The Analogy of Three Principles of SCI in Human Intelligence
小逻辑-黑格尔(英文原版)
CHAPTER IIntroductionCognitionThe objects of philosophy, it is true, are upon the whole the same as those of religion. In both the object is Truth.What is reasonable is actual; and, what is actual is reasonableIn its own field this empirical knowledge may at first give satisfaction; but in two ways it is seen to come short. In the first place there is another circle of objects which it dose not embrace. These are Freedom, Sprit, and God.Unless it is a system, a philosophy is not a scientific production. Unsystematic philosophizing can only be expected to give expression to personal peculiarities of mind, and has no principle for the regulation of its contents.Thus philosophy is subdivided into three parts:1.Logic, the science of the Idea in and for itself.2.The philosophy of Nature: the science of the Idea in its otherness.3.The philosophy of Mind: the science of the Idea come back to itself out of that otherness.CHAPTER IIPreliminary NotionIt is true that Logic, being the absolute form of truth, and another name for the very truth itself, is something more than merely useful. Yet if what is noblest, most liberal and most independent is also most useful, Logic has some claim to the latter character. Its utility must then be estimated at another rate than exercise in thought for the sake of the exercise.The world of spiritual existences, God himself, exists in proper truth, only in thought and as thought. If this be so, therefore, thought, far from being a mere thought, is the highest and, in strict accuracy, the solo mode of apprehending the eternal and absolute.Thought, in short, made itself a power in the real world, and exercised enormous influence influence.In earlier days men meant no harm by thinking: they thought away freely and fearlessly. They thought about God, about Nature, and the State; and they felt sure that a knowledge of the truth was obtainable through thought only, and not through the senses or any random ideas or opinions. But while they so thought, the principal ordinances of life began to be seriously affected by their conclusions. Thought deprived existing institutions of their force.In this point Conception coincides with Understanding: the only distinction being that the latter introduces relations of universial and particular, of cause and effect, and in this way supplies a necessary connection to the isolated ideas of conception; which last has left them side by side inits vague mental spaces, connected only by a bare ‘and’The difference between conception and thought is of special importance: because philosophy may be said to do nothing but transform conceptions into thoughts, --though it works the further transformation of a mere thought into a notionNow language is the work of thought:: and hence all that is expressed in language must be universal. What I only mean or suppose is mine: it belongs to me,--this particular individual. But language expresses nothing but universality; and so I cannot say what I merely mean.Nor it is unimportant to study thought even as a subjective energy. A detailed analysis of its nature would exhibit rules and laws, a knowledge of which is derived from experience. A treatment of the laws of thought, from this point of view, used once to form the body of logical science. Of that science Aristotle was the founder.For instance, we observe thunder and lightning. The phenomenon is a familiar one, and we often perceive it. But man is not content with a bare acquaintance, or with the fact as it appears to the senses; he would like to get behind the surface, to know what it is, and to comprehend it.Into this variety we feel a need of introducing unity: we compare, consequently, and try to find the universal of each single case.We said above that, according to the old belief, it was the characteristic right of the mind to know the truth. If this be so, it also implies that everything we know both of outward and inward nature, in one world, the objective world, is in its own self the same as it is in thought, and that to think is to bring out the truth of our object, be it what it may. The business of philosophy is only to bring into explicit consciousness what the world in all ages has believed about thought. Philosophy therefore advances nothing new; and out present discussion has led us to a conclusion which agrees with the natural belief of mankind.The real nature of the object is brought to light in reflection; but it is no less true that this exertion of thought is my act. If this be so, the real nature is a product of my mind, in its character of thinking subject-generated by me in my simple universality, self-collected and removed from extraneous influences, -in one word, in my Freedom.Logic therefore coincides with Metaphysics, the science of things set and held in thoughts,-thoughts accredited able to express the essential reality of things.In all human perception thought is present; so too thought is the universal in all the acts of conception and recollection; in short, in every mental activity, in willing, wishing and the like. All these faculties are only further specializations of thought.Man is a thinker, and is universal: but he is a thinker only because he feels his own universality. The animal too is by implication universal, but the universal is not consciously felt by it to be universal: it feels only the individual. The animal sees a singular object, for instance, its food, or a man. For the animal all this never goes beyond an individual thing.。
国外数电模电经典著作
国外数电模电经典著作国外的数电模电经典著作有很多，下面列举了10本：1.《数字逻辑与计算机设计》（Digital Logic and Computer Design）：这本书是由M. Morris Mano和Charles R. Kime联合撰写的，是数电和计算机设计领域的经典教材之一。
书中详细介绍了数字逻辑的基本原理和计算机的设计方法。
2.《电子工程师的设计指南》（The Art of Electronics）：这本书是由Paul Horowitz和Winfield Hill合著的，是电子工程师必读的经典著作之一。
书中详细介绍了电子电路的设计原理和实践技巧，包括模拟电路和数字电路的设计方法。
3.《微电子电路》（Microelectronic Circuits）：这本书是由Adel S. Sedra和Kenneth C. Smith合著的，是微电子电路领域的经典教材之一。
书中介绍了微电子器件的原理和电路的设计方法，涵盖了模拟电路和数字电路的内容。
4.《模拟电子技术基础》（Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits）：这本书是由Anant Agarwal和Jeffrey H. Lang合著的，是模拟电子技术的经典教材之一。
书中系统地介绍了模拟电路和数字电路的基本原理和设计方法。
5.《模拟电子电路设计》（Analog Electronics Design）：这本书是由Chris Toumazou、George S. Moschytz和Barrie Gilbert合著的，是模拟电子电路设计领域的经典著作之一。
书中详细介绍了模拟电路设计的原理和技巧，包括放大器、滤波器和混频器等电路的设计方法。
6.《数字信号处理》（Digital Signal Processing）：这本书是由John G. Proakis和Dimitris G. Manolakis合著的，是数字信号处理领域的经典教材之一。
Unit 8
confer a medal on the hero confer an honorary degree on sb. due respect The plane is due in 5 minutes.
Austrian psychiatrist
superego ego id egoism egoist
disinterested uninterested 1. She seemed completely __ in what I had to tell her about my new job. 2. In financial matters it is important to follow the advice from a/an __ party.
词汇辨析
Intelligent intellectual 1. Having written six scientific stories, she clearly enjoys __ pursuits. 2. If you are reasonably __, the math involved should present no problem. 3. He ventured the opinion that whales are as __ as human beings. 4. She was too much of an ___ to find teaching young children rewarding.
词汇辨析
by all means by no means 1. – Can I come and have a look at your new house? --- ______. 2. We have to finish our task ____. 3. She is ___ poor: in fact, she's quite rich.
Tytler：“ThreePrinciples”
Tytler’s Three PrinciplesIf it were possible accurately to define，or, perhaps more properly, to describe what is meant by a good Translation，it is evident that a considerable progress would be made towards establishing the Rules of the Art；for these Rules would flow naturally from that definition or description．But there is no subject of criticism where there has been so much difference of opinion…I would therefore describe a good translation to be，That，in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language，as to be as distinctly apprehended，and as strongly felt，by a native of the country to which that language belongs，as it is by those who speak the language of the original work．Now, supposing this description to be a just one，which I think it is，let us examine what are the laws of translation which may be deduced from it．It will follow,I. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work．译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容；（信）II. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original．译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同；（切）III. That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition．译文应像原文一样流畅自然。
人工智能英文文献原文及译文
附件四英文文献原文Artificial Intelligence"Artificial intelligence" is a word was originally Dartmouth in 1956 to put forward. From then on, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence is also expands. Artificial intelligence is a challenging job of science, the person must know computer knowledge, psychology and philosophy. Artificial intelligence is included a wide range of science, it is composed of different fields, such as machine learning, computer vision, etc, on the whole, the research on artificial intelligence is one of the main goals of the machine can do some usually need to perform complex human intelligence. But in different times and different people in the "complex" understanding is different. Such as heavy science and engineering calculation was supposed to be the brain to undertake, now computer can not only complete this calculation, and faster than the human brain can more accurately, and thus the people no longer put this calculation is regarded as "the need to perform complex human intelligence, complex tasks" work is defined as the development of The Times and the progress of technology, artificial intelligence is the science of specific target and nature as The Times change and development. On the one hand it continues to gain new progress on the one hand, and turning to more meaningful, the more difficult the target. Current can be used to study the main material of artificial intelligence and artificial intelligence technology to realize the machine is a computer, the development history of artificial intelligence is computer science and technology and the development together. Besides the computer science and artificial intelligence also involves information, cybernetics, automation, bionics, biology, psychology, logic, linguistics, medicine and philosophy and multi-discipline. Artificial intelligence research include: knowledge representation, automatic reasoning and search method, machine learning and knowledge acquisition and processing of knowledge system, natural language processing, computer vision, intelligent robot, automatic program design, etc.Practical application of machine vision: fingerprint identification,face recognition, retina identification, iris identification, palm, expert system, intelligent identification, search, theorem proving game, automatic programming, and aerospace applications.Artificial intelligence is a subject categories, belong to the door edge discipline of natural science and social science.Involving scientific philosophy and cognitive science, mathematics, neurophysiological, psychology, computer science, information theory, cybernetics, not qualitative theory, bionics.The research category of natural language processing, knowledge representation, intelligent search, reasoning, planning, machine learning, knowledge acquisition, combined scheduling problem, perception, pattern recognition, logic design program, soft calculation, inaccurate and uncertainty, the management of artificial life, neural network, and complex system, human thinking mode of genetic algorithm.Applications of intelligent control, robotics, language and image understanding, genetic programming robot factory.Safety problemsArtificial intelligence is currently in the study, but some scholars think that letting computers have IQ is very dangerous, it may be against humanity. The hidden danger in many movie happened.The definition of artificial intelligenceDefinition of artificial intelligence can be divided into two parts, namely "artificial" or "intelligent". "Artificial" better understanding, also is controversial. Sometimes we will consider what people can make, or people have high degree of intelligence to create artificial intelligence, etc. But generally speaking, "artificial system" is usually significance of artificial system.What is the "smart", with many problems. This involves other such as consciousness, ego, thinking (including the unconscious thoughts etc. People only know of intelligence is one intelligent, this is the universal view of our own. But we are very limited understanding of the intelligence of the intelligent people constitute elements are necessary to find, so it is difficult to define what is "artificial" manufacturing "intelligent". So the artificial intelligence research often involved in the study of intelligent itself. Other about animal or other artificial intelligence system is widely considered to be related to the study of artificial intelligence.Artificial intelligence is currently in the computer field, the moreextensive attention. And in the robot, economic and political decisions, control system, simulation system application. In other areas, it also played an indispensable role.The famous American Stanford university professor nelson artificial intelligence research center of artificial intelligence under such a definition: "artificial intelligence about the knowledge of the subject is and how to represent knowledge -- how to gain knowledge and use of scientific knowledge. But another American MIT professor Winston thought: "artificial intelligence is how to make the computer to do what only can do intelligent work." These comments reflect the artificial intelligence discipline basic ideas and basic content. Namely artificial intelligence is the study of human intelligence activities, has certain law, research of artificial intelligence system, how to make the computer to complete before the intelligence needs to do work, also is to study how the application of computer hardware and software to simulate human some intelligent behavior of the basic theory, methods and techniques.Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer science, since the 1970s, known as one of the three technologies (space technology, energy technology, artificial intelligence). Also considered the 21st century (genetic engineering, nano science, artificial intelligence) is one of the three technologies. It is nearly three years it has been developed rapidly, and in many fields are widely applied, and have made great achievements, artificial intelligence has gradually become an independent branch, both in theory and practice are already becomes a system. Its research results are gradually integrated into people's lives, and create more happiness for mankind.Artificial intelligence is that the computer simulation research of some thinking process and intelligent behavior (such as study, reasoning, thinking, planning, etc.), including computer to realize intelligent principle, make similar to that of human intelligence, computer can achieve higher level of computer application. Artificial intelligence will involve the computer science, philosophy and linguistics, psychology, etc. That was almost natural science and social science disciplines, the scope of all already far beyond the scope of computer science and artificial intelligence and thinking science is the relationship between theory and practice, artificial intelligence is in the mode of thinking science technology application level, is one of its application. From the view of thinking, artificial intelligence is not limited to logicalthinking, want to consider the thinking in image, the inspiration of thought of artificial intelligence can promote the development of the breakthrough, mathematics are often thought of as a variety of basic science, mathematics and language, thought into fields, artificial intelligence subject also must not use mathematical tool, mathematical logic, the fuzzy mathematics in standard etc, mathematics into the scope of artificial intelligence discipline, they will promote each other and develop faster.A brief history of artificial intelligenceArtificial intelligence can be traced back to ancient Egypt's legend, but with 1941, since the development of computer technology has finally can create machine intelligence, "artificial intelligence" is a word in 1956 was first proposed, Dartmouth learned since then, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence, it expands and not in the long history of the development of artificial intelligence, the slower than expected, but has been in advance, from 40 years ago, now appears to have many AI programs, and they also affected the development of other technologies. The emergence of AI programs, creating immeasurable wealth for the community, promoting the development of human civilization.The computer era1941 an invention that information storage and handling all aspects of the revolution happened. This also appeared in the U.S. and Germany's invention is the first electronic computer. Take a few big pack of air conditioning room, the programmer's nightmare: just run a program for thousands of lines to set the 1949. After improvement can be stored procedure computer programs that make it easier to input, and the development of the theory of computer science, and ultimately computer ai. This in electronic computer processing methods of data, for the invention of artificial intelligence could provide a kind of media.The beginning of AIAlthough the computer AI provides necessary for technical basis, but until the early 1950s, people noticed between machine and human intelligence. Norbert Wiener is the study of the theory of American feedback. Most familiar feedback control example is the thermostat. It will be collected room temperature and hope, and reaction temperature compared to open or close small heater, thus controlling environmental temperature. The importance of the study lies in the feedback loop Wiener:all theoretically the intelligence activities are a result of feedback mechanism and feedback mechanism is. Can use machine. The findings of the simulation of early development of AI.1955, Simon and end Newell called "a logical experts" program. This program is considered by many to be the first AI programs. It will each problem is expressed as a tree, then choose the model may be correct conclusion that a problem to solve. "logic" to the public and the AI expert research field effect makes it AI developing an important milestone in 1956, is considered to be the father of artificial intelligence of John McCarthy organized a society, will be a lot of interest machine intelligence experts and scholars together for a month. He asked them to Vermont Dartmouth in "artificial intelligence research in summer." since then, this area was named "artificial intelligence" although Dartmouth learn not very successful, but it was the founder of the centralized and AI AI research for later laid a foundation.After the meeting of Dartmouth, AI research started seven years. Although the rapid development of field haven't define some of the ideas, meeting has been reconsidered and Carnegie Mellon university. And MIT began to build AI research center is confronted with new challenges. Research needs to establish the: more effective to solve the problem of the system, such as "logic" in reducing search; expert There is the establishment of the system can be self learning.In 1957, "a new program general problem-solving machine" first version was tested. This program is by the same logic "experts" group development. The GPS expanded Wiener feedback principle, can solve many common problem. Two years later, IBM has established a grind investigate group Herbert AI. Gelerneter spent three years to make a geometric theorem of solutions of the program. This achievement was a sensation.When more and more programs, McCarthy busy emerge in the history of an AI. 1958 McCarthy announced his new fruit: LISP until today still LISP language. In. "" mean" LISP list processing ", it quickly adopted for most AI developers.In 1963 MIT from the United States government got a pen is 22millions dollars funding for research funding. The machine auxiliary recognition from the defense advanced research program, have guaranteed in the technological progress on this plan ahead of the Soviet union. Attracted worldwide computer scientists, accelerate the pace of development of AI research.Large programAfter years of program. It appeared a famous called "SHRDLU." SHRDLU "is" the tiny part of the world "project, including the world (for example, only limited quantity of geometrical form of research and programming). In the MIT leadership of Minsky Marvin by researchers found, facing the object, the small computer programs can solve the problem space and logic. Other as in the late 1960's STUDENT", "can solve algebraic problems," SIR "can understand the simple English sentence. These procedures for handling the language understanding and logic.In the 1970s another expert system. An expert system is a intelligent computer program system, and its internal contains a lot of certain areas of experience and knowledge with expert level, can use the human experts' knowledge and methods to solve the problems to deal with this problem domain. That is, the expert system is a specialized knowledge and experience of the program system. Progress is the expert system could predict under certain conditions, the probability of a solution for the computer already has. Great capacity, expert systems possible from the data of expert system. It is widely used in the market. Ten years, expert system used in stock, advance help doctors diagnose diseases, and determine the position of mineral instructions miners. All of this because of expert system of law and information storage capacity and become possible.In the 1970s, a new method was used for many developing, famous as AI Minsky tectonic theory put forward David Marr. Another new theory of machine vision square, for example, how a pair of image by shadow, shape, color, texture and basic information border. Through the analysis of these images distinguish letter, can infer what might be the image in the same period. PROLOGE result is another language, in 1972. In the 1980s, the more rapid progress during the AI, and more to go into business. 1986, the AI related software and hardware sales $4.25 billion dollars. Expert system for its utility, especially by demand. Like digital electric company with such company XCON expert system for the VAX mainframe programming. Dupont, general motors and Boeing has lots of dependence of expert system for computer expert. Some production expert system of manufacture software auxiliary, such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp established. In order to find and correct the mistakes, existing expert system and some other experts system was designed，such as teach users learn TVC expert system of the operating system.From the lab to daily lifePeople began to feel the computer technique and artificial intelligence. No influence of computer technology belong to a group of researchers in the lab. Personal computers and computer technology to numerous technical magazine now before a people. Like the United States artificial intelligence association foundation. Because of the need to develop, AI had a private company researchers into the boom. More than 150 a DEC (it employs more than 700 employees engaged in AI research) that have spent 10 billion dollars in internal AI team.Some other AI areas in the 1980s to enter the market. One is the machine vision Marr and achievements of Minsky. Now use the camera and production, quality control computer. Although still very humble, these systems have been able to distinguish the objects and through the different shape. Until 1985 America has more than 100 companies producing machine vision systems, sales were us $8 million.But the 1980s to AI and industrial all is not a good year for years. 1986-87 AI system requirements, the loss of industry nearly five hundred million dollars. Teknowledge like Intellicorp and two loss of more than $6 million, about one-third of the profits of the huge losses forced many research funding cuts the guide led. Another disappointing is the defense advanced research programme support of so-called "intelligent" this project truck purpose is to develop a can finish the task in many battlefield robot. Since the defects and successful hopeless, Pentagon stopped project funding.Despite these setbacks, AI is still in development of new technology slowly. In Japan were developed in the United States, such as the fuzzy logic, it can never determine the conditions of decision making, And neural network, regarded as the possible approaches to realizing artificial intelligence. Anyhow, the eighties was introduced into the market, the AI and shows the practical value. Sure, it will be the key to the 21st century. "artificial intelligence technology acceptance inspection in desert storm" action of military intelligence test equipment through war. Artificial intelligence technology is used to display the missile system and warning and other advanced weapons. AI technology has also entered family. Intelligent computer increase attracting public interest. The emergence of network game, enriching people's life.Some of the main Macintosh and IBM for application software such as voice and character recognition has can buy, Using fuzzy logic,AI technology to simplify the camera equipment. The artificial intelligence technology related to promote greater demand for new progress appear constantly. In a word ，Artificial intelligence has and will continue to inevitably changed our life.附件三英文文献译文人工智能“人工智能”一词最初是在1956 年Dartmouth在学会上提出来的。
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名## Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences.The Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences (Grundlinien der Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften) is a work by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, first published in 1817. It is a systematic exposition of Hegel's philosophical system, and it is considered one of the most important works in the history of philosophy.The Outlines is divided into three parts:1. Logic.2. Philosophy of Nature.3. Philosophy of Spirit.Logic is the first part of the Outlines, and it dealswith the most basic concepts of philosophy, such as being, nothingness, and becoming. Hegel argues that these concepts are not static, but rather they are in a constant state of flux and change. He also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself.Philosophy of Nature is the second part of the Outlines, and it deals with the natural world. Hegel argues that nature is not a separate realm from spirit, but rather itis a manifestation of spirit. He also argues that the lawsof nature are not fixed and immutable, but rather they are constantly evolving.Philosophy of Spirit is the third and final part of the Outlines, and it deals with the human spirit. Hegel argues that the human spirit is the highest form of reality, and that it is the goal of all history. He also argues that the human spirit is not a static entity, but rather it is in a constant state of development.The Outlines is a complex and challenging work, but itis also a rewarding one. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## Hegel's Philosophical System.Hegel's philosophical system is based on the idea that reality is a constantly evolving process of becoming. He argues that all things are in a state of flux and change, and that there is no such thing as a static or unchanging reality.Hegel also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself. He believes that the laws of logic are the laws of thought, and that they are therefore the laws of reality.Hegel's philosophical system is often referred to as idealism, because it emphasizes the importance of the mind and spirit. Hegel argues that the mind is the source of all reality, and that the world is a product of the mind.Hegel's idealism is not solipsism, however. He does not believe that the world is simply a product of our own imagination. Rather, he believes that the world is a real and independent entity, but that it is also a product of the mind.Hegel's philosophical system is a complex and challenging one, but it is also a powerful and persuasive one. It is a system that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## The Outlines in the History of Philosophy.The Outlines was first published in 1817, and it was immediately recognized as a major work of philosophy. It was quickly translated into several languages, and it was soon being studied and debated by philosophers all over the world.The Outlines had a profound influence on thedevelopment of philosophy in the 19th century. It was one of the main sources of inspiration for the idealist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of Marxism.In the 20th century, the Outlines continued to be studied and debated by philosophers. It was a major source of inspiration for the existentialist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of analytic philosophy.The Outlines is still a major work of philosophy today. It is a work that is studied and debated by philosophersall over the world. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be a source of inspiration for philosophers today.。
未选之路 赏析
未选之路赏析整理"The Road Not Taken" is a poem by Robert Frost, published in 1916 in the collection Mountain .The poem consists of four stanzas. In the first stanza, the speaker describes his position. He has been out walking in the woods and comes to two roads, and he stands looking as far down each one as he can see. He would like to try out both, but doubts he could do that, so therefore he continues to look down the roads for a long time trying to make his decision about which road to take.摘要罗伯特·弗罗斯特是一名美国著名诗人，本诗《未选择的路》是他的一篇名作，诗中以作者面对森林中两条道路时的思想活动展开描写，引出了深刻的哲理——面对人生的选择要慎重考虑，且无法回头。
本诗语言朴实，全文通俗易懂，且采用传统的诗歌文体，读来朗朗上口，但意味深长。
本文从诗歌的文体，作者，以及思想三个方面对此诗做了简略分析。
关键词: 道路，选择，通俗，文体The Road Not Taken is a famous poem written by the notable American poet Robert Frost. This poem is started from the psychological activity of the writer when he was facing the two roads in the forest, and then lead to a profound philosophy——people must keep cautious when facing choices, and could never come back.The Road Not Taken has 4 stanzas with 5 lines in each, while the form is the traditional 4 iambic feet. The rhyme scheme is abaab, which are wood, both, could, undergrowth; fair, claim, wear, there, same; lay, black, day, way, back; sigh, hence, I, by, difference. This lively rhythm gives reader the sense of following.This poem is from the world-famous poet, Robert Frost, who was born in San Franciso and got his whole-American glory in the 1990s. Frost was one of the most popular poets in America during his lifetime and was frequently called the country's unofficial poet laureate. He was farming in Derry, New Hampshire when, at the age of 38, he sold the farm, uprooted his family and moved to England, where he devoted himself to his poetry. There are 10 volumes of poems published by Frost in his whole life. This poem is belong to his third volume Moutain Interval(1916), and also one of my favorite poem.“Frost had rejected the revolutionary poetic principles of his contemporaries, choosing instead the old-fashioned way to be new.”(History and Anthology of American Literature: 167) He prefers to use the traditional forms of lyric and narrative, and the simple words to express a new and profound philosophy. As a poet of nature he had obvious affinities with romantic writers. He saw nature as a storehouse of analogy and symbol, but he had little faith in religious dogma or speculative thought. His concern with nature reflected deep moral uncertainties, and his poetry, for all its apparent simplicity, often probes mysteries of darkness and irrationality in the bleak and chaotic landscapes of an indifferent universe where men stand alone, unaided and perplexed. In Frost’s poetry, there are various metaphorical objects, such as natural scenery, phenomenon, animals and flowers in na ture, others are closely associated with life, farm tools, food, women’s beauty, human body, religion and mythology, etc..All these reflect the poet’s love for nature and life, his sad experience in life and the influence religion exerted upon western p eople’s daily life.This poem is a typical example. In this poem, Frost reviewed his trouble in his life, which is two different ways of life. Once he was facing two different roads, one is fair while the another one is grassy. He stood and thought for a long time. “And sorry I could not travel both, and be one traveler; long I stood and looked down one as far as I could to where it bent in the undergrowth.” He was confused which one to take. Because the curiosity leads him to look forward both, and he t hought he could take one first then another one later. “Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back.” But finally, the fact led a deep philosophy, which made him feel remorse for his original choice. “I took the one less trave led by,and that has made all the difference.”In conclusion, this poem announced itself to be "about" important issues in life: about the nature of choice, of decision, of how to go in one direction rather than another and how to feel about the direction you took and didn't take. Although the symbols are only two very common roads in the nature, his poem still give readers profound affects. Not only facing the roads of forest, but also the troubles in anytime and anyplace of people’s life, the choice i s the most common thing but also the most difficulty trouble in everyone’s daily life. Every decision will lead a totally different result. Poet used a very vivid way to announce this fact.《未选择的路》是美国诗人罗伯特.弗罗斯特的著名诗篇。
名著中英文对照
The Voyage of the Beagle An Essay on the Principle ofPopulation The Interpretation ofDreams The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
文学名著
The Iron Heel The People of the Abyss The Sea-Wolf The Son of the Wolf The White Fang Benito Cereno Billy Budd Moby Dick（The Whale） Typee Paradise Lost Paradise Regained A Dream of John Ball and A King's Lesson News from Nowhere Blix McTeague Moran of the Lady Letty The Octopus- A Story ofCalifornia Uncle Tom's Cabin Gulliver's Travels The Battle of the Books and Others Frankenstein Bride ofLammermoor Ivanhoe Rob Roy The Heat ofMid-Lothian The Antiquary The Talisman- A Tale of the Crusaders Waverley A Lover's Complaint A Midsummer Night's Dream All's Well That Ends Well As You Like It Cymbeline King John King Richard II King Richard III Love's Labour's Lost Measure for Measure Much Ado About Nothing Pericles, Prince of Type The Comedy of Errors King Henry the Fourth King Henry the Fifth King Henry the Sixth King Henry the Eighth The History of Troilus and Cressida The Life ofTimon of Athens
国际商法(英语专业)
International Business Law国际商法课程教案YUAN TIANForeign Language Teaching and Research DepartmentHeilongjiang UniversityChapter OneIntroduction to International Business LawI. Teaching ObjectivesOn completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:1.Get to know the objectives and feature of this course;2.Get to know the basic relationship among such elements as:➢International;➢Business;➢Law3.Grasp the basic requirements of legal English learning.4.Get to know the features of international law;5.Get to know the sources of international law.II. The Points to Be Highlighted1. The relationship among the key elements as “international”, “business” and “law”2. The understanding of the nature of lawIII. T eaching Approaches and FacilitiesApproaches: 1. Pair/Group work 2. Discussion 3 Task-based approach4. Communicative approach5. Questions and answers……Facilities: PPT demonstration in the media classroom; on-line researchIV. Background Information1. Economic globalization, in recent years, has been one of the hottest focuses in the world. Although it is extremely difficult to define economic globalization, many economists and business experts believe that no business can be purely domestic, and the realities of the modern world make all business international.2. The causes of these developments are numerous:(1) Incredible advances in efficiency of communication;(2) Extraordinary reductions in transport costs;(3) Growing prevalence of instant tele-and-cyber-transactions;(4) Treaty and other norms causing reduction of governmental barriers to trade;(5) The blessing of relative peace in the world.V. Teaching Procedures and Contents1. Introduce the outline of this Chapter:This Chapter will discuss:❖WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW?❖SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW✧International conventions;✧International custom;✧General principles of law;✧Judicial decisions;✧Teachings of publicists.❖THE SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW❖COMPARISON OF MUNICIPAL LEGAL SYSTEMS✧Romano-Germanic Civil Law;✧Anglo-American Common Law;✧Islamic Law2. WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LA W?❖Defined: The body of rules and norms that regulates activities carried on outside the legal boundaries of nationsIt regulates three international relationships:1) Those between states and states.2) Those between states and persons.3) Those between persons and persons.❖The differences between public international law and private international law❖Is International Law Really Law?1) Because nations and individuals regard international law as law, it is law.2) Comity: The practice, or courtesy, between nations of treating each other with goodwill and civility.3) Comity is not law because countries do not regard it as something they are required to respect.3. SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW❖Defined: Those things which international tribunals rely upon in determining the content of international law; ❖Treaties and Conventions:1) Definitions:✧Treaties are agreements between one or more nations.✧Conventions are agreements sponsored by international organizations.2) Reasons for binding effect:✧Shared sense of commitment✧Because one country fears that if it does not respect its promises, other countries will not respect theirpromises3) Rules governing treaties:✧Traditionally customary;✧Now codified in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (in force since 1980).❖Custom1) Defined: Rules that have been around for a long time or which are generally accepted.Caveat: Customary rules are constantly changing.2) Establishing the existence of a customary law: Must show two elements —one behavioral and one psychological:✧Usus(Latin for: usage): Is the consistent and recurring action (or lack of action if the custom is one ofnoninvolvement) by states.✧Opinio juris et necessitatis (Latin for: Of the opinion that the rule is proper and required): The custom mustbe regarded by states observing it as one that they must obligatorily follow.3) Exceptions to the application of custom:✧Persistent objector: A state that persistently objects to a practice during its formative stages will neverbecome a party to it.✧A state allowed by the international community to deviate from a customary practice.❖General PrinciplesGeneral principles of law are common to both (or all) the state parties to a dispute.4. COMPARISONS OF MUNICIPAL LEGAL SYSTEMS❖Legal “families”1) Romano-Germanic Civil Law.2) Anglo-American Common Law.3) Islamic Law.❖The Romano-Germanic Civil Law SystemThe Oldest and most influential of the legal familiesA. French Civil Code1) French Civil Code (Code Napoleon) of 1804✧The right to possess private property;✧The freedom to contract;✧The autonomy of the patriarchal family.2) Differences from the German Code:✧Written in a short period of time.✧Its style and form are one that is straightforward, easy to read, and understandable to everyone.3) Differences from the English common law: It contains flexible general rules rather than detailed provisions.B. German Civil Code of 1896.1)Characteristics of the German Code:✧Incredibly precise and technical.✧Special terminology is used.2) Differences from the French Code: It is meant exclusively for the use of trained experts (not lay readers).C. Countries with Civil Law systems distinguish between the civil law and public Law.1) Public law evolved separately from the movement for codification of civil or private law.✧Public law is constitutional and administrative law.✧Public law is treated in a variety of ways in the civil law countries.❖The Anglo-American Common Law System1) Historical origins:In 1066, the Normans conquered England and William the Conqueror began to centralize the governmental administration of his new kingdom.The name “common law” is derived from the theory that the king’s courts represented the common custom of the realm, as opposed to the local customary law practiced in the county and manorial courts.2) The “common law” must be distinguished from the law which evolved out of:✧Equity: A principle of justice de veloped by the king’s chaplain, or chancellor, to provide parties with aremedy when none was available in the king’s courts.✧Admiralty (the laws governing sailors) and other specialized jurisdictions.❖The Islamic Law System——Known as Shari’a.1) Sources in the order of their importance:✧The Koran.✧The Sunnah or decisions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad.✧The writings of Islamic scholars who derived rules by analogy from the principles established in theKoran and the Sunnah.✧The consensus of the legal community.2) Note that the Shari’a is primarily a moral code.✧It is principally concerned with ethics.✧In this respect, it contains many principles in common with the civil law and the common law.✧It is much less concerned with promoting commerce and international relations than the secular legalsystems.VI. Assignments1. Translation Exercises:Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice lists the sources that the Court is permitted touse.The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply:(a) International conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states;(b) International custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;(c) The general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;(d) Subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.2. Case study—The Lotus in 1927A collision occurred on the high seas between a French steamer and a Turkish collier in which some Turkish crew members and passengers lost their lives. When the French ship docked in a Turkish port, the Turkish government began criminal proceedings against the French officers on watch at the time of the collision. The French appealed to the permanent Courts of International Justice arguing that Turkey had violated international law, because, France said, only the flag state has jurisdiction over criminal incidents on the high seas.The PCIJ said that the few cases France cited for this proposition “merely show that states had often, in practice, abstained from instituting criminal proceedings, and not that they recognized themselves as being obliged to do so; for only if such abstentions were based on their being conscious of a duty to abstain would it be possible to speak of an international custom.”Conclusion: Turkey was allowed to continue with its criminal prosecution.VII. Reference MaterialInternational business law (Text, Cases, and Readings) Ray AugustInternational Business Law and Its Environment by Richard Schaffer, Beverley EarleInternational Business Law: A Transactional Approach by Larry DiMatteo and Lucien J. DhoogeChapter TwoThe Multinational EnterpriseI. Teaching ObjectivesOn completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:1.know the basic forms of International business;2.better understand the structures of multinational enterprises.3.grasp the basic attributes of a multinational organization;4.learn to differentiate national multinational corporation from international multinational corporation;5.get familiar with basic international regulations and home state regulations of multinational enterprises6.get familiar with basic international regulations;7.grasp the host state regulations of multinational enterprises.II. The Points to Be Highlighted1. The difference between the national Multinational Corporation and the international Multinational Corporation.2. The basic attributes of a multinational organization.III. T eaching Approaches and FacilitiesApproaches: 1. Pair/Group work 2. Discussion 3 Task-based approach4. Communicative approach5. Questions and answers……Facilities: PPT demonstration in the media classroom; on-line researchIV. Background InformationPre-lecture illustrationGet familiar with the outline of this Chapter:❖THE BUSINESS FORM❖THE MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATION❖INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES❖HOME STA TE REGULATION OF MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES❖HOST STATE REGULATION OF MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISESV. Teaching Procedures and ContentsSection 1 THE BUSINESS FORM1. Multinational Nature●Depending on place of creation:Home or parent organizations—located within a single state;Multiple parents located in multiple states.● A matter of municipal law2. Business Forms in Civil Law States1) Company: An association of persons or of capital organized for the purpose of carrying on a commercial, industrial, or similar enterprise.2) Partnership: A company of two or more persons who co-own and manage a business and who are each liable to the full extent of their personal assets for its debts.✧Limited partnership: A company of two or more persons, at least one of whom has unlimited personalliability for the debts of the business and at least one other who is an investor having limited liability.✧Silent partnership: A secret relationship between two or more persons, one of whom carries on abusiness in his name alone without revealing the participation of the other who has limited personal liability.✧Partnership limited by shares: A company of one or more general partners who have unlimited personalliability for the debts of the company and limited participation by investors in the form of shares. The company is taxed as a corporation.3) Corporation: A company of capital whose owners have limited personal liability.✧Stock corporation: A corporation that can raise money in the public marketplace through the sale offreely transferable shares. Its financial statements have to be disclosed to the public.✧Limited liability company: A corporation owned by members that does not issue negotiable sharecertificates and is subject to minimal public disclosure laws.3. Business Forms in Common Law States1) Company: An association of persons organized for the purpose of carrying on a commercial, industrial, or similar enterprise.2) Partnership: An association of two or more persons who co-own and manage a business for profit and who are each liable to the full extent of their personal assets for its debts.✧Limited partnership: A partnership consisting of one or more general partners who manage the businessand who are each liable to the full extent of their personal assets for its debts and one or more limited partners whose liability is limited to the funds they invest.✧Secret partnership: A partnership in which the participation of one or more persons as partners is notdisclosed to the public by any of the partners. All of the partners have unlimited personal liability.3) Joint stock company: An unincorporated association of persons whose ownership interests are represented by transferable shares. The shareholders have unlimited personal liability.4) Business trust: A business arrangement in which the owners of a property, known as beneficiaries, transfer legal title to that property to a trustee who then manages it for them.✧The beneficiaries hold transferable trust certificates entitling them to the income generated by theproperty and a residual equitable share at the time the trust is terminated.✧The trustee has unlimited personal liability while the beneficiaries have limited personal liability.5) Corporation: A separate juridical entity owned by shareholders who may have limited, unlimited, or no liability.✧Public corporation: A corporation that can raise money in the public marketplace through the sale offreely transferable shares. Its financial statements have to be disclosed to the public.✧Private corporation: A corporation that may not ask the public to subscribe to its shares, bonds, or othersecurities and which is subject to less stringent public disclosure laws than a public corporation.✧Limited liability company: An unincorporated business association.4. The Importance of the Separate Legal Identity of Companies1) Juridical entities (such as companies) have legal identities separate from that of their owners.2) Significance:✧ The liability of the owners is limited to their investment in the company.✧ The owners are neither managers nor agents nor representatives of the company.✧ The rights and benefits accruing to the company belong to the company and not its owners.✧ The property rights of a company can only be claimed by that company.Section 2 THE MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATION1. Parent Company1) The Non-multinational.✧ Defined: A domestic firm functioning in the international marketplace through a foreign agent.✧ Note: Neither the principal nor the agent are truly multinational enterprises because neither operatesoutside of its home state.2) The National Multinational✧ Defined: A firm in one country — the “parent” — that operates in other countries through branches andsubsidiaries.3) The International Multinational✧ Two or more parent companies located in different states operate through jointly owned subsidiaries inseveral states.✧ Public Trans-nationals.✧ Defined: A government-controlled multinational enterprise created by treaty between two or morestates.2. The Subordinate Structure1) Subordinates subject to direct control of the parent:2) Representative office: A foreign contact point where interested parties can obtain information about a particular firm.✧ It does not do any business on its own.3) Agent: An individual who is employed as an independent representative of a firm.✧Agents are subject to the supervision of the parent firm (or principal).✧Their authority is limited to what the parent delegates to them.4) Branch: A larger unit of the parent company which involves not only the placement of individuals in a particular locale, but also the establishment of a facility, such as an assembly plant, mining operation, or service office.✧The authority of branch personnel is limited to what the parent has delegated.5) Disadvantages of these subordinates:✧The parent has to assume all of the risk of investing abroad.✧ A foreign firm (or its agent or its branch) is often taxed at higher rates than local firms.✧Many developing states require local participation in order for a foreign firm to either invest or expandits local investment.3. Firms not subject to the direct control of the parent1) Subsidiary: An independently organized and incorporated company.✧The subsidiary’s company status insulates the par ent from unlimited liability.✧Locally organized companies are commonly entitled to certain tax benefits that foreign branches are not.2) Joint venture: An association of persons or companies who are involved in “a collaboration for more than a transitory period.”✧Business form: May be any type of business form (e.g., an association, a partnership, a limitedpartnership, a secret partnership, or a limited liability company).✧The investors share the risk.✧Entry into foreign markets is usually easier for a multinational that is affiliated with a local jointventurer.3) Holding company: A subsidiary company that in turn owns other subsidiaries.✧Reason for setting up holding companies:⏹To establish a consolidated management team for a group of subsidiaries or subsidiaries owned bydifferent parents.⏹For tax advantages.✧Business form: Most commonly a holding company is organized as a limited liability company whoseshares are held by its parent or parents.Section 3 INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES1. Several International Organization have Promulgated Rules of Ethical Behavior for Multinational Enterprises, including:✧Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).✧International Labor Organization (ILO).✧International Chamber of Commerce (ICC).2. These are only Suggested RulesBinding international codes do not exist as yet.Section 4 HOME STATE REGULATION OF MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES1. Introduction✧The most important forms of home state regulation are:1) Regulation of competition.2) Regulation of injuries caused by defective products.3) Prohibition of sharp business practices.4) Regulation of securities.5) Regulation of labor and employment.6) The establishment of accounting standards.7) Taxation.✧Some of these rules are applied extraterritorially by home state, most notably:1) Regulation of competition.2) Regulation of injuries caused by defective products.3) Prohibition of sharp business practices.2. Unfair Competition Laws1) United States Unfair Competition Laws.✧Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 is the principal US law regulating anti-competitive behavior.✧Clayton Act of 1914 Defines certain specific acts that constitute unfair business competition, including:◆Exclusive dealing agreements and tying clauses.◆Mergers that result in a monopoly.◆Interlocking directorates.✧Robinson-Patman Act of 1936 makes price discrimination illegal.2) Extraterritorial Application of US Antitrust Laws.✧Statutorily authorized: The Sherman Act declares that it applies to conduct affecting “trade or commerceamong the several states, or with foreign nations.”✧Judicially imposed limits on the extraterritorial application of the US antitrust laws.✧Personal Jurisdiction Requirements:✧Applicable state “long arm statutes.”: Due process forbids a court from assuming personal jurisdictionunless a defendant has “minimum contacts” with the forum state.3) Subject matter jurisdiction requirement.✧The courts have created two tests for determining when they have subject matter jurisdiction in anAmerican antitrust case.⏹Effects test: Companies carrying on business outside of the US will come within the subject matterjurisdiction of a US court if their business activity is:◆Intended to affect US commerce.◆Not de minimis.⏹Balancing Test (or “choice of law” test): Defined: A court should balance the interests of the statesconcerned in determining if subject matter jurisdiction exists.◆This is now the prevalent test in the US.3. Regulation of Anticompetitive Behavior in the European Union1) The European Community Treaty contains two provisions regulating business competition.✧Article 85 prohibits normal arm’s length competitor s from entering into agreements or carrying onconcerted practices which either prevent, restrain, or distort trade.✧Article 86 forbids businesses with a dominant position in their marketplace from taking improperadvantage of their position to the detriment of consumers.2) Compliance: EU Commission is solely responsible for enforcing Articles 85 and 86.3) Extraterritorial application of the EU’s business competition rules.✧EU Commission and the EU Court of Justice have adopted (in essence) the US “effects test.”✧EU effects test: The EU business competition rules apply to foreign firms to the extent that the firm’sactivities have an effect on trade or commerce within the EU.4. Opposition to the Extraterritorial Application of Unfair Competition Laws1) Blocking Statutes: Typically have three features:✧They limit the extent to which a US plaintiff can obtain evidence or seek production of commercialdocuments outside of the US for use in investigations or proceedings in the US.✧They make it difficult for a successful plaintiff to enforce a US judgment outside the US.✧By virtue of a “clawback” provision, they allow defendants to bring suit in their home country torecover the punitive damages they paid in the US.✧Judicial Injunctions are sometimes granted by courts to prohibit one of their nationals from initiating anantitrust suit in the US against another of their nationals.5. Product Liability Laws1) Purpose of product liability laws: To discourage manufacturers from putting defective products into the marketplace.2) Product Liability Theories.✧Breach of contract.✧Negligence.✧Strict liability.Most states use only the first two; Common law countries use all three; EU now relies principally on the last.3) Extraterritorial Application of Product Liability Laws✧The country that has been most willing to apply its product liability laws extraterritorially: The US.✧Considerations of US courts in determining whether they can exercise jurisdiction in a product liabilitycase:⏹Personal jurisdiction.⏹Forum non conveniens.6. Sharp Practices1) Defined: Dishonest business dealings meant to obtain a benefit for a firm regardless of the means used.✧Examples: Misrepresentation and bribery.2) Governing law: Municipal (local) law.3) Extraterritorial application of sharp practices law.✧The country that has been most willing to apply its sharp practices laws extraterritorially: The US.✧US legislation: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) of 1977.✧Caveat: They may only be charged with a violation of the FCPA after the company has first beencharged and convicted of the same violation.✧Forbid bribes to:⏹Foreign government officials.⏹Foreign political party officials.⏹Candidates for foreign political office.Section 5 PIERCING THE COMPANY VEIL1. Defined:Ignoring the corporate structure of a company (i.e., “piercing the company veil”) and exposing the shareholders to personal liability.2. Four circumstances where this is done:1) The Controlled Company: The corporate status of a controlled company will be ignored if both:✧Its financing and management are so closely connected to its parent that it does not have anyindependent decision-making authority; and✧It is induced to enter into a transaction beneficial to the parent but detrimental to it and to third parties.2) The Alter Ego Company: The company veil will be pierced if the company is not treated by its shareholders as a separate juridical entity (i.e., it is treated as the alter ego of the shareholders).✧The commingling of corporate and personal assets.✧The use of company assets by shareholders for their own personal benefit.✧The failure to hold and record minutes of board of directors’ meetings.3) Undercapitaliza tion: A company’s veil will be set aside if, at the time it was formed, it was provided with insufficient capital to meet its prospective debts or potential liabilities.4) Personal Assumption of Liability: Shareholders who have personally guaranteed the obligations of a company can, of course, be made to answer for those obligations.VI. Assignments1. Critical thinking on Business FormsCurly owns part of the Nyuck-Nyuck wise Guys, a major league baseball team. Curly becomes disgusted with the whole business of baseball when the team makes a $50-million, five-year deal with a free agent, Mr. Potatohead. Without telling the other owners, Curly purports to transfer his interest in the team to Shemp. (Curly is one of several hundred owners.) On the issue of whether Curly’s interest is in fact transferable, does it matter whether the team is partnership or a corporation?●If it’s a corporation, Shemp probably is an owner.Freely transferable ownership for a corporation unless subject to a written restriction on transfer (close corporation)●If it’s a partnership, Shemp isn’t an owner.A partnership interest is only transferable with the remaining partners’ approval unless t he partnership contract provides otherwise; without it, the transferee cannot become a full partner (e.g., he cannot vote.)VII. Reference MaterialPrinciples of International Business Transactions (The Concise Hornbook Series) (Hornbook Series Student Edition) by Ralph H. Folsom, Michael W. Gordon, and John A. SpanogleFundamentals of International Business Transactions by Ronald BrandThe Law & Business of International Project Finance by Scott L. HoffmanChapter ThreeCISGI. Teaching ObjectivesOn completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:1.Get familiar with the application scope of CISG and relevant background knowledge;2.Get a general idea about the basic theory of contract under common law system.3.Grasp the basic principles applicable to the interpretation of CISG;4.Learn to distinguish offer from acceptance in the theory of contracts;5.Get familiar with the general standards of contract performance. Grasp the function of agency relationship incorporation law.II. The Points to Be Highlighted1.Applying the contract theory to practical issues solving;2.Specify the application scope of CISGIII. T eaching Approaches and FacilitiesApproaches: 1. Pair/Group work 2. Discussion 3 Task-based approach4. Communicative approach5. Questions and answers……Facilities: PPT demonstration in the media classroom; on-line researchIV. Background Information1. In an international transaction, at least one party is likely to have its rights decided under the law of a foreign country because two parties to the sales contract must be governed by the law of only one country. What is more important, there are many differences between national laws.2. As a result, the function and nature of sales law are viewed differently in different legal systems. Each system has its individual rules for deciding the validity of a contract for interpreting its terms, and for defining the remedies available to a party upon a breach.3. Thus, when a firm enters a contract governed by foreign law, it is undertaking an added risk. Obviously, the conflicts of laws of different countries are big impediments to both parties to a sales contract.V. Teaching Procedures and ContentsGet familiar with the outline of this Chapter:❖UNITED NATION’S CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS (CISG)。
university and their function
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• (P3)It enables man to construct an intellectual vision of a new world , and it preserves the zest of life by the suggestion of satisfying purposes. • People with imagination will be able to form a new outlook which is different from that of people without imagination. Imagination is capable of preserving people’s enthusiasm for life because it can show people that life has many purposes which can be pleasing.
• Alfred North Whitehead (1861– 1947) was a British mathematician, logician and philosopher best known for his work in mathematical logic and the philosophy of science. In collaboration with Bertrand Russell, he authored the landmark three-volume Principia Mathematica《数学原理》 (1910, 1912, 1913) and contributed significantly to twentieth-century logic, philosophy of science and metaphysics形而上学.
新标准大学英语综合教程3课文翻译和课后习题答案 Unit 3
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6 Listen, if you can, to the 48 fugue themes of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavichord. Listen to each theme, one after another. You will soon realize that each theme mirrors a different world of feeling. You will also soon realize that the more beautiful a theme seems to you the harder it is to find any word that will describe it to your complete satisfaction.
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8 The third plane on which music exists is the sheerly musical plane. Besides the pleasurable sound of music and the expressive feeling that it gives off, music does exist in terms of the notes themselves and of their manipulation. Most listeners are not sufficiently conscious of this third plane.
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Yes, you will certainly know whether it is a gay theme or a sad one. You will be able, in other words, in your own mind, to draw a frame of emotional feeling around your theme. Now study the sad one a little closer. Try to pin down the exact quality of its sadness. Is it pessimistically sad or resignedly sad; is it fatefully sad or smilingly sad?
林肯的十句经典名言英文
林肯的十句经典名言英文Lincoln's 10 Classic Quotes in English.1. "Always bear in mind that your own resolution to succeed is more important than any other."Lincoln emphasizes the significance of personal determination and resolve in achieving success. He believes that no matter the obstacles or challenges, it is one's own determination and perseverance that matter most.2. "You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time."Lincoln's famous quote about honesty and transparency in leadership. He believed that while it might be possible to deceive some people for a time, it was impossible to deceive everyone indefinitely. This quote serves as a reminder of the importance of honesty and integrity inleadership and public life.3. "A house divided against itself cannot stand."Lincoln uses the analogy of a divided house to emphasize the importance of unity and consensus among people. He believed that a society or nation divided by internal conflicts and disputes cannot prosper or survive. This quote serves as a call for unity and cooperation among people.4. "Better to remain silent and be thought a fool thanto speak out and remove all doubt."Lincoln advises caution and prudence in speech, warning against the dangers of premature or ill-advised declarations. He believed that it was better to remainsilent and risk being thought a fool than to speak out and immediately remove any doubt about one's ignorance or folly.5. "I have a dream that one day this nation will riseup and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We holdthese truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'"Lincoln's famous "I Have a Dream" speech outlines his vision for a more equal and just society. He dreamed of a day when the nation would embrace the principle of equality and ensure that all people, regardless of their race, class, or origin, would be treated with dignity and respect.6. "Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."Lincoln's Declaration of Independence-inspired phrase emphasizes the democratic principles of government. He believed that a government should be run by the people, for the people, and should serve the interests and needs of the people. This quote serves as a reminder of the importanceof democratic values and institutions.7. "I am a slow walker, but I never walk backwards."Lincoln's resolute statement about his unwaveringcommitment to progress and reform. He may have been slow in his actions, but he never retreated or gave up on his goals. This quote serves as a reminder of the importance of perseverance and determination in achieving one's goals.8. "If I had eight hours to chop down a tree, I'd spend six hours sharpening my ax."Lincoln's words emphasize the importance of preparation and planning in achieving success. He believed that by investing time and effort in preparation, one can achieve greater efficiency and success in the long run. This quote serves as a reminder to always be prepared and to plan ahead.9. "The best way to predict the future is to create it."Lincoln's words encourage active participation and engagement in shaping the future. He believed that rather than passively waiting to see what the future holds, one should take initiative and work towards creating a desiredfuture. This quote serves as a call to action and reminds us that we have the power to shape our own destiny.10. "To sin by silence when they should protest makes cowards of men."Lincoln's words emphasize the importance of speaking out and taking a stand when it matters. He believed that remaining silent in the face of injustice or wrongdoing is a form of sin and cowardice. This quote serves as a reminder to speak up and take action when it is necessary to do so.These ten quotes from Lincoln capture the essence of his wisdom, leadership, and values. They serve as a reminder of the importance of honesty, unity, preparation, perseverance, and active engagement in shaping a better future for ourselves and our communities.。
学术英语社科课文翻译
Unit21.每个研究领域都有它自己的语言和思考方式。
数学家谈论定理、积分以及向量空间。
心理学家谈本能、以及认知的不一致。
律师谈论犯罪地点、侵权行为以及约定的禁止翻供。
2.经济学家也一样。
供给、需求、弹性、比较优势、消费剩余、最低损耗，这些术语是经济学语的一部分。
在接下来的章节里，你会遇到很多新术语以及一些熟悉的词汇，这些术语和词汇被经济学家们用在经济这一领域。
起初，这些新的语言可能看起来不必要的神秘，但是，你会看到，他的价值在于他能提供给你一种新的和有用的思考方式，让你思考你生活的世界。
3.经济学家们试图从科学的角度来阐释他们的学科。
他们演绎绎物质、经济学和物理学家演生物学家演绎生命一样：他们设计理论，收集数据，然后分析这些数据，试图能够证明或者反驳他们的理论。
4.对于初学者来说，宣称经济学是科学似乎看起来很奇怪。
毕竟，经济学家们并不和试管或者显微镜一起工作。
然而，科学的精华是科学的方法——世界如何运作这一理论的逐渐发展和试验。
这种观察的方法运用于研究一个国家的经济，就像它运用于研究地球的重力或者一个物种的演变。
就像爱因斯坦曾经提出的：科学的全部无非就是日常思考的精炼。
5.尽管爱因斯坦的观点对于社会科学例如经济学是正确的，就像它对于自然科学例如物理学一样是正确的，大部分人并不习惯于通过科学的角度来看待社会。
因此，就让我们来讨论一些方法，通过这些方法，经济学家们运用科学逻辑来观察经济如何运作。
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: OBSERVATION, THEORY, AND MORE OBSERVATION 科学的方法：观察、理论以及更多的观察6.牛顿，17世纪著名的科学家和数学家，当有一天看到一个苹果从树上掉下时，引起了他的深思。
这个观察使牛顿形成了重力的理论，这一理论不仅应用于苹果落地，而且应用于宇宙中的任何两个物体之间。
牛顿定律的不断试验表明，它适用于很多情况（尽管爱因斯坦后来强调并不是适用于所有的情况）。
黑格尔 (1)
一、生平和主要哲学著作
• （二）主要哲学著作
1、《精神现象学》（Phä nomenologie des Geistes / Phenomenology of Spirit, 1807） 2、《逻辑学》（Wissenschaft der Logik / Science of Logic, 1812-1816） 3、《哲学科学百科全书纲要》（Enzyklopä die der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse / Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences in basic Outline，1817年首版，1827年第二版，1830年第三版） 4、《法哲学原理》（Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts / Elements of the Philosophy of Right, 1821） 5、《历史哲学讲演录 》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Philosophie der Geschichte / Lectures on the Philosophy of History） 6、《宗教哲学讲演录》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Philosophie der Religion / Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion ） 7、《哲学史讲演录》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Geschichte der Philosophie
二、哲学的基本主张、方法和原则
（1）从本体论上看，它指的是事物与其自身的 概念或本质之间的关系。思想或概念是事物的 本质，而事物是概念的现象，事物只有符合它 的思想或概念才能获得真实性，否则便无法存 在。 ‚我们以为构成我们表象内容的那些对象 首先存在，然后我们主观的活动方随之而 起……这种想法是颠倒了的。反之，宁可说概 念才是真正的在先的，事物之所以是事物，全 凭内在于事物并显示它自身于事物内的概念活
中国社会科学出版社的英文原版影印西学基本经典(共100种)
中国社会科学出版社的英文原版影印西学基本经典(共100种）。
人文经典书籍一、哲学类（25种，22册，1100元)1．理想国（Republic）作者：柏拉图（Plato）2．形而上学（Metaphysics）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)3．诗学（On the Art of Poetry）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)4．诗艺（On the Art of Poetry）作者：贺拉斯（Horace）5．论崇高（On the Sublime Longinus）作者：朗吉奴斯（Longinus）6．第一哲学沉思录（Meditations on First Philosophy）作者：笛卡尔（Rene Descartes）7．思想录（Pascal’s Penssees）作者：帕斯卡尔（Blaise Pascal）8．人性论（A Treatise of Human Nature）作者：休谟（David Hume）9．纯粹理性批判（Critique of Pure Reason）作者：康德（Kant）10．判断力批判（Critique of Judgment）作者：康德（Kant）11．精神现象学（The Phenomenology of Mind）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：黑格尔（Hegel）12．小逻辑（The Logic of Hegel）作者：黑格尔（Hegel）13．作为意志和表象的世界（The World as Will and Representation）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：叔本华（Schopenhauer）14．查拉图斯特拉如是说（Thus Spake Zarathustra）作者：尼采（Friedrich Nietzsche）15．非此即彼（Either/Or）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：克尔凯郭尔（Kierkegaard）16．普通语言学教程（Course in General Linguistics）作者：索绪尔（F.de Saussure）17．纯粹现象学导论（Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology）作者：胡塞尔（Edmund Husserl）18．逻辑哲学论（Tractatus Logico Philosophicus）(德英对照) 作者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）19．哲学研究（Philosophical Investigations）(德英对照) 作者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）20．存在与时间（Being and Time）作者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）21．诗·语言·思（Poetry, Language, Thought）作者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）22．存在与虚无（Being and Nothingness）作者：萨特（Jean-Paul Sartre）23．真理与方法（Truth and Method）作者：伽达默尔（Hans-Georg Gadamer）24．科学革命的结构（The Structure of Scientific Revolutions）作者：库恩（T.S.Kuhn）25．性史（The History of Sexuality）作者：福柯（M.Foucault）二、伦理学类(10种，7册，350元)1．尼各马可伦理学（The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle) 2．道德情操论（The Theory of Moral Sentiments）作者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）3．论人类不平等的起源和基础（A Discourse on Inequality）作者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）4．实践理性批判（Critique of Practical Reason）作者：康德（Kant）5．道德形而上学基础（Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals）作者：康德（Kant）6．功利主义（Utilitarianism）作者：穆勒（Mill）7．伦理学原理（Principia Ethica）作者：摩尔（G.E.Moore）8．正义论（A Theory of Justice）作者：罗尔斯（John Rawls）9．无政府、国家与乌托邦（Anarchy, State and Utopia）作者：诺齐克（Robert Nozick）10．追寻美德（After V irtue）作者：麦金太尔（Alasdair MacIntyre）三、宗教学类(10种，11册，550元)1．忏悔录（Confessions）作者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）2．托马斯·阿奎那要籍选（Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：阿奎那（St.Thomas Aquinas）3．迷途指津（The Guide for the Perplexed）作者：马蒙尼德（Maimonides）4．路德基本著作选（Basic Theological Writings）作者：马丁·路德（Martin Luther）5．论宗教（On Religion）作者：施莱尔马赫（F.D.Schleiermacher）6．我与你（I and Thou）作者：马丁·布伯（Martin Buber）7．人的本性及其命运（The Nature and Destiny of Man）作者：尼布尔（R.Niebuhr）8．神圣者的观念（The Idea of the Holy）作者：奥托（Rudolf Otto）9．存在的勇气（The Courage to Be）作者：梯利希（Paul Tillich）10．教会教义学（Church Dogmatics）作者：卡尔·巴特（Karl Barth）四、社会学类(5种，6册，300元)1．论自杀（Suicide: A Study in Sociology）作者：杜克海姆（Emilc Durkheim）2．新教伦理与资本主义精神（The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism）作者：韦伯（Max Weber）3．货币哲学（The Philosophy of Money）作者：席美尔（Georg Simmel）4．一般社会学论集（A Treatise on General Sociology）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：帕累托（Vilfredo Pareto）5．意识形态与乌托邦（Ideology and Utopia）作者：曼海姆（K.Mannheim）五、人类学类(5种，4册，200元)1 ．金枝（The Golden Bough）作者：弗雷泽（James G.Frazer）2．西太平洋上的航海者（Argonauts of the Western Pacific）作者：马林诺夫斯基（B.Malinowski）3．原始思维（The Savage Mind）作者：列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Levi-Strauss）4．原始社会的结构和功能（Structure and Function in Primitive Society）作者：拉迪克里夫-布郎（Brown）5．种族、语言、文化（Race, Language and Culture）作者：鲍斯（Franz Boas）六、政治学类(10种，11册，550元)1．政治学（The Politics of Aristotle）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)2．君主论（The Prince）作者：马基雅维里（Niccolo Machiavelli）3．社会契约论（The Social Contract）作者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）4．利维坦（Leviathan）作者：霍布斯（Thomas Hobbes）5．政府论（上下篇）（Two Treatises of Government）作者：洛克（John Locke）6．论法的精神（The Spirit of the Laws）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：孟德斯鸠（Montesquieu）7．论美国民主（Democracy in America）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：托克维尔（Alexis de Tocqueville）8．代议制政府（Considerations on Representative Government）作者：穆勒（Mill）9．联邦党人文集（The Federalist Papers）作者：汉密尔顿（Alexander Hamilton）10．自由秩序原理（The Constitution of Liberty）作者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）七、经济学类(10种，12册，600元)1．国民财富的性质和原因的研究（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）2．经济学原理（Principles of Economics）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：马歇尔（Alfred Marshall）3．福利经济学（The Economics of Welfare）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：庇古（A.C.Pigou）4．就业、利息与货币的一般理论（The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money）作者：凯恩斯（J.M.Keynes）5．经济发展理论（The Theory of Economic Development）作者：熊彼特（Schumpeter）6．人类行为（Human Action: A Treatise on Economics）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：米塞斯（Mises）7．经济分析的基础（Foundations of Economic Analysis）作者：萨缪尔森（Samuelson）8．货币数量理论研究（Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money）作者：弗里德曼（Friedman）9．集体选择与社会福利（Collective Choice and Social Welfare）作者：阿玛蒂亚·森（A.K.Sen）10．资本主义经济制度（The Economic Institutions of Capitalism）作者：威廉姆森（Williamson）八、心理学类(7种，8册，400元)1．心理学原理（The Principles of Psychology）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：威廉·詹姆士（William James）2．生理心理学原理（Principles of Physiological Psychology）作者：冯特（W.Wundt）3．梦的解析（The Interpretation of Dreams）作者：弗洛伊德（Sigmund Freud）4．儿童智慧的起源（The Origin of Intelligence in the Child）作者：皮亚杰（Jean Piaget）5．科学与人类行为（Science and Human Behavior）作者：斯金纳（B.F.Skinner）6．原型与集体无意识（The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious）作者：荣格（C.G.Jung）7．动机与人格（Motivation and Personality）作者：马斯洛（A.H.Maslow）九、法学类(10种，9册，450元)1．古代法（Ancient Law）作者：梅因（H.Maine）2．英国法与文艺复兴（English Law and the Renaissance）作者：梅特兰（F.W.Maitland）3．法理学讲演录（Lectures on Jurisprudence）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：奥斯丁（J.Austin）4．法律的社会学理论（A Sociological Theory of Law）作者：卢曼（N.Luhmann）5．法律社会学之基本原理（Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law）作者：埃利希（E.Ehrlich）6．法律、宪法与自由（Law, Legislation and Liberty）作者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）7．纯粹法学理论（Pure Theory of Law）作者：凯尔森（H.Kelsen）8．法律之概念（The Concept of Law）作者：哈特（H.L.A.Hart）9．法律之帝国（Law’s Empire）作者：德沃金（R.Dworkin）10．法律的经济学分析（Economic Analysis of Law）作者：波斯纳（Richard A.Posner）十、历史学类(8种，10册，500元)1．历史（The Histories）作者：希罗多德（Herodotus）2．伯罗奔尼撒战争史（The Peloponnesian War）作者：修昔底德（Thucydides）3．编年史（The Annals of Imperial Rome）作者：塔西陀（Tacitus）4．上帝之城（The City of God）V ol.1, V ol.2 作者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）5．历史学：理论和实践（History: its Theory and Practice）作者：克罗齐（B6．历史的观念（The Idea of History）作者：柯林伍德（R.G.Collingwood）7．腓力普二世时代的地中海与地中海世界（The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II）》V ol.1, V ol.2作者：布罗代尔（F.Braudel）8．历史研究（A Study of History）V ol.1, V ol.2作者：汤因比（A.J.Toynbee）。
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 习题答案chapter 3
11.30 9.60 (IV)
P O
C
NH2
(V)
10
8 5.97
pH
6
(III)
4 2.34 2 (I) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 OH (equivalents) (II)
0
Note: before considering statements (a) through (o), refer to Figure 3–10. The three species involved in the titration of glycine can be considered in terms of a useful physical analogy. Each ionic species can be viewed as a different floor of a building, each with a different net charge:
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Chapter 3 Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
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H3NOCH2OCOOH H3NOCH2OCOO H2NOCH2OCOO
CH3 H3N C H C O O H2N CH3 C H C OH O
Zwitterionic
Uncharged
(a) Why is alanine predominantly zwitterionic rather than completely uncharged at its pI? (b) What fraction of alanine is in the completely uncharged form at its pI? Justify your assumptions. Answer (a) The pI of alanine is well above the pKa of the a-carboxyl group and well below the pKa of the a-amino group. Hence, at pH pI, both groups are present predominantly in their charged (ionized) forms. (b) From Table 3–1, the pI of alanine is 6.01, midway between the two pKa values 2.34 and 9.69. From the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, pH pKa log ([A ]/[HA]). For the carboxyl group: log [A ] [HA] [HA] [A ] 6.01 10
Equivalence Theory
（I）What Is Equivalence?Firstly, regarding equivalence, a lot of adjectives have been assigned to this concept to approach the nature of translation. Deprived of any adjective, “equivalence” may be in a dictionary defined as “the state or property of bei ng equivalent ” or “a logic operator having the property that if P is a statement, Q is a statement, R is a statement, then the equivalence of P,Q,R,…, is true if and only if all statements are true or all statements are false.” However, equivalence, when applied to the issue of translation, is an abstract concept and actually refers to the equivalence relationship between the source text and the target text, which brings about a basic philosophical question, viz. whether there are two absolutely equivalent things. The answer to this question may be unanimously negative. Thus the equivalence relationship between the ST and the TT seems to be an illusion; anyhow, equivalence can be regarded as the ideal goal when the conscientious and responsible translator is in persistent pursuit of the truth of the source text. In this sense, equivalence is just beyond the capability of the translator if it is not put in a more specific layer of translation or confined to a certain aspect of translation; to put this in another way, equivalence has to owe its significance to the adjective that precedes it. Similarly, observance, on the part of the translator, of all the three principles of translation advanced by Tytler or the three-character principle originated by Yan Fu, is out of the question; but observance of one or two of the above-mentioned three principles or characters is, in most cases, attainable. To be brief, the term “equivalence” in the discipline of translation can hardly gain its identity until it is either preceded by a modifier such as an adjective or followed by a post-modifier, or, in other words, further divided into different categories.Secondly, different kinds of equivalences are realized by their counterparts in the process of translating, namely, equivalents. As mentioned above, “equivalence” always goes with a modifier; accordingly, so does an “equivalent”. It is precisely the different kinds of equivalents that yield different versions of translation. In another word, an absolute equivalent is as unobtainable as absolute equivalence and therefore an abstract concept or an ideal goal in the practical process of translating. This suggests that an ideal target text as an equivalent of the source text is past realization though different equivalents at different layers or aspects of translation are to be materialized to constitute the final version of the target text. In one word, just like “equivalence”, an “equivalent”, failing any modifier preceding or following it, will be taken as an unpractical concept and then dismissed in the process of translating.Thirdly, a comprehensive and informative formula of translation equivalence has been originated by Professor Qiu Maoru, which is so detailed and exhaustive in exposition that it covers nearly all the kinds of equivalences in translation. (The full contents are available from 邱2000：339-378)To conclude, both “equivalence” and “equivalent”, when bearing no pre-modifiers or post-modifiers, are abstract concepts. And subsequently follow a few of my reflections on translation equivalence.(II) A Few Reflections on Translation EquivalenceAs mentioned previously in this short essay, “equivalence” and “e quivalent” are, in my mind, two interrelated abstract concepts in translation. Besides, “translation” under discussion here is also an abstract concept, in contrast to the concret e act of “translating”. On further reflection, this writer found it seems possible to unde rstand and analyse the concept of equivalence in some new way, which this writer ventures hereby to make a tentative account h ere.To start with, translating, corresponding with translation, involves four major parameters (among many others), viz. the source te xt, the translator, the reader and the target text to be produced (which we had better distinguish from the target text that is alre ady produced when we talk about translation instead of translatin g), each usually resolving into many, even inexhaustible, factors or variables that may exercise different effects on the act of tran slating. To be specific, the source text, for example, demands ad equate consideration of its style, language (i.e. the SL), time of being written, the SL culture and so on, while the target text to be produced draws the translator’s attention to its language (i.e. the TL), the TL culture and the like; the translator has his or her particular purpose and psychology, a unique and habitual style o f writing and other characteristics that vary from person to perso n, while the reader may be classified into several types according to different scales such as the reader’s education level, sex and age.Secondly,the discussion here mainly focuses on the source langu age and culture vs. the target language and culture.As regards the relationship between language and culture, it may be concisel y summarized in three statements, viz. “…language ex presses cul tural reality.”, “…language embodies cultural reality.”, and “…lang uage symbolizes cultural reality.” (Kramsch 2000: 3) It follows th at, translating, the rendering from one language into another, is confronted with the problem, or rather, the aim or goal, of restor ing the source cultural reality embodied in the source language i n the target language that usually, if not always, symbolizes the cultural reality specific to the target language. In other words, th e target language is entrusted to express the cultural reality spec ific to the source language, which speaks of why the process of t ranslating is so notorious for its complexity and tortuousness in t he first place. Here one question recommends itself —— Whether, or to what degree, the target language is reliable or qualified to be entrusted this task of symbolizing the cultural reality that is f oreign to itself in different degrees (i.e. doing something that it u sually does not do, or playing a brand-new role), which is anothe r way of articulating the disputable issue of translatability or the equally arguable concept of equivalence, the subject-matter of ou r concern here.Thirdly, concerning the question mentioned above, another topic subject to fierce controversy arises,viz. the theory of linguistic r elativity, which immediately reminds us of the famous Sapir-Whor f hypothesis. As we know, the strong version of this hypothesis t hat language determines thought ( and which could easily give ri se to prejudice and racism ) cannot be taken seriously while the weak version has been generally accepted. In other words, we m ay say language and thought are interdependent. Another note-w orthy point here is the assumption that any language possesses the necessary resources for the speaker to express anything that he or she wants to say in that language. Then, on the understan ding that human thoughts can be exchanged, we may draw a co nclusion that any thought in the source language could be finally expressed in the target language.It follows naturally that, when the thought voiced in the source language gets across to the re ader (who, of course, makes it by means of the target language), we may say equivalence in its abstract sense is achieved. Hence the next part of my way of understanding equivalence.Fourthly, equivalence, in my mind, is an abstract concept here a nd might fall into three categories that are in accordance with th e dynamic development of cultural exchanges.A tentative and de scriptive exposition goes as follows:ⅰEquivalence before TranslatingThe first category is equivalence before translating,which means the kind of equivalence possible to be attained when the target t ext is not produced yet.It may be considered as the aim or goal of the translator who leaves no stone unturned in his pursuit of a successful transmission of the truth of the source text from the SL to the TL. If the whole process of translating could be compa red to a telephone call with the translator being the operator, thi s kind of equivalence might be said to be still at one end of a te lephone line where the truth of the ST lies.ⅱEquivalence in TranslatingThe second category occurs when the target text is just produced. At this stage, the truth of the ST has reached the translator wh o has put it in the target language.However, the truth, whetherit has been fully encoded in the target language or not, may still be not fully understood by, or even unavailable to, the reader.I n terms of the analogy of a telephone call, the message has not reached the other end of the line though the operator has perfor med the role of putting it through. In this case, we might say eq uivalence stays with the translator, but not necessarily with the r eader.ⅲEquivalence after TranslatingThe third category of equivalence entails time since translation is, in essence, an activity of cultural exchange that cannot be effect uated immediately in many cases due to the cultural differences and other factors. Anyhow, as more and more cultural exchanges take place and develop further, the message that was once held up finally finds its way to the reader when equivalence, we may say, is achieved at last. In other words, equivalence of this cate gory might be more attributable to the cultural exchange activitie s outside the scope of translation than to the very act of translat ing.Take a simple example of the translating of such a culture-specifi c Chinese word “旗袍” into the English language. Suppose this tra nslating took place decades ago and the English-speaking reader had no idea about what “旗袍” was. The translator would put it i nto “qipao” as an English equivalent by means of Zero Translatio n (transliteration in this case) owing to the difference of the mat erial culture between the Chinese and English-speaking people. H ere the equivalence between “旗袍” and “qipao” comes under the second category mentioned above since the reader might still hav e a very vague idea of what “旗袍” was even after reading a possible footnote. However, nowadays, we may rest assured that the English-speaking people know well about what “qipao” is as they have been very familiar with this kind of Chinese dress thanks t o the frequent and in-depth cultural exchanges or other factors s uch as the advancement of human science and technology. So it sometimes takes time and other activities outside the scope of tr anslation, in addition to the act of translating, to drive home to t he reader the trut h of the ST such as “旗袍”. (By the way, the tr anslation works proper help to promote cultural exchanges.) Until at this stage could we say equivalence, i.e. the third category u nder discussion, is fully achieved.(III) ConclusionReflection on equivalence in translation helps to deepen our unde rstanding of the nature of translation. Equivalence, constructed at the abstract level, is thus a rather necessary and important ter m in the field of translation studies. Theoretically, equivalence is attainable; and equivalence usually takes the form of different su b-categories that are realized at different layers or aspects of tra nslation, which is why this term usually goes together with a mo difier.Certainly, nothing but the abundant practice of translating and the study of the concrete problems occurring in translation w ould suffice for a theory relating to equivalence.All in all, equival ence is at least a functional and effective term for us to describe and analyze translation or to tolerate the fierce controversy in t his field and find a way out of the awkward dilemmas in the pra ctical translating that would otherwise keep unresolved. To put it another way, the theory on equivalence actually did, do or willdo offer us a theoretical basis to verify the variety of translation methods adopted.。
黑格尔小逻辑英文版
黑格尔小逻辑英文版Hegelian Dialectics or Hegel's Logic, also known as the dialectical method, is a philosophical concept developed by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. This method is a way of understanding and explaining changes and developments in history and society by examining contradictions, conflicts, and tensions.Hegelian Dialectics consists of a three-step process known as thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. In this process, a thesis, or a proposition or idea, is proposed. This thesis then encounters opposition or contradiction in the form of an antithesis. The clash between the thesis and antithesis creates a synthesis, which resolves the conflict between the two opposing ideas.According to Hegel, this dialectical process is not limited to philosophical thinking but is also applicable to reality and history. He believed that history progresses through the dialectical movement of ideas, with conflicts and contradictions leading to progress and development.Hegel's Logic, or the Science of Logic, is a comprehensive philosophical work in which Hegel explores the fundamental categories and concepts of thought. It aims to understand the nature of reality and the logical structure of knowledge. This work also incorporates the dialectical method, examining the contradictions and tensions within concepts and categories, and their development towards a higher and more comprehensive understanding.Hegel's Logic has had a significant impact on various philosophical and intellectual movements, including Marxism and existentialism. It has been widely studied and interpreted by scholars and continues to be a subject of philosophical and intellectual inquiry.。
简明哲学术语英语词典
简明哲学术语英语词典A BRIEF LEXICON OF PHILOSOPHICAL TERMSA BRIEF LEXICON OF SOME COMMONLY USED PHILOSOPHIC AL TERMS IN THE PRESENT DAYhttp://www.tcdsb.on.ca/external/schools/chaminade/oac-philosophy/public_h tml/lexicon.htmEdited and copyright Ó 1989 by F.F. CentoreA POSTERIORI (to come after in time): That which follows upon or depends upon sense experience; a knowledge of things which cannot be arrived at or deduced from definitions alone. E.g., if it is rainin g today I could not know that fact simply by knowing the definition s of "rain," "today," etc. I must learn about it by either observing it for myself or having some other observer convey t he information to me.A PRIORI (prior to in time): That which comes before sense experie nce; that which does not require sense knowledge to be known as tru e. Cf. "armchair" mathematicians. E.g., I know a circle is round by definition, even if I had never seen a circle in my life. ABSTRACTION (ab-trahere; to draw out): The mental concentration o n one aspect of something while ignoring other aspects; contrasted wi th the whole, CONCRETE thing, e.g., sweetness—this orange; humann ess-Sally. It does not necessarily entail or imply the actual divisionor separation of the different aspects of the thing as it exists outside of the mind.ABSURD (ab-surdus; senseless): That which is self—contradictory, imp ossible, e.g., a square circle; hence, meaningless, ridiculous,irrational. In 20th c. phil. the term is often used by Atheistic Existentialists, such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, to refer to the human co ndition, i.e., the "absurd man" must learn to survive, without committ ing suicide, in a meaningless, de tr op, world, one which hasn’t come from anywhere and which is not going anywhere. The world and hu mans are "surds," things without any reason for being.ACADEMIC FREEDOM: The right to do research and teach in accord ance with the standards of the institution you freely chose to join an d by whose moral and intellectual principles you freely agreed to abi de. Hence, IF both the individual and the leaders of the institution k now what they are about in the first place, there-cannot be any-confli ct between one’s pe rsonal,conscience and the school. If such should arise due to a change on the part of the teacher, in good conscience the teacher should voluntarily leave.AD HOMINEM (against the person): In logic, a pseudo—argument dir ected against some personal characteristic of the opponent rather than against the substance of the position. E.g., Einstein couldn’t have be en right; just look at the way he combed his hair!AESTHETICS (aisthanesthai; to perceiveby the senses): Theories conce rning the nature, origins, and appreciation of the beautiful. AGNOSTICISM (a—gnostos; unknown): In Latin, ignorance. Claiming t hat nothing is known concerning the answers to the ultimate question s of science, phil., theology, and life in general. Such knowledge is lacking now, but we may get it in the future. E.g., Darwin claimed t hat he didn’t have any certain knowledge about the existence of God and human freedom.ALIENATION (alius; other): In general, the withdrawing or removing of one thing from another; to be left out; estranged. In 19th c. phil., the "For—Itself" losing itself to the "In—Itself," which then comes t o stand over in opposition against the "For—Itself." In Hegel, The A bsolute Spirit (God) becoming other in the form of the Material worl d which is determined and mechanisti c in accordance with the Newto nian laws of nature. In Marx, the workers losing their profits to the capitalists; their labor, which is the source of all wealth, is alienate d from themselves. In Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud, the proj ection of human father—figure traits into the heavens so as to produ ce God; the losing of human nature, which is real, to divine nature, which is unreal but which nevertheless, as an obsessional neurosis, st ands in opposition to man. In Sartre, the human condition of the ab s olute, autonomous, free will (the For—Itself, non-being, nothingness) i n opposition to the oppressive, inert world of physical matter (the In —Itself, being); inexplicably the In-Itself produces the For—Itself; bei ng recoils against itself to produce the n othingness of human conscio usness; it’s me (my consciousness) against the world (including other people).ALTRUISM (alter; the other): Showing an unselfish love for others. ANALOGOUS USAGE: In general, the same term has a meaning that’s partially the same and partially different in different contexts; very common in ordinary language. E.g., tall man, ta;; tree; good flatwor m, good husband; true diamond, true friend, true love; beautiful flow er, beautiful building, beautiful person, etc.ANALOGY (ana—logos; to say again): A ratio of one thing to anothe r; a comparison; usually meaning that two things are the same in at least one respect even though there may be differences in other respe cts. Main types: ATTRIBUTION: The trait belongs to only one of the things being compared but is attributed by the mind to something else, e.g., only a whole organism is really healthy but we can also cal l vitamin C healthy because of its relationship to health in the body. GENUS, INEQUALITY: Both a man and a dog are animals; "an imal" is the genus to which they both belong; we can compare them by p ointing out this sameness. However, although they are equally animals they are not equal animals, i.e., man is superior to dog. IMPROPER PROPORTIONALITY: Literary devices and comparisons; "Pretty as a picture;" "The sunset was a great pool of blood lying on the horizo n;" "My love is like a red, red rose...;" etc. This sort is very import ant in rhetoric, poetry, persuasive speech, etc., and can add a great deal of enjoyment to our lives, but is not so useful in science, phil., and theology. PROPER PROPORTIONALITY:The most important in phil. Here there is a strict proportion of prop ortions; the individual terms of one proportion are not proportionate t o the individual terms of the other pro portion, but the whole proporti on between the terms on one side is proportionate to the whole prop ortion between the terms on the other side of the relationship. E.g., 3/6 = 5/10; the good for a flatworm is to the nature of a flatworm as the good for a human is to the nature of a human; knowledge in God is to the essence of God as knowledge in an angel is to the e ssence of an angel as knowledge in a human is to the essence of a human. 3 and 5 are different numbers; goodness and knowledge are d ifferent in each of the cases mentioned. Yet, even though the numera tors and denominators are not the same, the proportion holds. What t he sets have in common is the same relationship within each of the respective proportions. This is very important when it comes to rea so ning by analogy in phil., especially in the Phil. of Being.ANALYTIC STATEMENT: (see A Priori).ANGST (die Angst——German; mir 1st angst-—I am afraid; anxiety, a nguish): Term popularized by Heidegger; the human condition when A theistic Existentialism takes hold and we become fully aware of the meaninglessness of life. Also known as Existential or Objectless Anxi ety; state of being forlorn, lost; aimless; bored. ANTHROPOMORPHISM (anthropos-morphos; human-shaped): Having hu man traits; attributing human traits to non—humans, such as to anima ls or to the gods.APPEARANCE (ad-parere; to come forward and show yourself): That which shows itself in any way, either to the senses or to the mind. Cf. PHENOMENON (phainein; to show).ARGUMENT (argos; white; arguere; to clarify): Words arranged in su ch a way so as to persuade somebody of something; a proof; to mak e clear by "spelling it out;" a reasoning process which goes from the truth of some given statements to the truth of some other statement (s). Either Deductive or Inductive.ASSUMPTION (assumere; to take up): Something taken for granted wi thout proof.ATHEISM (a-theos; godless): A denial of God’s existence; usually me aning the denial of the Judaeo—Christian God of the Bible.ATOM (a-tomos; indivisible): The smallest possible unit of material r eality. Atomism as a phil. of all reality was first developed by the a ncient Greeks.ATTACKING A STRAW MAN: In logic, a faulty argument which mis ses the main point of something and instead of directing its rebuttal against the opponent’s true point sets up a false point (a straw man) which it then proceeds to attack as if it were the true point. E.g., the traditional religious position on human nature and freedom is that we are free but that we also have a nature (essence) which sets li mits to what we are capable of doing freely (e.g., we are not free t o fly by flapping our arms). Someone such as Sartre, though, claims that having a positive essence necessarily determines all of our action s so that we are not free at all. But thi s is to sidestep the original position which was to be argued against.AUTHENTICITY (authentikos; one who acts boldly, the master): In 2 0th c. phil., doing what, you want to do without making any excuses or giving any reasons; to be true to yourself by act ing in oppositio n to others. Cf. Jean—Paul Sartre: "Hell is other people." Cf. his Be ing and Nothingness, III, 3, iii: "The essence of the relations betwee n consciousnesses is not the Mitsein; it is conflict."AUTHORITY (auctor; originator): The right to d irect and rule; a mor al power, not based on physical force, although force must often be used in practice. Presupposes the freedom of those commanded; only free beings can responsibly respond to an order. E.g., the difference between the government orderin g the rain not to fall and ordering cit izens to pay taxes.AUTONOMOUS (auto—nomos; self-law): In 20th c. phil., being a law unto yourself; disregarding the needs of others if you want to and not feeling guilty about it; acting without any external guidelin es, rul es, objective measures of what’s good and bad or right and wrong. " Doing your own thing."AXIOM (axios; worthy): Something obvious enough to be taken for g ranted."BAD FAITH": In 20th c. phil., acting in a non-authentic and non-au tonomous way.BECOMING (becuman-—Old English): Any motion or change; any pro cess of passing from potency to act; any condition of being different from what something was before.BEGGING THE QUESTION: Assuming the truth of the thing to be pr oven; circular argument. E.g., you can tell the age of the rock stratafrom the fossils and we know the fossilsare of a certain age because of the rock strata in which they are fo und; This is an IQ test. Yes but what is IQ? It is what the IQ test tests for. Sometimes it is called a vicious circle (vitium; corrupt, vi ce) because of its faultiness.BEHAVIORISM: In the 20th c., philosophical Reductionism applied to the study of humans. Developed by J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner; a dopted by A.J. Ayer.BEING (esse; to be): That which is in any wa y whatsoever, whether in or out of the wind, whether actual or possible. A BEING: That w hich is in existence here and now in any way whatsoever.BEING-FOR-ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-pour-soi), the nihilation of being within eac h human being; the basis for consciousness of the world and self—consciousness; that which sta nds out in opposition to being even though it is itself a creation of being; human nature.BEING-IN—ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-en-soi), the non-conscious, inert, dead, inexplicable, physical nature w orld of being; the full world; the world without the admixture of not hingness; the world that simply is; what we will become at death. BEING OF REASON: In Latin: ens rationis; plural: entia rationis. So mething which cannot exist outside the mind; it can have only mental existence; a logical being; a mental construct, but which nevertheles s has a foundation in extramental reality. E.g., negations and privatio ns——talking about something which i sn’t there; logical devices to de al with things as thought——abstractions, subjects and predicates in p ropositions, genera and species, etc. It does not refer to simply imagi native entities, e.g., a flying horse, or the numerous Hollywood creati ons. (see Intention)CATEGORY (kata—agora; by the town square where people congregat e): A more definite arrangement of things; a narrowing down of some thing broad and open; a classification; putting something into a class, group, set, type, sort, etc., as set of f fro m other groups, classes, e tc.CATHOLIC (kata-holos; •in with the whole): That which is universal and all—encompassing. Most usually used in The Roman Catholic Chu rch: A universal religious organization with its HQ in Rome whose o bligation it is to convey the message of Christ to all parts of the w orld until the end of time.CAUSE (causa): That upon which something else is dependent for its existence; that which in any way influences the being or becoming of something; the reason for the exisence of somethin g; the principle from which something flows. Aristotle’s four main types of causes: MATERIAL: That out of which something is made; that which is inpotency to become something else, e.g., the wood used in making a chair. AGENT orEFFICIENT: The real thing that works on the material to wake the t hing, e.g., the carpenter. The agent cause must be a really existing t hing; a possible carpenter cannot make anything. FORMAL: The form or nature of the thing made, e.g., it’s a chair rather than a table, e tc. In this case it is an artifact, and so the form is accidental to th e material. In the case of a natural entity, such as a human being o r an oak tree, the form would be essential. FINAL: The purpose, end, goal, or reason why the thing is made. In the case of a na tural thi ng, the Formal Cause, once in existence, acts as an Agent Cause to produce the Final product, e.g., an acorn growing into an oak tree. T hus Aristotle can treat the last three causes as one cause in natural operations. Beware of pseudo—causes. Time, for instance, is not a ca use of anything; it cannot heal any wounds or bring about the creati on of a new species. How did you get from New York to Toronto? It took a long time. HOW did man develop from the apes? It took a long time.CENSORSHIP (censere; to tax or assess costs): In common usage, al ways bad and incompatible with a free society; the unjustified suppre ssion of public expression. But this should not be confused with the justified regulation of the popular media. E.g., the control of informa tion in time of war; the suppression of hate literature or material de grading or exploiting people, such as pornography; the control of mat erial inciting riots, violence, and sedition; copyright laws preventing one person from stealing the work of another; l aws forbidding the tel ling of lies about people in public, etc. Also, in any decent society self-censorship is necessary.CERTITUDE (certus; cernere; to sift out, to discern): The state of be ing certain and settled in one’s view; a firm assent to an intell igible statement without any fear of error. To be really firm and complete (scientific) it must include a knowledge of the reasons why things a re the way they are and could not be otherwise. Main types: METAPHYSICAL, MATHEMATICAL, ABSOLUTE: There is no pos sibi lity of error, e.g., 2 plus 2 is 4, a physical whole is always greater than any one of its parts or subdivisions, the diameter of a given c ircle is always shorter than its circumference, a world of physical thi ngs exists independently of the individual’s own mind, etc. PHYSICA L: The ordinary and usual laws of nature, e.g., the laws of chemical interaction, motion, thermodynamics, aerodynamics, etc. Barring mirac les, we can bet our lives on these certitudes-—and do! MORAL, JUR IDICAL: Beyond reasonable doubt; the ordinary kind in most societal interactions; all the evidence, from many different independent sourc es, all points to the same conclusion. E.g., when taking a bus downtown, it would be unreasonable to run up and down the aisle shouting that the bus was being captured by Martians. The denial of Moral Certitude is the most- usual basis for Hollywood spy movies, science fiction plots, adventure series, etc. The suspension of ordinary huma n expectations (i.e., being neurotic) greatly helps one’s career as a n ovelist and screenwriter. (see Realism)COMMON SENSE: In general, knowing those things which are require d in order to survive in a given society. This will vary from society to society in different parts of the world. E.g., those living in the Arctic need to know about 14 different kinds of snow; those living i n London need to know not to run out into the street from between parked cars, etc. In phil., it refers to those truths known with certain ty by all normal human beings, regardless of where they live. E.g., b asic mathematics, the existence of the external world, that there’s a difference between existential questions (Is it?) and essentialistic ques tions (What is it?), that water runs down hill, that what goes up (a rock, an arrow, a spear, etc.) comes down, etc. These certitudes can then be used as a basis for further philosophical and scientific reason ing.COMMUNISM: A 19th c. utopian political phil. based upon Hegel’s d octrine of conflicting contradictories, but reduced to a two—part disju nction in which one side is all bad and the other side all good. In t heory, the 19th c. capitalists would concentrate more and more power in themselves while the working class would become larger and larg er and poorer and poorer. Finally a flash—point would be reached, re volution would break out, all capitalists would be destroyed, and the society, after a brief bloody and violent transition period, would be t ransformed into a new classless, stateless, godless Paradise on earth f or all future generations. Abhors (in theory) God—Statism (Fascism, Nazism).CONCEPT (concipere; to conceive in the womb): Something born with in the mind; an IDEA, a "universal," that about which we invent lan guages, etc. Every idea we have is a universal in the sense that its content or meaning is something common to many different things in the world. E.g., the word "dog" in English stands for the concept o f dogness, which applies to all possible dogs, whether past, present, or future. No concept can be identified with anything of a mate rial o r physical nature, such as the word "dog," or some particular picture or graphic image of a particular dog, etc. Since —~ philosophers w ork with ideas, and since ideas are so special, they have always been of special interest to philosophers.CONCLUSION (com—claudere; to close in): In logic, the end of a re asoning process; the final outcome of an argument. E.g., given that a ll people are mortal and that Sally is a person we conclude that Sally is mortal.CONSERVATIVE (conservare; to preserve): In gene ral, anyone who w ants to maintain the status quo without any fundamental change or al teration. "Today’s liberals are tomorrow’ s conservatives." CONTINGENT (com—tangere; to touch upon): That which need not b e the case; something which could be otherwise; t he accidental; somet hing which just happens to be the case.CONTRADICTION (contra—dicere; to speak against): In logic, the rel ationship between a universal proposition and a particular proposition differing in quality. E.g., All people are mortal——Some people are n ot mortal; No people are mortal-—Some people are mortal. In general, any statement which denies a given statement in an immediate and direct way.COSMOLOGY (kosmos-logos; explaining the cosmos): The General Sci ence of Nature; the attempt to explai n the natural universe of changi ng things in some general and comprehensive way. Common topics: S ubstance, change, chance, teleology, time. Cf. cosmonauts, cosmetics. Today the word is often used to mean astronomy.CREATION EX NIHILO (creare; to make more): To create from nothi ng; creation strictly and properly speaking; possible only for a Supre me Being whose very essence is to exist.DASEIN (there-being in German): Term for human nature derived fro m Hegel and popularized by Heidegger. Humans are the locus, mediu m, site, etc., wherein Being becomes aware of itself. Only in humans is Being there; otherwise it would be completely unknown and even "non—existent."DEDUCTION (de—ducere; to lead away from): In logic, the processof starting from something more universal and coming down to somet hing more particular; common in a priori reasoning; a desirable and s trong form of reasoning because if the premises are true we can be sure that the conclusion will be true. E.g., all circles are round, this thing is a circle, and so this thing is round.DEISM (deus; god): The doctrine that there indeed exists a God who created the universe and who punishes sinners, but in a highly "rati onalized" sense; after setting things up God abandoned the world and us to the laws of nature; an absentee landlord; there is no Revelati on nor authoritative Scripture and Church. Some famous deists: Many of the leaders of the American and French Revolutions; Voltaire, Ro usseau, Hugo, maybe Darwin.DETERMINISM (de—terminare; to set limits to): The doctrine that ev erything that happens, including apparently free decisions by humans, is really already decided by previous, unconscious, unfree events whic h cause things to go one way rather than some other way regardless of what we think about it; fatalism; a perfect knowledge of the causes would provide us with perfect predictability (the dream of scienc e). Some famous determjnists: Darwin, Freud, Einstein, Bertrand Russe ll, B.F. Skinner, A.J. Ayer.DIALECTIC (dia-legesthai; to converse): In Plato, phil. itself; the epit ome of reasoning; the process of trying to reach a conclusion by exa mining all possibilities until the right one is found. In phil. since th e early 19th c., a collision of contradictories producing some third th ing which synthesizes them and then becomes itself a part of another conflict. In Georg Regel and Karl Marx, the fusion of Something an d Nothing to give Becoming; in Fascism, the conflict of capitalists a nd workers to give the State.DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM: The theoretical foun dation for the Co mmunism of Marx and Engels; the doctrine that the only reality is th e material universe, but that it necessarily progresses in a dialectical way, the results of which are various stages of development, i.e., n on—life to life to animals to man to society to various economic sys tems to socialisms to Communism; a "scientific" dialectic, in contrast to Hegel’s mystical spiritualistic process.DISTINCTION (stigma; mark; dis—stinguere; different marks): The no n—identity of one thing with another.Main types: SEPARATION: The physical arrangement of parts outside of parts, e.g., your pen is sep arate from your hand. VERBAL; Different names for one and the sam e thing, e.g., methanol, methyl alcohol, methyl hydrate, denatured alc ohol, wood alcohol. LOGICAL, MENTAL, CONCEPTUAL, RATIONAL: The difference is only in the mind; outside the mind there is in fa ct no real differentiation, e.g., cat—mammal, dime—coin; in the extra mental world every case of cat is also a case of mammal, every dim e is a coin; in reality the two are the same; they are identical. REA L: Even though there is no separation of parts, outside the mind one aspect is really not the other; in one and the same unified being th ere is a non-identity of aspects, features, etc., e.g., your height and weight, the direction and velocity of a body in locomotion, the essen ce and existence of a being. Distinction should not be identified with separation; although every separation is a distinction it is not the c ase that every distinction is a separation. This is very important in t he Phil. of Being.DUALISM (dualis, duo; two): Most usually in phil. the view that the body and soul (psyche, mind, consciousness, etc.) cannot be reduced one to the other; i.e., both are factors in the explanation of human nature which possess some sort of reality of their own. Main types: MODERATE: In’ Aristotle, the body and soul constitute a unity of one being in which the soul is the form of the substance; they can be distinguished but not separated. Variations are possible, e.g., Thom ism, in which the body and soul form a unity based upon the existential act of the soul, so that it’s possible for the soul to survive the breakdown of its body. EXTREME: In Plato and Descartes, the body and soul are two separate entities which do not form a unity; the s oul is the real person; the body is simply a machine. EGALITARIANISM (egalitaire; equality): An absolute equality of ever yone in everything; the Prime Minister would have exactly the same rights, privileges, standard of living, e tc., as the lowest street cleaner; males and females must be treated in exactly the same way, whethe r it’s fighting in the army or having babies; a doctrine proposed by some modern revolutionaries and feminists; but quite impossible in pr actice.EMPIRICISM (en—peiran; to try something for yourself): The doctrine that all knowledge must come through the senses; there are no INN ATE IDEAS born within us that only require to be remembered. It is often carried to the extreme of saying that our concepts are only se nse images or only the words we use to refer to things.ENTITY (ens; being): Anything that exists, usually meaning as a natu ral unified substance.EPICUREANISM: An ancient Greek school of phil. founded by the At henian Epicurus. Based upon a materialistic atomism, it taught that p hysical pleasures, adjusted to what can be reasonably expected in a p articular time and place, constitute man’s greatest good and happiness. One must live unknown, avoid pain and trouble, and calculate the p leasure and pain to be derived from a given activity, including interp ersonal relations; produces a very conservative attitude because "rocki ng the boat" is sure to get you into trouble with the police. "Eat, dr ink, and be merry for tomorrow you die" is really a distortion of th i s phil. The phil. of life actually practiced by most people in the wo rld. Defended by the Roman Lucretius about the time of Christ. EPISTEMOLOGY (episteme-logos; true and certain knowledge explaine d): The study of human knowledge; its origins, types, and dependabili ty.EQUALITY (aequus; on the same level): Everyone having the same b asic worth and dignity before God, the law, and among other people; the same opportunities for success and advancement, though equality of results is not guaranteed. It does not mean that anyone can do a nything anyone else can do, e.g., becoming a priest.EQUIVOCATION (aequi—vox; with equal voice): Using the same term with entirely different meanings. E.g., a river bank, a bank for mon ey; Fido and Kierkegaard are both Great Danes. Often the basis for puns and jokes.ESSENCE (essentia; beingness, reality): Answers to the question, Wha t is it? The definition of something. The NATURE as known. E.g., F ido and Rex are Great Danes; Sally and Sam are human beings.ETHICS (ethos; habits): The ultimate practical knowledge; how to lea d the good life in the good society; the norms of proper behavior fo r humans as humans, not as doing some particular Job, e.g., Street cl eaning, computer programming, being the president of GM, being the Pope, etc. Ethics presupposes freedom on the part of the beings capa ble of acting ethically, e.g., humans. Things such as animals, plants, and minerals, which are not free in the sense of having the potential for free -choice, are not held responsible for their a ctions in any m oral sense. Main subdivisions, following the six main institutions of a ll human soèieties: Phil. of Religion and Government (Political Phil.), Family, Education, Work, Recreation.ETIOLOGY (aitia; cause): The study of the causes and origins of thi ngs.EUDAEMONISM (eu-daimon; good demon or spirit): Living well; bein g attended by good fortune. In Aristotle, happiness as the ultimate re sult of a good life.EVIDENCE (e-videre; clearly seen): The reasons for holding a certain view; the indicators of truth.EVIL (yfel--Old English): The privation of something that a being sh ould have or is due to it; the deviation from an ideal. E.g., with res pect to humans, not having wings is not an evil. PHYSICAL EVIL: Starvation, blindness, being crippled; MORAL EVIL: Sin, turning awa y from God; SOCIAL EVIL: Being deprived of just treatment, not be ing able to receive a liberal education. Any talk of evil presupposes the existence of objective standards or ideals.EVOLUTION (e-volvere; to unroll): Originally, the unrolling or unfold ing of Divine Providence, which is why Charles Darwin avoided usin g the term. DARWINIAN EVOLUTION: The creation of new species by common descent with modification via natural selection. He could not reconcile evil and Providence and so sought to explain species w ithout their being specially created by God. Starting from one very si mple living thing each new individual would vary somewhat from all others. Those better able to survive in their given environments wou ld go on to reproduce in larger numbers than the others (differential reproduction). In time, different looking, more complicated things wou ld be seen, while many others died out. He was a firm believer in t he overall progress and advancement of the biosphere. This has led t o the widespread present—day attitude that anything novel is automati cally better and superior to anything old; the common saying, "You’r e history," indicates that you are no longer of any importance or sig nificance. Today, in common speech, evolution usually m eans simply a slow change, as opposed to a fast change (revolution). EXISTENTIALISM (ex—sistere; to stand outside of its cause or sourc e): In 20th c. phil., mainly the view of Sartre, emphasizing the Deat。
中科院博士研究生英语精读教材翻译及原文整理解读
第1课知识的悖论The Paradox of KnowledgeThe greatest achievement of humankind in its long evolution from ancient hominoid ancestors to its present status is the acquisition and accumulation of a vast body of knowledge about itself, the world, and the universe. The products of this knowledge are all those things that, in the aggregate, we call "civilization," including language, science, literature, art, all the physical mechanisms, instruments, and structures we use, and the physical infrastructures on which society relies. Most of us assume that in modern society knowledge of all kinds is continually increasing and the aggregation of new information into the corpus of our social or collective knowledge is steadily reducing the area of ignorance about ourselves, the world, and the universe. But continuing reminders of the numerous areas of our present ignorance invite a critical analysis of this assumption.In the popular view, intellectual evolution is similar to, although much more rapid than, somatic evolution. Biological evolution is often described by the statement that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"--meaning that the individual embryo, in its development from a fertilized ovum into a human baby, passes through successive stages in which it resembles ancestral forms of the human species. The popular view is that humankind has progressed from a state of innocent ignorance, comparable to that of an infant, and gradually has acquired more and more knowledge, much as a child learns in passing through the several grades of the educational system. Implicit in this view is an assumption that phylogeny resembles ontogeny, so that there will ultimately be a stage in which the accumulation of knowledge is essentially complete, at least in specific fields, as if society had graduated with all the advanced degrees that signify mastery of important subjects.Such views have, in fact, been expressed by some eminent scientists. In 1894 the great American physicist Albert Michelson said in a talk at the University of Chicago:While it is never safe to affirm that the future of Physical Science has no marvels in store even more astonishing than those of the past, it seems probable that most of the grand underlying principles have been firmly established and that further advances are to be sought chiefly in the rigorous application of these principles to all the phenomena which come under our notice .... The future truths of Physical Science ate to be looked for in the sixth place of decimals.In the century since Michelson's talk, scientists have discovered much more than the refinement of measurements in the sixth decimal place, and none is willing to make a similar statement today. However, many still cling to the notion that such a state of knowledge remains a possibility to be attained sooner or later. Stephen Hawking, thegreat English scientist, in his immensely popular book A Brief History of Time (1988), concludes with the speculation that we may "discover a complete theory" that "would be the ultimate triumph of human reason--for then we would know the mind of God." Paul Davies, an Australian physicist, echoes that view by suggesting that the human mind may be able to grasp some of the secrets encompassed by the title of his book The Mind of God (1992). Other contemporary scientists write of "theories of everything," meaning theories that explain all observable physical phenomena, and Nobel Laureate Steven Weinberg, one of the founders of the current standard model of physical theory, writes of his Dreams of a Final Theory (1992).Despite the eminence and obvious yearning of these and many other contemporary scientists, there is nothing in the history of science to suggest that any addition of data or theories to the body of scientific knowledge will ever provide answers to all questions in any field. On the contrary, the history of science indicates that increasing knowledge brings awareness of new areas of ignorance and of new questions to be answered.Astronomy is the most ancient of the sciences, and its development is a model of other fields of knowledge. People have been observing the stars and other celestial bodies since the dawn of recorded history. As early as 3000 B.C. the Babylonians recognized a number of the constellations. In the sixth century B.C., Pythagoras proposed the notion of a spherical Earth and of a universe with objects in it chat moved in accordance with natural laws. Later Greek philosophers taught that the sky was a hollow globe surrounding the Earth, that it was supported on an axis running through the Earth, and chat stars were inlaid on its inner surface, which rotated westward daily. In the second century A.D., Ptolemy propounded a theory of a geocentric (Earth-centered) universe in which the sun, planets, and stars moved in circular orbits of cycles and epicycles around the Earth, although the Earth was not at the precise center of these orbits. While somewhat awkward, the Ptolemaic system could produce reasonably reliable predictions of planetary positions, which were, however, good for only a few years and which developed substantial discrepancies from actual observations over a long period of time. Nevertheless, since there was no evidence then apparent to astronomers that the Earth itself moves, the Ptolemaic system remained unchallenged for more than 13 centuries.In the sixteenth century Nocolaus Copernicus, who is said to have mastered all the knowledge of his day in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology, became dissatisfied with the Ptolemaic system. He found that a heliocentric system was both mathematically possible and aesthetically more pleasing, and wrote a full exposition of his hypothesis, which was not published until 1543, shortly after his death. Early inthe seventeenth century, Johannes Kepler became imperial mathematician of the Holy Roman Empire upon the death of Tycho Brahe, and he acquired a collection of meticulous naked-eye observations of the positions of celestial bodies chat had been made by Brahe. On the basis of these data, Kepler calculated that both Ptolemy and Copernicus were in error in assuming chat planets traveled in circular orbits, and in 1609 he published a book demonstrating mathematically chat the planets travel around the sun in elliptical orbits. Kepler's laws of planetary motion are still regarded as basically valid.In the first decade of the seventeenth century Galileo Galilei learned of the invention of the telescope and began to build such instruments, becoming the first person to use a telescope for astronomical observations, and thus discovering craters on the moon, phases of Venus, and the satellites of Jupiter. His observations convinced him of the validity of the Copernican system and resulted in the well-known conflict between Galileo and church authorities. In January 1642 Galileo died, and in December of chat year Isaac Newton was born. Modern science derives largely from the work of these two men.Newton's contributions to science are numerous. He laid the foundations for modem physical optics, formulated the basic laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, and devised the infinitesimal calculus. Newton's laws of motion and gravitation are still used for calculations of such matters as trajectories of spacecraft and satellites and orbits of planets. In 1846, relying on such calculations as a guide to observation, astronomers discovered the planet Neptune.While calculations based on Newton's laws are accurate, they are dismayingly complex when three or more bodies are involved. In 1915, Einstein announced his theory of general relativity, which led to a set of differential equations for planetary orbits identical to those based on Newtonian calculations, except for those relating to the planet Mercury. The elliptical orbit of Mercury rotates through the years, but so slowly that the change of position is less than one minute of arc each century. The equations of general relativity precisely accounted for this precession; Newtonian equations did not.Einstein's equations also explained the red shift in the light from distant stars and the deflection of starlight as it passed near the sun. However, Einstein assumed chat the universe was static, and, in order to permit a meaningful solution to the equations of relativity, in 1917 he added another term, called a "cosmological constant," to the equations. Although the existence and significance of a cosmological constant is still being debated, Einstein later declared chat this was a major mistake, as Edwin Hubble established in the 1920s chat the universe is expanding and galaxies are receding fromone another at a speed proportionate to their distance.Another important development in astronomy grew out of Newton's experimentation in optics, beginning with his demonstration chat sunlight could be broken up by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, which led to the science of spectroscopy. In the twentieth century, spectroscopy was applied to astronomy to gun information about the chemical and physical condition of celestial bodies chat was not disclosed by visual observation. In the 1920s, precise photographic photometry was introduced to astronomy and quantitative spectrochemical analysis became common. Also during the 1920s, scientists like Heisenberg, de Broglie, Schrodinger, and Dirac developed quantum mechanics, a branch of physics dealing with subatomic particles of matter and quanta of energy. Astronomers began to recognize that the properties of celestial bodies, including planets, could be well understood only in terms of physics, and the field began to be referred to as "astrophysics."These developments created an explosive expansion in our knowledge of astronomy. During the first five thousand years or more of observing the heavens, observation was confined to the narrow band of visible light. In the last half of this century astronomical observations have been made across the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, and from satellites beyond the atmosphere. It is no exaggeration to say chat since the end of World War II more astronomical data have been gathered than during all of the thousands of years of preceding human history.However, despite all improvements in instrumentation, increasing sophistication of analysis and calculation augmented by the massive power of computers, and the huge aggregation of data, or knowledge, we still cannot predict future movements of planets and other elements of even the solar system with a high degree of certainty. Ivars Peterson, a highly trained science writer and an editor of Science News, writes in his book Newton's Clock (1993) that a surprisingly subtle chaos pervades the solar system. He states:In one way or another the problem of the solar system's stability has fascinated and tormented asrtonomers and mathematicians for more than 200 years. Somewhat to the embarrassment of contemporary experts, it remains one of the most perplexing, unsolved issues in celestial mechanics. Each step toward resolving this and related questions has only exposed additional uncertainties and even deeper mysteries.Similar problems pervade astronomy. The two major theories of cosmology, general relativity and quantum mechanics, cannot be stated in the same mathematical language, and thus are inconsistent with one another, as the Ptolemaic and Copernicantheories were in the sixteenth century, although both contemporary theories continue to be used, but for different calculations. Oxford mathematician Roger Penrose, in The Emperors New Mind (1989), contends that this inconsistency requires a change in quantum theory to provide a new theory he calls "correct quantum gravity."Furthermore, the observations astronomers make with new technologies disclose a total mass in the universe that is less than about 10 percent of the total mass that mathematical calculations require the universe to contain on the basis of its observed rate of expansion. If the universe contains no more mass than we have been able to observe directly, then according to all current theories it should have expanded in the past, and be expanding now, much more rapidly than the rate actually observed. It is therefore believed that 90 percent or more of the mass in the universe is some sort of "dark matter" that has not yet been observed and the nature of which is unknown. Current theories favor either WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles) or MACHOs (massive compact halo objects). Other similar mysteries abound and increase in number as our ability to observe improves.The progress of biological and life sciences has been similar to that of the physical sciences, except that it has occurred several centuries later. The theory of biological evolution first came to the attention of scientists with the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859. But Darwin lacked any explanation of the causes of variation and inheritance of characteristics. These were provided by Gregor Mendel, who laid the mathematical foundation of genetics with the publication of papers in 1865 and 1866.Medicine, according to Lewis Thomas, is the youngest science, having become truly scientific only in the 1930s. Recent and ongoing research has created uncertainty about even such basic concepts as when and how life begins and when death occurs, and we are spending billions in an attempt to learn how much it may be possible to know about human genetics. Modern medicine has demonstrably improved both our life expectancies and our health, and further improvements continue to be made as research progresses. But new questions arise even more rapidly than our research resources grow, as the host of problems related to the Human Genome Project illustrates.From even such an abbreviated and incomplete survey of science as this, it appears that increasing knowledge does not result in a commensurate decrease in ignorance, but, on the contrary, exposes new lacunae in our comprehension and confronts us with unforeseen questions disclosing areas of ignorance of which we were not previously aware.Thus the concept of science as an expanding body of knowledge that will eventually encompass or dispel all significant areas of ignorance is an illusion. Scientists and philosophers are now observing that it is naive to regard science as a process that begins with observations that are organized into theories and are then subsequently tested by experiments. The late Karl Popper, a leading philosopher of science, wrote in The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (1960) chat science starts from problems, not from observations, and chat every worthwhile new theory raises new problems. Thus there is no danger that science will come to an end because it has completed its task, clanks to the "infinity of our ignorance."At least since Thomas Kuhn published The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), it has been generally recognized that observations are the result of theories (called paradigms by Kuhn and other philosophers), for without theories of relevance and irrelevance there would be no basis for determining what observations to make. Since no one can know everything, to be fully informed on any subject (a claim sometimes made by those in authority) is simply to reach a judgment that additional data are not important enough to be worth the trouble of securing or considering.To carry the analysis another step, it must be recognized that theories are the result of questions and questions are the product of perceived ignorance. Thus it is chat ignorance gives rise to inquiry chat produces knowledge, which, in turn, discloses new areas of ignorance. This is the paradox of knowledge: As knowledge increases so does ignorance, and ignorance may increase more than its related knowledge.My own metaphor to illustrate the relationship of knowledge and ignorance is based on a line from Matthew Arnold: "For we are here as on a darkling plain...." The dark chat surrounds us, chat, indeed, envelops our world, is ignorance. Knowledge is the illumination shed by whatever candles (or more technologically advanced light sources) we can provide. As we light more and more figurative candles, the area of illumination enlarges; but the area beyond illumination increases geometrically. We know chat there is much we don't know; but we cannot know how much there is chat we don't know. Thus knowledge is finite, but ignorance is infinite, and the finite cannot ever encompass the infinite.This is a revised version of an article originally published in COSMOS 1994. Copyright 1995 by Lee Loevinger.Lee Loevinger is a Washington lawyer and former assistant attorney general of the United States who writes frequently for scientific c publications. He has participated for many years as a member, co-chair, or liaison with the National Conference of Lawyers and Scientists, and he is a founder and former chair of the Science andTechnology Section of the American Bar Association. Office address: Hogan and Hartson, 555 Thirteenth St. NW, Washington, DC 20004.人类从古类人猿进化到当前的状态这个长久的进化过程中的最大成就是有关于人类自身、世界以及宇宙众多知识的获得和积聚。
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The Analogy of Three Principles of SCI in Human IntelligenceBeidi LiuThe principles of the Science of Creative Intelligence are “the Laws of Nature that uphold growth and progress of everyone and everything. They are everywhere, guiding the progress and evolution of the ant and the elephant, the cell and the planets.” (Maharishi Science of Creative Intelligence for Primary and Secondary Education, 2006) There are three principles which can be seen in human intelligence.The first principle: Seek the highest first. This means attaining the highest state of awareness at the source of thought, and you are then most prepared for activity. Just like “capturing the fort”, then you can capture the other fields. You gain the key point in a series of things, thus you can succeed. There is a poem about this in China. One sentence states that when you want to win the war, the only thing you need to do is to capture the leader of this troop. Then you will win. There is a story about that from the Tang Dynasty of China. Two troops were fighting, and it was difficult to say who would win. At that time, the general of one troop had a good idea. At first he made the enemy think they would fight, but he didn’t let his troops go outside. After several times, the enemy relaxed their vigilance. Then, he ordered his troops to go outside and they killed a lot of the enemy. But he couldn’t find the general of the enemy, so he demanded the soldiers to release the arrows made out of straw. At first the soldiers were very scared, but when they found these arrows could not destroy them, they were very excited and told this to their general. This behavior made their general exposed and he was killed by a real arrow immediately. The soldiers found there was no leader and they had to give up. So the first troop won. Even though there are many soldiers, the key person is the general. Even though he is only one person and not the whole, he affects the whole deeply.Just like when I played chess with my friend, the only step I didn’t plan well would lead me to lose that game.There are seven states of consciousness, but if you can attain the highest state of awareness at the source of thought, you will have so much energy and you can do almost everything.The second principle: Every action has a reaction. This means everything is related. Just like the Butterfly Effect: if the tropical butterfly’s wing flaps gently, distant countries may cause a hurricane. Everything is linked by cause and effect. In real life, there is global warming. Because of the people’s usage of fossil fuels and emission of greenhouse gas, the temperature grows and the sea level rises, leading to the lose of balance of the natural system and human habitat. In Greek mythology, there is a story called the Golden Apple. Because the peoplein the wedding didn’t invite Aris, the unlucky goddess, she made the other three goddesses hate each other, and at last leading to the Trojan War.After I do Transcendental Meditation twice daily with regularly, I feel I am purified and relaxed.Because SCI is self-perpetuating and innovative, it clears its own path, and the influx of creative intelligence is spontaneously brought to brighten all phases of life, bringing wholeness of life, and thus eliminating ignorance. (SCI Notebook 69)The third principle: The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. If there is a brick, there is only one brick. If there are some bricks, and we put them together haphazardly, there is only a stack of bricks. If we put all the bricks together in an organized manner, we will have a beautiful house. Have you ever heard Tian Ji’s horse racing story? In ancient China, there was a general called Tian Ji, and he always raced horses with his king. Their horses can be divided into three groups: excellent, average, below average. Because all the king’s horses are better than his, he was a loser every time. Then his friend Sun Bin gave him a good idea about how to beat the king. Using Tian Ji’s lowest horse to race the king’s best one, then Tian Ji lost. Using Tian Ji’s best horse to race the king’s middle one, the king lost. Using Tian Ji’s middle horse to race the king’s lower one, the king lost again. Because this was a game of the best two out of three, Tian Ji won at last. Although Tian Ji’s horses were inferior to the king’s, he was able to organize them in an intelligent way, and he was able to win the game.The same thing always happens in our daily life. When we organize our schedule orderly, we have effective work.Society is a group of individuals. The harmonious and balanced blending of fully developed individuals produces a beautiful society and can be accomplished by the aspiration of creative intelligence through the Transcendental Meditation program. (SCI Notebook 62)Thus Transcendental Meditation is like the cocoon; the whole universe is silk. The Science of Creative Intelligence is like the caterpillar. You can’t see it clearly when it is inside the cocoon, but that’s the source of thought. When you touch the highest state of consciousness, it’s like you gain the wings and become a butterfly. You can fly everywhere.。