翻译理论知识

《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲
一、翻译定义：
1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。

3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。

4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。

5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。

6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。

7. 卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。

8.奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。

“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”---Eugene Nida
纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。

“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.”--- Peter Newmark
10. “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.”--- Dubois
12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.
二、翻译标准
1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。

忠实指的是忠实于原文。

通顺指的是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。

2. 严复对翻译曾经提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准：“译事三难：信、达、雅。

求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。

”
3.“泰特勒三原则”：（1）That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work；（2）That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original；（3）That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.”（1）译作应完全复写出原作的思想；（2）译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质；（3）译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。

”（谭载喜，2006）泰特勒指出，这三项原则是好的翻译所必备的条件，它们次序的排列是恰当的、自然的，是按重要顺序排列的，如果在不得已的情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们的次第和比较上的重要性，决不能颠倒主次，以牺牲思想内容的忠实来求得译文的优美和流畅。

5. 奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。

他对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先是意义, 其次是文体。

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
这一定义明确指出翻译的本质和任务是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译的方法用最切近而又最自然的对等语。

6. 纽马克“文本中心”论：纽马克把要翻译的对象看
成文本，并根据语言的功能把文本分为表达型、信息型和召唤型三大类。

表达型包括严肃的文学作品、声明和信件等；信息型包括书籍、报告、论文、备忘录等；召唤型包括各种宣传品、说明书和通俗小说等。

他认为不同的文本应该用不同的翻译方法（纽马克把翻译方法分为语义翻译和交际翻译两种。

前者强调忠实于原作“原作者”；后者强调忠实于译作“读者”）,不同的评价标准，不同的“等效”要求。

8. 其他翻译标准
刘重德：信达切
许渊冲：信达优；美化之艺术，创优似竞赛；（三美论：意美、音美、形美；等化、深化、浅化；知之、好之、乐之；发挥译入语优势）
傅雷：重神似不重形似
钱钟书：化境
鲁迅：凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面：一则当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿。

林语堂：音美、意美、神美、气美、形美
郭沫若：好的翻译等于创作
三、翻译过程
理解和表达是翻译的两个主要步骤。

译者对原文的正确理解在翻译过程中至关重要；译者的表达须具有准确力和表现力，语言须具有生动性和形式美。

分析原文就是细致处理词位的所指意义和联想意义、研究句法和语篇结构。

理解和领会原文是从事无论何种翻译的基本功力。

如果译者确实理解了原文的涵义，又能得心应手地驾驭译语，那么翻译就是一个很自然
的驾轻就熟的过程。

翻译的过程可以简单分为：理解—表达---校核三个阶段，或理解---表达两个阶段。

四、翻译分类：
2. 从涉及到的符号来看，翻译可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）（通过同一语言中的一些语言符号解释另一些符号，如把古汉语译成现代汉语），语际翻译（interlingual translation）（通过一种语言符号解释另一种语言符号，如把英语译成汉语），符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）（通过非语言的符号系统解释语言符号或用语言符号解释非语言符号，如用手势语解释一则新闻。

）
3. 从翻译的手段来看，翻译可分为口译、笔译和机器翻译。

4.从翻译的题材来看明，翻译可分为专业性翻译（翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著等）、文学翻译（翻译小说、诗歌、戏剧等文学作品）和一般性翻译（翻译各种应用文和新闻报道等）。

5. 从翻译方式上来看，翻译可分为全译、摘译和编译。

泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻译理论和思想主要见于《论翻译的原则》一书。

该书是西方翻译理论的第一部专著，在书中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻译三原则：1、译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.)；2、译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同(That the style and
manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.)；3、译文影响原文一样流畅(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.)。

八、常用翻译方法、策略与技巧
1. 直译与意译（Literal translation and Free translation）
英语与汉语的语言结构与文体结构有相同的一面，汉译时可照译，即所谓“直译”——既忠实原文内容，又符合原文的语言与文体结构。

由于人们在感情，在对客观事物的感受及社会经历等方面会有相似之处，英汉语言表达中有少量相同或近似的表达方式，这些表达方式的字面意义，形象意义相同或近似，隐含意义相同，也就是说，这些表达方式的字面意义和形象意义所传达出的文化信息是相同的，可以互译。

“意译”则从意义出发，只要求将原文大意表达出来，不需过分注重细节，但要求译文自然流畅。

由于文化因素的影响，在翻译时无法保留原语的字面意义和形象意义，可将原文的形象更换成另一个译文读者所熟悉的形象，从而转达出原文的语用目的，译出隐含意义。

英汉两种语言不同的发展历史，民族文化，风俗习惯造成了两个民族独特的语言与独特的表达方式。

因此，翻译时必须对两种语言文化基础有基本的认识，不能逐字翻译。

凡语言都有习惯表达，言外之意。

在深入领会原作的精神实质的前提之下，不拘泥于原作的字面形式，创造性的表达原作思想，但不可添枝加
叶，改变原作的风格。

注：在翻译界通用的方法是将“直译”与“意译”相互结合。

任何一篇好的翻译作品，并不是单纯的某一种翻译方法贯穿始终，而是在保持原文内容的准确性，不引起歧义的情况下，将这两种翻译方法在同一翻译作品中并用，相得益彰。

笔者对翻译界的这种做法完全认同。

笔者认为，两种翻译方法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用的话，一定可以译出一部优秀的翻译作品。

2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）
异化和归化是在1995年由美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）在《译者的隐形》（The Translator’s Invisibility）一书中提出来的。

从历史上看，异化和归化可以视为直译和意译的概念延伸，但又不完全等同于直译和意译。

直译和意译所关注的核心问题是如何在语言层面处理形式和意义，而异化和归化则突破了语言因素的局限，将视野扩展到语言、文化和美学等因素。

按韦努蒂（Venuti）的说法，归化法是“把原作者带入译入语文化”，而异化法则是“接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景”。

（Venuti，1995:20）由此可见，直译和意译主要是局限于语言层面的价值取向，异化和归化则是立足于文化大语境下的价值取向，两者之间的差异是显而易见的，不能混为一谈。

归化（domestication）是指在翻译中采用透明、流畅的风格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻译策略
（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:43-44）。

它应尽可能的使源语文本所反映的世界接近目的语文化读者的世界，从而达到源语文化与目的语文化之间的“文化对等”。

异化（foreignization）是指偏离本土主流价值观，保留原文的语言和文化差异（Venuti，2001:240）；或指在一定程度上保留原文的异域性，故意打破目标语言常规的翻译（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:59）。

它主张在译文中保留源语文化，丰富目的语文化和目的语的语言表达方式。

用通俗的语言概括，即归化法要求译者向译语读者靠拢，采取译语读者习惯的译语表达方式，来传达原文的内容；异化法则要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者使用的原语表达方式，来传达原文的内容。

注：异化时不妨碍译文的通顺易懂，归化时不失去原文的味道，同时，我们应坚持对语言形式采取归化的策略，而对其文化因素进行异化处理。

这样，译文作品可兼两策略之长而避其短，使两者有共同发展的空间。

由此，在实际翻译过程中归化与异化应该是相辅相成，并有互补的辩证统一关系。

翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe.
Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。

译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。

不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。

翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。

人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。

(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed
by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning".
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's, i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by
the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous
Translators or Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1).严复(1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信(faithfulness): 忠实准确
达(expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅(elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言1898): 译事三难信达雅。

求其信己大难矣。

顾信矣不达。

虽译犹不译也。

则达尚焉......
易曰修辞立诚。

子曰辞达而已。

又曰言之无文，行之不远。

三者乃文章正轨。

亦即为译事楷模。

故信达而外，求其尔雅。

此不仅期以行远已耳。

实则精理微言。

用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。

用近世利俗文字，则求达难。

往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。

审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。

岂钓奇哉。

......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance.I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅信（faithfulness)
顺（smoothness)
(3). 林语堂忠实{faithfulness) 通顺(smoothness) 美(beautifulness)
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。

我们可依三方面的次序讨论。

第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。

这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。

(4). 傅雷:神似(resemblance in spirit)
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。

(《高老头》重译本序，1951) (5). 钱钟书：化境(reaching the acme of perfection)
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。

十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。

换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。

(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容(to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分(to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格(to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(7). 许渊冲：三重标准(three levels of criteria)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation
Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete
transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the
translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of
the original composition
(译作应当和原作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等)
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译
文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an
interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？”(徐志刚译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，
Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is
that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译(intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述(rewording)。

原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译(interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。

2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says “five past three”.
[点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。

当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。

而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息(non-linguistic message)。

将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。

非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。

雅可布逊Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。

其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。

从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者(Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译) Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to
produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as
closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
(语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and
yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself.
Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of
materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead. Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切" (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴" (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by
casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation,superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the
figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger), 一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example: ·Adam's apple 喉结
·at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
·It rains cats and dogs.大雨滂沱
·Don't cross the bridge till you get to it.不必担心过早。

(不必自寻烦恼)
·Do you see any green in my eye?你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute “literal”，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……
Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……。