortugalLexical changesNew words – borrowingLexical categories change – a noun becomes a verbLoss of wordsShifts in meaningExample:Text (a noun to a verb)New Words:TechnologySportsEntertainmentWord CoinageAdvertising industry – KleenexScience – vaccine, genomeGreek/Latin roots usedNew prefixes – E (E-commerce) (German Uber)Suffixes –new use of Peat (repeat to threepeat)gate, zillaWords from names: Sandwich, robot, Jumbo, PaparazzoBlends: smog (smoke and fog), brunch, podcastReduced words: fax (facsimile), telly, prof, bike, gas, ad, dis and radAcronyms: NASA, UNESCO, RADAR (radio detecting and ranging)AIDS, SARS, blogBorrowing and loan wordsLoan translations: word view from GermanHot dog in many languagesEtymologyAlgebra – into English from Spanish from ArabicEnglish – 20,000 most common words – 3/5th are loan words500 most common words – 2/7th are borrowed. Function wordsCelts: slogan, whisky, clan, binAngles, Saxons and Jutes: Germanic dialect – Old EnglishNormans (French)- government and politics – estate, government, jury, beef, pork.-during this time, English was still spoken at home, Church and markets. Vikings- Scandinavians – they/their/them – only pronouns borrowed – and Thursday Italian – musical terms- opera, pianoArabic – zero, alcohol, algebraNative American Indians-Loss of words- Shakespeare: beseem (suitable), wot (know)Recent losses – two-bits (25 cents) – lickety-split (very fast)Semantic changes –Broadening – virus, mouse, holiday, manage (handle a horse)Narrowing – meat (food), deer (animal) (tier – German), Hound (dog)Shifts – knight (youth), silly (happy), nice (ignorant) and fond (foolish) Reconstructing “dead” languages19th century historical and comparative linguists goal was to organize languages into language familiesExtinct-endangered languagesHow and why?People die (war)Political repressionUsually gradual – generation by generation, fewer and fewer speakersCornish – 18th century – currently a revival effortAmerican Indian languages – using English today1500- 1,000 languages in North America20% are being passed onHittite died 3,500 years ago“Partial death”- Latin and Hebrew – used in ChurchDialects also die – Ocracoke Island – North Carolina – youth leave the island Preservation:Gael and Linn organization – GaelicWelshHakka in TaiwanSchools: Hawaii, Quebec (1961)Israel – Hebrew – 23 lexicologists using the Bible and the Talmud -added vocabulary (some from English)- lipstick, pajamasTwitter – Latin – revival attempt from the last PopeChanges today:WhomCursiveWritingListening/speaking –naturalWriting – conscious effort with instructionAllows communication over time and spaceHandwritingPrintingElectronicBraille – tactile – not visualDevelopment of writingCang JieChi-lin-most likely gradualcave-art? PetroglyphsPictograms – direct representations – modern day road signsIdeograms- less direct representationsToday – emoticoms- modern pictographsAlphabet system- many today from the Greek systemTo LatinTo EnglishA practical system for languages with inflectionsChinese – little to no inflectionsArabic numerals – same meanings, pronounced differentlyJapanese –mix of two systems – roots and inflectionsCherokee – syllabic – 85 symbolsHebrew and Arabic – written using consonants onlyVowels are used for inflectionsCn y rd ths?Ktb – to writeAktib – I writeAlphabetic writing – sound writingIcelandKing Seijong – Korea – 1397-1450 – Hangul – square writing form –unique among languagesEuropean alphabets added diacritic marks – Spanish and GermanSome languages added two letters to make a new letter – ngCyrillic – also from Greek but not from LatinRussianArabic, Farsi, Urdu and Indian scripts – from ancient SemiticsyllaberiesThe Greeks borrowed the consonant alphabet from the Phoenicians and the Etruscans borrowed the Greek. The Romans adopted it to Latin. Spacing – Thai and Japanese have no spacing between words. Punctuation-I don’t think I know.I don’t think, I know.Spelling14th, 15th and 16th centuriesShakespeare – I, ay, ayeGutenberg printing press – spelling became wide spread and fixedSome spellings represent Latin spelling and pronunciation –dette – debt – even if the sound does not exist in EnglishSpelling reforms- Dutch, French – often resistance to this.Text messaging。

1.1+What+is+linguistics

1.1.2 The Scope of linguistics
B) main branches of linguistics Language study focuses on Form Meaning
1.1.2 The Scope of linguistics Form sound written Meaning
Child L1 acquisition
A process better described as “growth” than “learning”. Universally successful The knowledge acquired is largely of an unconscious sort.
-- Widdowson
LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES
Language is the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes,words, sentences, utterances. Languages are particular systems of human communication, e.g. the French language, the Hindi language.
Adult foreign language learning Conscious memorization of grammar rules General adult skill acquisition Problem solving Child language development Internally driven growth

语言学教程(第三版)胡壮麟笔记第一章

Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsⅠWhy study language?ⅡOrigin of languagehypothesis creation the “Devine –origin” theoryevolution the “bow-wow” theorythe “pooh-pooh” theorythe “yo-he-ho” theorythe “ta-ta” theoryⅢWhat is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.systematic ---- rule-governedarbitraryvocal ---- spokenwrittenhuman specificⅣDesign features of language1.Arbitrariness: It refers to the fact that the forms linguistics signs bear no natural relationshipto their meaning. ----By SaussureA.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of morpheme and its meaningB.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelC.Arbitrariness and conventon2.Duality: By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. ----By Lyonssound word phrase clause sentence text3.Creativity/Productivity: By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its dualityand its recursiveness.4.Displacement: Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolizeobjects, events and concepts which are not present ( in time and space ) at the moment of communication.5.Interchangeability: Any human bening can be both a producer and a receiver of messages,while animals cannot.6.Cultural transmission: It is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning,rather than by instinct. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.ⅤFunctions of language1.Jakobsonsix primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, content, message, code, contact to sum up: a speaker communicates with an addressee under certain context to convey message in certain code for the purpose of keeping contact.A.referential: to convey message and informationB.poetic: to indulge in language for its own sakeC.emotive: to express attitude, feelings and emotionD.conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreatiesE.phatic: to establish communion with othersF.metalingual functin: to clear up intentions, words and meaning2.HallidayA.Ideational function: is to convey new information, to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer.B.Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations. This includes the variousways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.C.Textual function: refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch ofspoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.3.conclusionrmative----HallidayB.interpersonal function----HallidayC.performative----Austin & SearleD.emotive functionE.phatic communionF.recreational functionG.metalingual functionⅥWhat is linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.ⅦMain branches of linguistics1.macrolinguistics:psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, mathematical linguistics2.microlinguistics:phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmaticsⅧImportant distinctions in linguistics1.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveDescriptive: if a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive: if the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2.Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic: a synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic: a diachronic linguistics is the study of a through the course of its history.ngue and parole----SaussureLangue: refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use.petence and performance----Noam ChomskyCompetence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistics competence.Performance: refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Supplementfunction: the rule language place in communication or in particular situation.。

Lecture-8-Lexicon-(3)

Note that syntactic changes are discussed here mainly because it involves morphological features.
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Examples
I wouldna done that if I were you. (= would not have)
shameful thing)
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3.3.3 Semantic change
Semantic change has to do with the change of meaning in words, mainly involving broadening, narrowing and meaning shift. Class shift is primarily a syntactic notion, and folk etymology refers to incorrect application of a morphological rule.
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3.3.1 Lexical change proper
(1) Invention (2) Blending (3) Abbreviation (4) Acronym (5) Back-formation (6) Analogical creation (7) Borrowing
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Examples
• Lesus Jesus • Sate sat • Sunne sun •VU •UV
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Change of sounds
Old English mus /mu:s/ hus /hu:s/ ut /u:t/ sup /su:t/

英语趣味知识技术介绍

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Linguistic classification
Corpus linguistics
The analysis of large collections of naturally occurring language data to invest patterns and structures in language use
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Introduction to English Linguistics
Language
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A system of aviation vocal symbols used for human communication It is made up of words, phrases, senses, and other elements that are combined according to graphical rules
English idioms and slang
Expressive habits and cultural characteristics: English idioms and slang are important components of English culture, reflecting the characteristics of British history, geography, society, and culture. Idioms are usually a fixed form of expression, and their meanings cannot be understood from a single word, while slang is a colloquial expression that is closer to life.

linguistics (introduction)解读PPT课件

I don’t like both.
I like neither.
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• Sign • The world is full of signs. • Semiotics • Language is one of those various signs. • This is the end of Part one.
• Descartes: I think, therefore I am.
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• Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology （符号学）is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. It includes the study of how meaning is constructed and understood.
Putonghua? •…
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Myths about language
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction
• Language operates by rules • All languages have three major
To acquaint you with the basic

Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology

Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology
汇报人： 2023-12-12
目录
• Introduction to phonetics • Introduction to
Phonology • The relationship between
phones • The Application of
Phonetic variants and language evolution
Phonetic variants are the manifestations of phonemes in different languages or dialects. With the development and evolution of language, the phenomenon of phonemic variations will also undergo changes. Therefore, studying phonemic variants helps to gain a deeper understanding of the laws and history of language evolution.
Improve vocabulary acquisition
Understanding the physiological structure of words helps learners to remember and retrieve words from their memory By associating pronunciation and spelling, physiological knowledge also facilitates vocabulary acquisition

2_1_[1].what_s_language

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(4) Displacement(可迁移性)：
Language can be used to refer to real or imaginary matters in the past, present and future. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what "displacement" means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e., in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.
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2.3 Defining (Design ) Properties of Human Language (1) *Arbitrariness: Though there are some onomatopoeic words such as "dingdong", these are a very small part of any language, and in different languages the imitation of sounds are not the same. However, arbitrariness is controlled by conventions. As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while "photo" and "copy" are both arbitrary, the compound word "photocopy" is not entirely arbitrary. But, non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language.

第三章.lingusitics——phonology

A common methodology of phonology study is
to begin by analyzing an individual language,
determine its phonological structure,
i.e. which sound units are used and how they
pattern, compare the properties of different
sound systems, and develop hypotheses about the
rules underlying the use of sounds in particular
groups of languages, and ultimately in all languages.
It is a speech sound. It is the smallest identifiable unit in a stream of speech that is able to be transcribed with nological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; as an abstract unit, it is not a particular sound, but represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. (the sound type in the mind)