Phonemic contrast

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胡壮麟语言学名词解释

胡壮麟语言学名词解释第一篇：胡壮麟语言学名词解释1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are justdescribed.10.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15.macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics，anthropological linguistics,et petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17.performance: the actual use of language in concrete ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound(usually a vowel or a voiced consonant)by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols intranscription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated.Bothand are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation;in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employingsymbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone，and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or pound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph:;any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43.boundmorpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g.the plural morpheme in ―dog’s‖.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a resultof the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62.syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of itsconstituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express apropostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e.to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other.The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc, 88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositionalcalculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,nguage comprehension: one of the threestrand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internalconsistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is‖genden difference‖ 116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses aproposition which may be true or false.124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not sta nding still‖.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary(G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would notor could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator‖srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example，she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of theircharacters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator‖s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently foruse in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such astranslation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc municative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not sup posed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of。

英语语言学单选

9.1. Displcement means that human languages enable their users to _____ .A. symbolize objects, events and concepts that are presentB. communicate in an arbitrary mannerB. SociolinguisticsD. Pragmatics3. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his _____ . And _____ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.A. intercultural communicative comp etence ….. performance4. All monomophemic words are ______ . And polymorphemic words are called _____.pounds …… free compoundsC. stems and prefixesD. words formation and backformation6. The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words andB. propositionD. configuration7. Which of the following pairs is NOT an example of converse antonymy?A. buy, sellC. uncle, nephew-formation”.B. edit →editorD. possible →impossible9. /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning. Therefore they are ___ .B. in complementary distributionD. allophonesB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA. become, run, feelC. clever, green, beautiful12. The word “politician” differs from the word “statesman” in its _______ .A. conceptual meaningC. referential meaningB. The Philosophy of GrammarD. Language----- this is the main idea of _____ .C. the Politeness PrincipleD. semantics15. In order to red uce the ambiguity of the term “word”, the term _____ is postulated as the ____ unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.。

语言学练习

语言学练习Chapter 1 & 2I. Multiple Choices1. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as ___________linguistics.A. comparativeB. appliedC. synchronicD. diachronic2. N. Chomsky is a famous _____________ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. GreekD. Swiss3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _________.A.prescriptiveB.descriptiveC. subjectiveD. Latin-based4. In the following sounds ___________ is a voiceless frictive.A. [d]B.[l]C. [f]D. [w]5. Which of the following sounds is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]6.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bangB. photoC. typewriterD. rumble7. In English, “pill” and “bill” are ___________.A. a phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. assimilation D a minimal pair8. Which of the following is a minimal pair? ( )A./\'\'aiiSo/ /\'\'i:iSo/B. /pen/ /hen/C. /pet/ /bit/D./fi:l/ /li:v/II. Fill in the blanks1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed__________.2. The description of a language as it changes through time is a d_________ study.3. Similar to Saussure’s distinc tion between langue and parole is the distinction betweenc________ and performance by the linguist N. Chomsky.4. Language is c________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its uses.5. The English sounds [m],[n] and [N] are called n_______ consonants.6. Language is a system of a ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication.7. According to the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure, p___________ refers to the realization oflanguage in actual use.8. The three branches of phonetics are labelled a____________ phonetics, auditory phoneticsand acoustic phonetics respectively.III. True or false1. Competence and performance mean, to N. Chomsky, much the same thing.2. The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of theformer it is characterized by the absence of obstruction of the airstream and it does not have a place of articulation in the same sense as a consonant.3. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence patterns of a language.4. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is calledbroad transcription.5. All the phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the samephoneme.6. Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulaton.7. The principal suprasegmental features are stress, tone, and intonation.Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True orFalse:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.8. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language in grammar.2. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a l____ meaning.3. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.5. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.6. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.7. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.8. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of__________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.3. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with othermorphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words4. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.7. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes8. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by thelinguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences9. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootChapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.5. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category.6. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.7. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.8. There are three tenses in English, i. e. present tense, past tense and future tense.9. The class of signs which are in paradigmatic relation aresometimes called structure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command.2. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.3. The relation between a sentence and its component elements, is generally referred to as the relation between a c________ and its c________, in which a very important notion is immediate constituent analysis.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in themind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical2. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional3. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.4. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical5. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infiniteChapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The relationship between “human/body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.2. One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words,it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.3. The British English word “autumn” and the American English word “fall” are called stylisticsynonyms.4. Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between linguistic form and what it refers to.This view can be seen by the Semantic triangle.5. The relation between the words “male” and “female” is gradable antonyms.6. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. They are tworelated but different aspects of meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what itrefers to.3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.5. C_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between thetwo items.6. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components.7. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.8. The term a__________ is used for oppositeness of meaning.9. Sentence meaning is the combination of the meanings of the component words and the meaningof its s________.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaningcomponents, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis2. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above3. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features4. The pair of words “let’ and “rent” is called ___________.A. relational oppositesB. gradable antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms5. Which description of the meaning components of the word “woman” is right.A. [+human, +adult, +male]B. [-human, +adult, +male]C. [+human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, -adult,-male]6. The semantic relationship between carnation and rose is _______.A. hyponymsB. hyponymyC. co-hyponymsD. superordinate7. “John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die” is a (n) _______.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction8. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity?A. hot/coldB. doctor/patientC. single/marriedD. husband /wifeChapter 6：PragmaticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of languageuse was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaningthe context of use is considered.5. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.6. The meaning of an utterance is de-contexualized,therefore stable.7. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.8. Perlocutio nary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.2. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaningthe context of use is considered.3. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.4. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an u___________.5. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.6. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.7. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were notverifiable.8. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.9. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.10. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maximof quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context4. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.7. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act8. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle9. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesKeysChapter 1 &2I. C A B C C B D BII. 1.descriptive 2. dychronic 3. competence 4. creativity 5. nasal6.arbitrary7. parole8. articulatoryIII. F T F F F T FChapter 3I.T F T T T T F TII. 1. morpheme 2. lexical 3. bound 4.derivational 5. derivational6. compound7. morphologicalIII. D B B D C D A B CChapter 4I. F T F T T T F F FII. 1. sentence 2. subject 3. construction, constituentsIII. D A D D CChapter 5I.T T T T F TII. 1.Semantics 2. direct 3.Reference 4. synonyms 5. converse6. componential7. selection8. antonymy9. structureIII. B C A A C B D CChapter 8I. F F T T F F T FII. 1. Pragmatics 2. semantics 3. context 4. utterance 5. abstract6. Constatives7. Performativs8. locutionary9. illocutionary 10. quantity III. A C D B C B D A D。

Phonology and phonetics

English Fricative Devoicing
/v/ [f] /z/ [s] etc. voiced fricative voiceless / ____ voiceless Nasalization rule: [-nasal] [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal] Dentalization rule: [-dental] [dental] / ____ [dental] Velarization rule: [-velar] [+velar] / ____ [+velar]
Phone, phoneme, and allophone
Phoneme is an abstract unit that is of distinctive value. That is, phoneme is not a sound that is pronounced, but a collection of distinctive phonetic features. Phone the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
Sequential rules
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1. The first phoneme must be / s /. 2. The second phoneme must be / p/ or/ t/, or /k/ 3. The third phoneme must be / | / or/ r/, or /w/ i.e. spring, strict, square, splendid, and scream

面向小直径薄壁管表面质量检测的散斑干涉图像滤波方法研究

面向小直径薄壁管表面质量检测的散斑干涉图像滤波方法研究陈杰阳雷罗建东陈杰1988—/男/硕士/毕业于四川大学/从事无损检测研究与应用工作/中国核动力研究设计院(成都610213)阳雷1980—/男/硕士/毕业于西南交通大学/从事无损检测研究与应用工作/中国核动力研究设计院(成都610213)罗建东1986—/男/博士/毕业于中国核动力研究设计院/从事无损检测研究与应用工作/中国核动力研究设计院(成都610213)摘要利用散斑干涉测量技术对材料表面质量进行检测时，干涉图像存在大量高频散斑噪声，严重影响了表面质量检测的准确度及测量精度。

本文以小直径薄壁管表面为检测对象，提出了一种自适应窗口傅里叶变换滤波方法对散斑噪声进行滤波，首先利用小波变换获得最佳的窗口大小，然后利用窗口傅里叶脊对应的振幅动态修正频谱阈值，最后利用傅里叶脊对应的局部频率设置相应的通频带完成傅里叶逆变换获得滤波后的图像，并与等值线窗口法和二阶方向偏微分方程法进行对比分析。

研究结果表明，自适应窗口傅里叶变换滤波法滤波效果最好，表面质量检测准确度及测量精度高。

关键词小直径管；薄壁管；散斑干涉；图像滤波；自适应窗口中图分类号:TG178文献标识码:ADOI：10.19694/ki.issn2095-2457.2020.15.016 AbstractThe interference image contains a lot of high frequency speckle noise when using the digital speckle interferometry to measure the material surface quality,which seriously affects the accuracy of surface quality detection and measurement accuracy.In this paper,an adaptive window Fourier transform filtering method is proposed to filter the speckle noise on the surface of small-diameter thin-walled tube.Firstly,the optimal window size is obtained by wavelet transform,then the amplitude corresponding to the window Fourier ridge is used to dynamically modify the spectrum threshold,and finally the corresponding pass band is set by the local frequency corresponding to the Fourier ridge to complete the Fourier transform The filtered image is obtained by inverse transformation and compared with contoured window method and second-order directional partial differential equation method.The results show that the adaptive window Fourier transform filtering method has good filtering effect,high accuracy of surface quality detection and measurement.Key WordsSmall-diameter pipe;Thin-walled pipe;Speckle fringe pattern; Filtering;Adaptive parameters0引言在核反应堆关键部件的研制过程中，必须针对小直径薄壁管的表面质量进行全面的检测及评价。

音素、音位、音位变体的区别

音素：（phone）1、语音中最小的单位。

是从音色的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。

2、在语音学与音韵学中,音素一词所指的是说话时所发出的声音.音素是具体存在的物理现象。

国际音标的音标符号与全人类语言的音素具有一一对应。

3、英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个,辅音28个。

英语辅音和元音在语言中的作用，就相当于汉语中的声母和韵母。

记录英语音素的符号叫做音标.音位：（Phoneme）1、一个语言系统中能够区分词义的最小的语言单位,也就是按语音的辨义作用归纳出来的音类，是从语言的社会属性划分出来的语言单位。

2、是语言中能表示语义的单位。

3、音位及其归纳方法1）具有相同的表义作用一样的一组音素，可归纳成同一个音位。

它有如下特点: 第一，音位总是属于一定的语言,脱离具体的语言，音位无从谈起。

第二,属于同一个音位的各个音，不能区别意义，不同音位的各个音，能够区别意义。

第三，音位必须是最小的单位。

例如，汉语的声母和单韵母可以看作音位，复韵母和鼻韵母就不能看作音位.2）音位的种类：可大别为两类：一是音质音位，由音素构成；二是非音质音位,由声调等构成的叫非音质音位. 音质音位有元音音位共十个（音元音韵母）；辅音音位有22个，其中21个作声母，1个专作韵尾。

非音质音位有四个声调音位,简称调位。

音位用平行斜线中加国际音标字母表示。

音位变体：（Allophones）1、同属于一个音位的不同音素叫做“音位变体"2、音位变体可分为“条件变体"和“自由变体”两种。

1）条件变体，指需要一定的语言条件才会出现的音位变体，又叫“必然变体"。

2）自由变体，指没有环境限制，可以自由替换而不影响意义的音位变体,又叫“习惯变体”。

3、音位变体就是同一个音位的不同的变异形式,是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。

如英语中的，leap /li:p/ 与feel /fi:l/ 中的两个不同的/l/，就是音位/l/的两个不同变体。

语言学phonology音韵学

The oral cavity(口腔): the mouth It contains the lips, teeth, teeth (alveolar) ridge (齿龈/槽) tip of tongue, blade of tongue, front of tongue, back of tongue, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, epiglottis (会厌软骨). The nasal cavity (鼻腔): the nose Nasal resonance(共鸣) can be produced due to the lowering the soft palate (velum), resulting the production of nasals. The pharyngeal cavity/ pharynx ( 咽腔 ): between the top of the larynx (喉) and the soft palate) The throat (larynx) contains vocal cords/folds, ventricular folds （膨胀带）and glottis (the opening between the vocal cords), the movement of which determines the quality of voicing (voiced & voiceless(浊/ 清音) and pitch(音高).
Phonetics and phonology Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language, the speech sounds. But they approach the subject from two different points of view. Phonetics studies the production and characteristics of all possible speech sounds, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. It is general, descriptive and classificatory. Phonology is the study of sound systems of languages, which is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. It studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.

jstd035声学扫描

JOINT INDUSTRY STANDARDAcoustic Microscopy for Non-HermeticEncapsulatedElectronicComponents IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035APRIL1999Supersedes IPC-SM-786 Supersedes IPC-TM-650,2.6.22Notice EIA/JEDEC and IPC Standards and Publications are designed to serve thepublic interest through eliminating misunderstandings between manufacturersand purchasers,facilitating interchangeability and improvement of products,and assisting the purchaser in selecting and obtaining with minimum delaythe proper product for his particular need.Existence of such Standards andPublications shall not in any respect preclude any member or nonmember ofEIA/JEDEC or IPC from manufacturing or selling products not conformingto such Standards and Publications,nor shall the existence of such Standardsand Publications preclude their voluntary use by those other than EIA/JEDECand IPC members,whether the standard is to be used either domestically orinternationally.Recommended Standards and Publications are adopted by EIA/JEDEC andIPC without regard to whether their adoption may involve patents on articles,materials,or processes.By such action,EIA/JEDEC and IPC do not assumeany liability to any patent owner,nor do they assume any obligation whateverto parties adopting the Recommended Standard or ers are alsowholly responsible for protecting themselves against all claims of liabilities forpatent infringement.The material in this joint standard was developed by the EIA/JEDEC JC-14.1Committee on Reliability Test Methods for Packaged Devices and the IPCPlastic Chip Carrier Cracking Task Group(B-10a)The J-STD-035supersedes IPC-TM-650,Test Method2.6.22.For Technical Information Contact:Electronic Industries Alliance/ JEDEC(Joint Electron Device Engineering Council)2500Wilson Boulevard Arlington,V A22201Phone(703)907-7560Fax(703)907-7501IPC2215Sanders Road Northbrook,IL60062-6135 Phone(847)509-9700Fax(847)509-9798Please use the Standard Improvement Form shown at the end of thisdocument.©Copyright1999.The Electronic Industries Alliance,Arlington,Virginia,and IPC,Northbrook,Illinois.All rights reserved under both international and Pan-American copyright conventions.Any copying,scanning or other reproduction of these materials without the prior written consent of the copyright holder is strictly prohibited and constitutes infringement under the Copyright Law of the United States.IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035Acoustic Microscopyfor Non-Hermetic EncapsulatedElectronicComponentsA joint standard developed by the EIA/JEDEC JC-14.1Committee on Reliability Test Methods for Packaged Devices and the B-10a Plastic Chip Carrier Cracking Task Group of IPCUsers of this standard are encouraged to participate in the development of future revisions.Contact:EIA/JEDEC Engineering Department 2500Wilson Boulevard Arlington,V A22201 Phone(703)907-7500 Fax(703)907-7501IPC2215Sanders Road Northbrook,IL60062-6135 Phone(847)509-9700Fax(847)509-9798ASSOCIATION CONNECTINGELECTRONICS INDUSTRIESAcknowledgmentMembers of the Joint IPC-EIA/JEDEC Moisture Classiﬁcation Task Group have worked to develop this document.We would like to thank them for their dedication to this effort.Any Standard involving a complex technology draws material from a vast number of sources.While the principal members of the Joint Moisture Classiﬁcation Working Group are shown below,it is not possible to include all of those who assisted in the evolution of this Standard.To each of them,the mem-bers of the EIA/JEDEC and IPC extend their gratitude.IPC Packaged Electronic Components Committee ChairmanMartin FreedmanAMP,Inc.IPC Plastic Chip Carrier Cracking Task Group,B-10a ChairmanSteven MartellSonoscan,Inc.EIA/JEDEC JC14.1CommitteeChairmanJack McCullenIntel Corp.EIA/JEDEC JC14ChairmanNick LycoudesMotorolaJoint Working Group MembersCharlie Baker,TIChristopher Brigham,Hi/FnRalph Carbone,Hewlett Packard Co. Don Denton,TIMatt Dotty,AmkorMichele J.DiFranza,The Mitre Corp. Leo Feinstein,Allegro Microsystems Inc.Barry Fernelius,Hewlett Packard Co. Chris Fortunko,National Institute of StandardsRobert J.Gregory,CAE Electronics, Inc.Curtis Grosskopf,IBM Corp.Bill Guthrie,IBM Corp.Phil Johnson,Philips Semiconductors Nick Lycoudes,MotorolaSteven R.Martell,Sonoscan Inc. Jack McCullen,Intel Corp.Tom Moore,TIDavid Nicol,Lucent Technologies Inc.Pramod Patel,Advanced Micro Devices Inc.Ramon R.Reglos,XilinxCorazon Reglos,AdaptecGerald Servais,Delphi Delco Electronics SystemsRichard Shook,Lucent Technologies Inc.E.Lon Smith,Lucent Technologies Inc.Randy Walberg,NationalSemiconductor Corp.Charlie Wu,AdaptecEdward Masami Aoki,HewlettPackard LaboratoriesFonda B.Wu,Raytheon Systems Co.Richard W.Boerdner,EJE ResearchVictor J.Brzozowski,NorthropGrumman ES&SDMacushla Chen,Wus Printed CircuitCo.Ltd.Jeffrey C.Colish,Northrop GrummanCorp.Samuel J.Croce,Litton AeroProducts DivisionDerek D-Andrade,Surface MountTechnology CentreRao B.Dayaneni,Hewlett PackardLaboratoriesRodney Dehne,OEM WorldwideJames F.Maguire,Boeing Defense&Space GroupKim Finch,Boeing Defense&SpaceGroupAlelie Funcell,Xilinx Inc.Constantino J.Gonzalez,ACMEMunir Haq,Advanced Micro DevicesInc.Larry A.Hargreaves,DC.ScientiﬁcInc.John T.Hoback,Amoco ChemicalCo.Terence Kern,Axiom Electronics Inc.Connie M.Korth,K-Byte/HibbingManufacturingGabriele Marcantonio,NORTELCharles Martin,Hewlett PackardLaboratoriesRichard W.Max,Alcatel NetworkSystems Inc.Patrick McCluskey,University ofMarylandJames H.Moffitt,Moffitt ConsultingServicesRobert Mulligan,Motorola Inc.James E.Mumby,CibaJohn Northrup,Lockheed MartinCorp.Dominique K.Numakura,LitchﬁeldPrecision ComponentsNitin B.Parekh,Unisys Corp.Bella Poborets,Lucent TechnologiesInc.D.Elaine Pope,Intel Corp.Ray Prasad,Ray Prasad ConsultancyGroupAlbert Puah,Adaptec Inc.William Sepp,Technic Inc.Ralph W.Taylor,Lockheed MartinCorp.Ed R.Tidwell,DSC CommunicationsCorp.Nick Virmani,Naval Research LabKen Warren,Corlund ElectronicsCorp.Yulia B.Zaks,Lucent TechnologiesInc.IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999 iiTable of Contents1SCOPE (1)2DEFINITIONS (1)2.1A-mode (1)2.2B-mode (1)2.3Back-Side Substrate View Area (1)2.4C-mode (1)2.5Through Transmission Mode (2)2.6Die Attach View Area (2)2.7Die Surface View Area (2)2.8Focal Length(FL) (2)2.9Focus Plane (2)2.10Leadframe(L/F)View Area (2)2.11Reﬂective Acoustic Microscope (2)2.12Through Transmission Acoustic Microscope (2)2.13Time-of-Flight(TOF) (3)2.14Top-Side Die Attach Substrate View Area (3)3APPARATUS (3)3.1Reﬂective Acoustic Microscope System (3)3.2Through Transmission AcousticMicroscope System (4)4PROCEDURE (4)4.1Equipment Setup (4)4.2Perform Acoustic Scans..........................................4Appendix A Acoustic Microscopy Defect CheckSheet (6)Appendix B Potential Image Pitfalls (9)Appendix C Some Limitations of AcousticMicroscopy (10)Appendix D Reference Procedure for PresentingApplicable Scanned Data (11)FiguresFigure1Example of A-mode Display (1)Figure2Example of B-mode Display (1)Figure3Example of C-mode Display (2)Figure4Example of Through Transmission Display (2)Figure5Diagram of a Reﬂective Acoustic MicroscopeSystem (3)Figure6Diagram of a Through Transmission AcousticMicroscope System (3)April1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035iiiIPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999This Page Intentionally Left BlankivApril1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035 Acoustic Microscopy for Non-Hermetic EncapsulatedElectronic Components1SCOPEThis test method deﬁnes the procedures for performing acoustic microscopy on non-hermetic encapsulated electronic com-ponents.This method provides users with an acoustic microscopy processﬂow for detecting defects non-destructively in plastic packages while achieving reproducibility.2DEFINITIONS2.1A-mode Acoustic data collected at the smallest X-Y-Z region deﬁned by the limitations of the given acoustic micro-scope.An A-mode display contains amplitude and phase/polarity information as a function of time ofﬂight at a single point in the X-Y plane.See Figure1-Example of A-mode Display.IPC-035-1 Figure1Example of A-mode Display2.2B-mode Acoustic data collected along an X-Z or Y-Z plane versus depth using a reﬂective acoustic microscope.A B-mode scan contains amplitude and phase/polarity information as a function of time ofﬂight at each point along the scan line.A B-mode scan furnishes a two-dimensional(cross-sectional)description along a scan line(X or Y).See Figure2-Example of B-mode Display.IPC-035-2 Figure2Example of B-mode Display(bottom half of picture on left)2.3Back-Side Substrate View Area(Refer to Appendix A,Type IV)The interface between the encapsulant and the back of the substrate within the outer edges of the substrate surface.2.4C-mode Acoustic data collected in an X-Y plane at depth(Z)using a reﬂective acoustic microscope.A C-mode scan contains amplitude and phase/polarity information at each point in the scan plane.A C-mode scan furnishes a two-dimensional(area)image of echoes arising from reﬂections at a particular depth(Z).See Figure3-Example of C-mode Display.1IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999IPC-035-3 Figure3Example of C-mode Display2.5Through Transmission Mode Acoustic data collected in an X-Y plane throughout the depth(Z)using a through trans-mission acoustic microscope.A Through Transmission mode scan contains only amplitude information at each point in the scan plane.A Through Transmission scan furnishes a two-dimensional(area)image of transmitted ultrasound through the complete thickness/depth(Z)of the sample/component.See Figure4-Example of Through Transmission Display.IPC-035-4 Figure4Example of Through Transmission Display2.6Die Attach View Area(Refer to Appendix A,Type II)The interface between the die and the die attach adhesive and/or the die attach adhesive and the die attach substrate.2.7Die Surface View Area(Refer to Appendix A,Type I)The interface between the encapsulant and the active side of the die.2.8Focal Length(FL)The distance in water at which a transducer’s spot size is at a minimum.2.9Focus Plane The X-Y plane at a depth(Z),which the amplitude of the acoustic signal is maximized.2.10Leadframe(L/F)View Area(Refer to Appendix A,Type V)The imaged area which extends from the outer L/F edges of the package to the L/F‘‘tips’’(wedge bond/stitch bond region of the innermost portion of the L/F.)2.11Reflective Acoustic Microscope An acoustic microscope that uses one transducer as both the pulser and receiver. (This is also known as a pulse/echo system.)See Figure5-Diagram of a Reﬂective Acoustic Microscope System.2.12Through Transmission Acoustic Microscope An acoustic microscope that transmits ultrasound completely through the sample from a sending transducer to a receiver on the opposite side.See Figure6-Diagram of a Through Transmis-sion Acoustic Microscope System.2April1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-0353IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999 3.1.6A broad band acoustic transducer with a center frequency in the range of10to200MHz for subsurface imaging.3.2Through Transmission Acoustic Microscope System(see Figure6)comprised of:3.2.1Items3.1.1to3.1.6above3.2.2Ultrasonic pulser(can be a pulser/receiver as in3.1.1)3.2.3Separate receiving transducer or ultrasonic detection system3.3Reference packages or standards,including packages with delamination and packages without delamination,for use during equipment setup.3.4Sample holder for pre-positioning samples.The holder should keep the samples from moving during the scan and maintain planarity.4PROCEDUREThis procedure is generic to all acoustic microscopes.For operational details related to this procedure that apply to a spe-ciﬁc model of acoustic microscope,consult the manufacturer’s operational manual.4.1Equipment Setup4.1.1Select the transducer with the highest useable ultrasonic frequency,subject to the limitations imposed by the media thickness and acoustic characteristics,package conﬁguration,and transducer availability,to analyze the interfaces of inter-est.The transducer selected should have a low enough frequency to provide a clear signal from the interface of interest.The transducer should have a high enough frequency to delineate the interface of interest.Note:Through transmission mode may require a lower frequency and/or longer focal length than reﬂective mode.Through transmission is effective for the initial inspection of components to determine if defects are present.4.1.2Verify setup with the reference packages or standards(see3.3above)and settings that are appropriate for the trans-ducer chosen in4.1.1to ensure that the critical parameters at the interface of interest correlate to the reference standard uti-lized.4.1.3Place units in the sample holder in the coupling medium such that the upper surface of each unit is parallel with the scanning plane of the acoustic transducer.Sweep air bubbles away from the unit surface and from the bottom of the trans-ducer head.4.1.4At aﬁxed distance(Z),align the transducer and/or stage for the maximum reﬂected amplitude from the top surface of the sample.The transducer must be perpendicular to the sample surface.4.1.5Focus by maximizing the amplitude,in the A-mode display,of the reﬂection from the interface designated for imag-ing.This is done by adjusting the Z-axis distance between the transducer and the sample.4.2Perform Acoustic Scans4.2.1Inspect the acoustic image(s)for any anomalies,verify that the anomaly is a package defect or an artifact of the imaging process,and record the results.(See Appendix A for an example of a check sheet that may be used.)To determine if an anomaly is a package defect or an artifact of the imaging process it is recommended to analyze the A-mode display at the location of the anomaly.4.2.2Consider potential pitfalls in image interpretation listed in,but not limited to,Appendix B and some of the limita-tions of acoustic microscopy listed in,but not limited to,Appendix C.If necessary,make adjustments to the equipment setup to optimize the results and rescan.4April1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035 4.2.3Evaluate the acoustic images using the failure criteria speciﬁed in other appropriate documents,such as J-STD-020.4.2.4Record the images and theﬁnal instrument setup parameters for documentation purposes.An example checklist is shown in Appendix D.5IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April19996April1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035Appendix AAcoustic Microscopy Defect Check Sheet(continued)CIRCUIT SIDE SCANImage File Name/PathDelamination(Type I)Die Circuit Surface/Encapsulant Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type II)Die/Die Attach Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type III)Encapsulant/Substrate Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type V)Interconnect tip Number Affected:Average%Interconnect Number Affected:Max.%Length(Type VI)Intra-Laminate Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center Comments:CracksAre cracks present:Yes NoIf yes:Do any cracks intersect:bond wire ball bond wedge bond tab bump tab leadDoes crack extend from leadﬁnger to any other internal feature:Yes NoDoes crack extend more than two-thirds the distance from any internal feature to the external surfaceof the package:Yes NoAdditional veriﬁcation required:Yes NoComments:Mold Compound VoidsAre voids present:Yes NoIf yes:Approx.size Location(if multiple voids,use comment section)Do any voids intersect:bond wire ball bond wedge bond tab bump tab lead Additional veriﬁcation required:Yes NoComments:7IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999Appendix AAcoustic Microscopy Defect Check Sheet(continued)NON-CIRCUIT SIDE SCANImage File Name/PathDelamination(Type IV)Encapsulant/Substrate Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type II)Substrate/Die Attach Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type V)Interconnect Number Affected:Max.%LengthLocation:Corner Edge Center (Type VI)Intra-Laminate Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center (Type VII)Heat Spreader Number Affected:Average%Location:Corner Edge Center Additional veriﬁcation required:Yes NoComments:CracksAre cracks present:Yes NoIf yes:Does crack extend more than two-thirds the distance from any internal feature to the external surfaceof the package:Yes NoAdditional veriﬁcation required:Yes NoComments:Mold Compound VoidsAre voids present:Yes NoIf yes:Approx.size Location(if multiple voids,use comment section)Additional veriﬁcation required:Yes NoComments:8Appendix BPotential Image PitfallsOBSERV ATIONS CAUSES/COMMENTSUnexplained loss of front surface signal Gain setting too lowSymbolization on package surfaceEjector pin knockoutsPin1and other mold marksDust,air bubbles,ﬁngerprints,residueScratches,scribe marks,pencil marksCambered package edgeUnexplained loss of subsurface signal Gain setting too lowTransducer frequency too highAcoustically absorbent(rubbery)ﬁllerLarge mold compound voidsPorosity/high concentration of small voidsAngled cracks in package‘‘Dark line boundary’’(phase cancellation)Burned molding compound(ESD/EOS damage)False or spotty indication of delamination Low acoustic impedance coating(polyimide,gel)Focus errorIncorrect delamination gate setupMultilayer interference effectsFalse indication of adhesion Gain set too high(saturation)Incorrect delamination gate setupFocus errorOverlap of front surface and subsurface echoes(transducerfrequency too low)Fluidﬁlling delamination areasApparent voiding around die edge Reﬂection from wire loopsIncorrect setting of void gateGraded intensity Die tilt or lead frame deformation Sample tiltApril1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-0359Appendix CSome Limitations of Acoustic MicroscopyAcoustic microscopy is an analytical technique that provides a non-destructive method for examining plastic encapsulated components for the existence of delaminations,cracks,and voids.This technique has limitations that include the following: LIMITATION REASONAcoustic microscopy has difficulty inﬁnding small defects if the package is too thick.The ultrasonic signal becomes more attenuated as a function of two factors:the depth into the package and the transducer fre-quency.The greater the depth,the greater the attenuation.Simi-larly,the higher the transducer frequency,the greater the attenu-ation as a function of depth.There are limitations on the Z-axis(axial)resolu-tion.This is a function of the transducer frequency.The higher the transducer frequency,the better the resolution.However,the higher frequency signal becomes attenuated more quickly as a function of depth.There are limitations on the X-Y(lateral)resolu-tion.The X-Y(lateral)resolution is a function of a number of differ-ent variables including:•Transducer characteristics,including frequency,element diam-eter,and focal length•Absorption and scattering of acoustic waves as a function of the sample material•Electromechanical properties of the X-Y stageIrregularly shaped packages are difficult to analyze.The technique requires some kind ofﬂat reference surface.Typically,the upper surface of the package or the die surfacecan be used as references.In some packages,cambered packageedges can cause difficulty in analyzing defects near the edgesand below their surfaces.Edge Effect The edges cause difficulty in analyzing defects near the edge ofany internal features.IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999 10April1999IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035Appendix DReference Procedure for Presenting Applicable Scanned DataMost of the settings described may be captured as a default for the particular supplier/product with speciﬁc changes recorded on a sample or lot basis.Setup Conﬁguration(Digital Setup File Name and Contents)Calibration Procedure and Calibration/Reference Standards usedTransducerManufacturerModelCenter frequencySerial numberElement diameterFocal length in waterScan SetupScan area(X-Y dimensions)Scan step sizeHorizontalVerticalDisplayed resolutionHorizontalVerticalScan speedPulser/Receiver SettingsGainBandwidthPulseEnergyRepetition rateReceiver attenuationDampingFilterEcho amplitudePulse Analyzer SettingsFront surface gate delay relative to trigger pulseSubsurface gate(if used)High passﬁlterDetection threshold for positive oscillation,negative oscillationA/D settingsSampling rateOffset settingPer Sample SettingsSample orientation(top or bottom(ﬂipped)view and location of pin1or some other distinguishing characteristic) Focus(point,depth,interface)Reference planeNon-default parametersSample identiﬁcation information to uniquely distinguish it from others in the same group11IPC/JEDEC J-STD-035April1999Appendix DReference Procedure for Presenting Applicable Scanned Data(continued) Reference Procedure for Presenting Scanned DataImageﬁle types and namesGray scale and color image legend deﬁnitionsSigniﬁcance of colorsIndications or deﬁnition of delaminationImage dimensionsDepth scale of TOFDeviation from true aspect ratioImage type:A-mode,B-mode,C-mode,TOF,Through TransmissionA-mode waveforms should be provided for points of interest,such as delaminated areas.In addition,an A-mode image should be provided for a bonded area as a control.12Standard Improvement FormIPC/JEDEC J-STD-035The purpose of this form is to provide the Technical Committee of IPC with input from the industry regarding usage of the subject standard.Individuals or companies are invited to submit comments to IPC.All comments will be collected and dispersed to the appropriate committee(s).If you can provide input,please complete this form and return to:IPC2215Sanders RoadNorthbrook,IL 60062-6135Fax 847509.97981.I recommend changes to the following:Requirement,paragraph number Test Method number,paragraph numberThe referenced paragraph number has proven to be:Unclear Too RigidInErrorOther2.Recommendations forcorrection:3.Other suggestions for document improvement:Submitted by:Name Telephone Company E-mailAddress City/State/ZipDate ASSOCIATION CONNECTING ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIESASSOCIATION CONNECTINGELECTRONICS INDUSTRIESISBN#1-580982-28-X2215 Sanders Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-6135Tel. 847.509.9700 Fax 847.509.9798。

Place of Articulation

A Phonetic Guide to the General Service ListLeah GILNER and Franc MORALESThis paper provides a phonetic description of the General Service List.Segmental, syllabic, and phonotactic characteristics are discussed and abun-dant examples are included. The data presented suggests that, in additionto lexical coverage, the General Service List also exhibits comprehensivephonetic coverage of the English language and, therefore, concrete potentialfor pronunciation training.The General Service List (GSL) was created by Michael West (1953) based on previous work by Lorge and Thorndike (1938). In its original form, the GSL includes 2,000 words with frequency and semantic information. Furthermore, those senses of each word that are statistically relevant are identifi ed and elaborated on. It should be noted that words on the GSL are considered headwords because they stand for a group of related forms (infl ections and derivations), what is nowadays commonly referred to as a word family.The GSL is perhaps best known for the coverage it provides of the English language. Specifi cally, almost 85% of the words in most writ-ten texts (Nation & Waring, 1997) and up to 95% of those in spoken texts (Adolphs & Schmitt, 2003; 2004) belong to word lists statistically equivalent to the GSL. The implications of this phenomenon have not been missed by language educators and researchers interested in vocabularylearning (Carter & McCarthy, 1988; Nation, 1990; Schmitt, 2000; West, 1953; Zimmerman, 1997).The ubiquity of GSL words and their signifi cant dominance over the entire lexicon in terms of occurrence means that, literally, most words heard and produced belong to the GSL. Consequently, educators and researchers interested in perception and production skills can benefi t from a description of the GSL in terms of phonetic content and coverage.This paper provides a phonetic characterization of a revised version of the GSL (B auman & Culligan, 1995) which contains 2,284 words. We will employ the Midwestern North American English (MWNAE) as the transcription model (Tables 1 & 2). The phonetic representation has been adapted from the articulatory descriptions provided in Ladefoged (2004) and O’Grady et al. (1993).We open the discussion with consonant and vowel segments. The phonetic inventory of the transcription model (MWNAE) contains 24 consonant types and 14 vowel types (including dipthongs). The question is: Do the GSL words contain instances of every consonant and vowel in the English phonetic inventory? Yes, they do. Since the 2,284 GSL words add up to 11,350 segments (4,055 vowel tokens, 7,295 consonant tokens), it comes as no surprise that all consonant and vowel segments are accounted for. Even more unusual sounds that appear in limited distribution across the English lexicon, such as /ʒ/ and /ʊ/, are present. For example, the voiced palatal fricative appears in eight GSL words (such as measure, garage, division) and 16 words (such as bush, pull, could) include the high back lax vowel.While it is reasonable to assume that many – if not most – sets composed of any random 2,284 words would include all consonants and vowels, it is not trivial to ask if the GSL contains enough minimal pairs from whichto deduce the entire phonetic inventory. Consonant and vowel segments are, after all, phonemic contrasts, that is, the basic elements of sound that distinguish lexical items from each other. Since a minimal pair (MP) consistsof two words with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment foundTable 1. Th e vowel system of MWNAE (sh aded areas = +round).Manner of ArticulationPlace of Articulation Bilabial Labial-dental Inter-dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive –voicep t k +voiceb d g Fricative –voicef θs ʃh +voicev ðz ʒAffricate –voicet ʃ+voiced ʒNasal +voicem n ŋLiquid lateral +voice lLiquid retrofl ex +voicer Glide +voice w jTable 2. Th e consonant system of MWNAE.in the same position in each word (Ladefoged, 2001), a comprehensive collection of MPs can be used to elicit the entire phonetic inventory. In the absence of MPs, near-MPs are used to identify contrasting segments. For instance, English does not have two words that contrast (constitute a MP) voiced-voiceless interdentals, (/ð/ vs. /θ/), or voiced-voiceless palatal fricatives, (/ʒ/ vs. /ʃ/). In this situation, the near-MPs either – author and azure – assure are used to establish the voicing contrast between these pairs of segments (O’Grady, 1993). In general, phoneticians use the minimal pair test to construct the phonetic inventory of a language by compiling sets of MPs and organizing the phonemic contrasts according to articulatory features.If it were necessary for all 24 consonants and 14 vowels in MWNAE to contrast in order for each of them to be identifi ed, we would need to fi nd at least 264 consonant MPs and 84 vowel MPs, one MP for each possible combination. However, this is not the case. While each segment does contrast with every other segment in the inventory, only those seg-ments that share enough articulatory features require a MP to establish their contrasting identity. The reason should be clear. Segments such as /v/ and /k/ are so dissimilar that their distinctiveness can be established without resorting to a MP. On the other hand, segments such as /d/ and /t/ share all articulatory features except voicing and, in fact, are not considered to be different segments in some languages. Therefore, MPs that differentiate similar segments are of particular interest.Does the GSL contain enough MPs from which to deduce the entire phonetic inventory of English? Yes, it does. In fact, the GSL words form a rich set of 2,870 MPs that illustrate 222 consonant contrasts and 85 vowel contrasts, including those MPs of special relevance. There are almost 2,100 MPs formed by consonant contrasts and about 700 MPs formed by vowelcontrasts. Most of the MPs are made by monosyllabic words and 961 out of the 1048 monosyllabic GSL words form at least one MP. Forty-fi ve of them participate in more than 15 MPs each. The maximal case, the word white, forms 22 MPs (namely with the words bite, fi ght, height, light, might, night, right, write, sight, tight, wait, weight, wet, what, wheat, while, wide, wife, wine, wipe, wire, and wise).Nearly all of the consonant segments contrast against each other and, importantly, GSL words illustrate the crucial contrasts between very similar segments, in particular those that differ in just one articulatory feature, such as voicing. The voicing contrast between the bilabial plosives /p/ – /b/, for example, is represented by nine MPs such as pack – back, pound – bound, push – bush. The alveolar plosive voicing contrast (/d/ – /t/) is exemplifi ed by 32 MPs including tie – dye, tip – dip, height – hide. Nine MPs serve to illustrate the voicing contrast between the velar stops /k/ – /g/ and examples include cap – gap, card – guard, class – glass. The voicing contrast that exists between the labialdental and alveolar fricatives is also established by the minimal pair test. Nine MPs, such as belief – believe, fail – veil, life – live, distinguish the labiodentals (/f/ – /v/) while fi ve pairs serve to distinguish the alveolar fricatives (/s/ – /z/), as in advice – advise, price – prize, rice – rise.Although the GSL words do not provide MPs that differentiate the in-terdental fricatives and the palatal affricates, near-MPs are present. Pairs like breath – breathe, bath – bathe, cloth – clothe serve to differentiate /θ/ and /ð/ while catch – cage, choose – juice illustrate the contrast that exists between /ʧ/ and /ʤ/.Consonant MPs also provide evidence of the functional contrast created by a difference in place and manner of articulation. Evidence of the contrast that exists across the bilabial – alveolar – velar nasal segments (/m/ – /n/– /ŋ/) is provided by words such as seem – scene – sing. The contrast between liquid lateral and retrofl ex segments (/r/ – /l/) is illustrated by 48 pairs of words, including examples such as rake – lake, read – lead, royal – loyal. Lastly, 15 MPs illustrate the distinction between the alveolar and palatal fricatives as in same – shame, save – shave, self – shelf.As with consonant segments, GSL words form suffi cient MPs to contrast vowel segments even between segments that share the majority of features – examples are the tense – lax pairs, namely /i/ – /ɪ/, /eɪ/ – /ɛ/, /oʊ/ – /ɔ/, and /u/ – /ʊ/. Sixteen MPs differentiate the high-front pair and 11 the mid-front pair as in beat – bit, reach – rich and age – edge, date – debt, respectively. The mid-back contrast is exemplifi ed by eight MPs such as road – rod, sew – saw and the high-back distinction by 2 pairs, namely, fool – full and pool – pull.Of particular relevance in the MWNAE dialect, there are MPs in the GSL that contrast the mid central vowel schwa, /ə/, with all but one of the other vowel segments. Evidence of this intra-systemic contrast is important because non-stressed vowels are usually reduced to schwa in MWNAE. Examples of schwa contrasting with front vowels include hut – heat, hut – hit, hut – hate, what – wet, hut – hat. Instances where schwa contrasts with back vowels include hut – hot, lung – long, cut – coat, luck – look, shut – shoot and pairs differentiating schwa and diphthongs include shut – shout, hut – height.The description so far has characterized the GSL words in terms of individual segments. We now turn our attention to types of consonant clusters and how they combine to form syllables.All languages abide by certain parameters (phonotactic constraints) when it comes to consonant cluster sequences and syllable shapes. These param-eters pertain not only to the type of consonants involved in clusters butalso to the location in a syllable where certain sequences occur (before or after the nucleus). More importantly, each language is characterized by a distinct collection of patterns. Speakers of English – or any other language – learn these patterns unconsciously and, when confronted with unknown words, are able to recognize these as belonging to English according to previous exposure to English-specifi c patterns of sounds. In other words, we base our decision on our understanding of language-specifi c phonotactic constraints. Consequently, it is important to keep in mind that learning a language implies learning its phonotactic constraints.Phonotactic constraints are, therefore, used to describe the language-specifi c distributional restrictions that apply to syllable structure and its constituents, generally described in terms of the onset, nucleus, and coda. The onset refers to the consonant segments that come before the vowel or vowels (commonly called the nucleus) and the coda refers to the consonant segments that follow the nucleus. In English, onsets and codas can contain from 0 to 3 consonant segments before adding any kind of affi xation. Kreidler (1997) explains that onset cluster sequences in English are shaped by the following parameters. When two segments occur in the onset, they tend to follow the scale of sonority; the most sonorant being closest to the nucleus. Thus, an obstruent (plosive or fricative) may be followed by a sonorant consonant (liquid, glide, nasal) and a nasal may be followed by a glide as in C + (r,l), C + (w,j), C + (n,m), C n + (w,j) sequences. Specifi cally, combinations of the following occur in English: (p,b,t,d,k,g,f,θ,s,ʃ,v,h) + (r,l), (t,d,k,g,θ,s,v,h) + (w,j), (s) + (n,m), and (m,n) + (w,j). Thus, bisegmental onset clusters beginning with a plosive are /pr/ – /pl/ – /pj/ – /br/ – /bl/ – /bj/ – /tr/ – /tw/ – /dr/ – /dw/ – /kr/ – /kl/ – /kw/ – /kj/ – /gr/ – /gl/ – /gw/ – /gj/; bisegmental onset clusters beginning with a fricative are /fr/ – /fl/ – /θr/ – /θw/ – /sp/ – /st/ – /sf/ – /sk/ – /sl/ – /sw/– /sn/ – /sm/ – /ʃr/ – /vj/ – /hj/; bisegmental onset clusters beginning with a liquid or nasal are /mj/ – /nj/ – /lj/. Trisegmental onset clusters are /spr/ – /spl/ – /spj/ – /str/ – /skr/ – skl/ – /skw/ – /skj/.The 4,056 syllables (2,005 unique types) that form the GSL words contain instances of 38 out of 44 possible onset cluster types. All but one of the 18 bisegmental onset cluster types beginning with a plosive are exemplifi ed by GSL words such as approve, applaud, pupil, brain, blame, beauty, hatred, twist, drawer, cream, clay, liquid, cure, agree, glory, language, fi gure. Most of the bisegmental cluster types that start with a fricative (12 out of 15) are exemplifi ed by words like frame, fl avor, throw, despair, beast, scale, sweeten, snow, smoke, review, human. Additionally, GSL words illustrate all of the bisegmental cluster types that begin with a liquid or nasal (as in music, opinion, failure) and six out of eight of the trisegmental combinations (as in spring, splendid, strap, scrape, square, rescue).It is worth noting that the missing clusters (/dw/, /θw/, /sf/, /ʃr/, /spj/, and /skl/) appear in very limited distribution across the lexicon at large. Searches through a monolingual English dictionary containing more than 150,000 entries reveal that: the cluster /dw/ is restricted to words such as dwarf, Dwight, and dwindle; the cluster /θw/ is found only in words related to thwart; the cluster /sf/ appears in words such as sphere, asphalt, asphyxia, and other scientifi c terms like phosphate; the cluster /ʃr/ is limited to words related to shrimp, shrew, and shrink; the cluster /spj/ is found in words related to spew; and the cluster /skl/ appears in words relating to biology and medicine such as sclerosis, caiman sclerops, and sclera. Coda clusters tend to be comprised of similar constituents as onset clus-ters but the ordering is reversed. This tendency is also attributed to the scale of sonority which, as mentioned, states that more sonorant sounds will be closer to the nucleus. According to Kreidler (1997) constraints onEnglish coda clusters are outlined as follows: bisegmental codas may be comprised of 2 voiceless obstruents (including /s/ or /t/ or both), /r/ + /l/, and liquid/nasal + obstruent as well as a voiced stop + a voiced fricative; trisegmental coda clusters yield liquid/nasal + 2 voiceless obstruents (al-ways including /s/ or /t/) as well as clusters composed of three obstruent segments. Thus, bisegmental coda clusters beginning with a plosive are /pt/ – /ps/ – /dz/ – /ts/ – /kt/ – /ks/; bisegmental clusters beginning with a fricative are /sp/ – /st/ – /sk/; bisegmental clusters beginning with a liquid retrofl ex are /rp/ – /rb/ – /rm/ – /rt/ – /rd/ – /rn/ – /rθ/ – /rf/ – /rv/ – /rs/ – /rz/ – /rl/ – /rʃ/ – /rtʃ/ – /rk/ – /rg/; bisegmental clusters beginning with a liquid lateral are /lp/ – /lb/ – /lm/ – /ln/ – /lt/ – /ld/ – /ln/ – /lθ/ – /lf/ – /lv/ – /ls/ – /lʃ/ – /ltʃ/ – /lʤ/ – /lk/; bisegmental coda clusters beginning with a nasal are /mp/ – /mf/ – /nt/ – /nd/ – /nθ/ – /ns/ – /nz/ – /ntʃ/ – /nʤ/ – /ŋk/; and a single bisegmental coda cluster composed of voiced stop + voiced fricative, /dz/. Trisegmental coda clusters beginning with a plosive are /dst/ – /kst/; trisegmental coda clusters beginning with a liquid are /rps/ – /rmθ/ – /rts/ – /rst/ – /rld/; trisegmental coda clusters beginning with a nasal are /mpt/ – /mps/ – /nst/ – /ŋkt/ – /ŋks/ – /ŋst/. Kreidler (1989) makes the observation that there is only one word in the entire English lexicon that has a coda consisting of three voiced segments; this one word – world – is included in the GSL.The GSL words contain instances of 38 of the 50 bisegmental coda clusters and 7 of the 13 trisegmental. Examples of bisegmental codas beginning with a plosive are adopt, perhaps, besides, district, wax; examples of those beginning with a fricative are boast, risk; examples beginning with a liquid retrofl ex are sharp, verb, charm, cart, card, burn, earth, observe, coarse, deserve, pearl, march, cork; examples beginning with a liquid lateral are help, fi lm, fault, child, wealth, self, solve, false, silk; examples beginningwith a nasal are damp, agent, band, month, dance, translate, lunch, orange, drink. Trisegmental coda cluster types beginning with a plosive, a liquid, or nasal are exemplifi ed by next – warmth, fi rst, world – prompt, against, and amongst, respectively.Eighteen coda sequences are not present among the GSL words. This number, however, is somewhat misleading because six of them would be found among GSL word family members (which are implicitly included in the GSL). These 6 missing coda clusters are used to construct plural/third person forms and include fi nal voiced or voiceless alveolar fricatives – /ts/, /bz/, /rts/, /mps/, /ŋks/. Plural/third person forms of headwords such as permit, rub, part, stamp, think illustrate these consonant combinations. The sixth missing cluster, /ŋkt/, is illustrated by the past participle form of the GSL headword rank. If these six clusters are included, GSL words illustrate 51 out of 63 of the coda clusters used in English. As with the absent onset clusters, dictionary searches indicate that the remainder of the missing coda combinations occur in very limited distribution in the English lexicon as a whole.Summing up, the question is: Does the GSL contain instances of all onset and coda consonant clusters? The majority of clusters are accounted for directly especially if implicit family members are also taken into account. We arrive at a total of 38 out of 44 (86.3%) onset clusters and 51 out of 63 (81%) coda clusters manifested throughout the GSL. In short, the range and number of consonant clusters present in the GSL are suffi cient to deduce the phonotactics of English.There is one fi nal question: Does the GSL exhibit the range of English syllable shapes? Yes, if infl ected forms are taken into consideration. In general terms, English syllables shapes are determined by they type of vowel in the nucleus – free or checked. B oth types of vowels can be precededby 0 to 3 consonants but free vowels are followed by 0 to 2 consonants and checked vowels are followed by 1 to 3 consonants (Kreidler, 1989; 1997). The GSL headwords instantiate all but one of the possible syllable shapes. The exception is the CCCVCCC shape although this shape would be illustrated by infl ected forms of headwords such as the plural of strength which is in the GSL.The purpose of this paper has been to present a phonetic guide to the GSL. The observations made here indicate that this set of words provides a comprehensive representation of certain aspects of the phonetics English language. In particular, all phonetic segments are exemplifi ed by the GSL and can be deduced via minimal pair contrasts. Additionally, the diversity of consonant cluster types and syllable shapes proves suffi cient to extract the phonotactic constraints of the entire language.From a language learning perspective, this phonetic guide implies that explicit and intentional exposure to this restricted set of words alone can provide speakers with suffi cient evidence from which to construct the phonetic inventory of English and from which to generate the parameters of its distributive properties.With this in mind, we can say that the GSL provides comprehensive phonetic coverage of the English language in addition to its well-established vocabulary coverage. It all translates into an empirically and pedagogi-cally-sound basis for use in exemplifi cation in pronunciation training. Of crucial relevance, the use of the GSL imposes no constraints or special pedagogical demands (quite the opposite), making it a seamless addition to any established teaching method whether targeting segmental discrimination skills (Celce-Murcia, 1996; Cross, 1992; Dalton & Seidlehoffer, 1994), focusing on functional load (Catford, 1987; Derwing & Munro, 2005),illustrating suprasegmental processes (Gilbert, 1993), or working on com-municative aspects that combine the segmental and beyond (Fraser, 2000; Kjellin, 1999; Morley, 1999; Neufeld, 1978).The development of materials suitable for pronunciation (and vocabulary) training is not without diffi culty. To this end, we are making available a number of resources that have proven useful to us. First of all, the GSL as well as the list of GSL MPs can be downloaded from the internet (http:// ). Also on this site, the following software is of relevance: Ichos-GSL, an application that contains the full transcription of the GSL employed in this paper and that makes it possible to carry out relatively sophisticated classifi cations of GSL headwords according to phonetic and orthographic criteria; Transcripteur, an application designed to simplify the task of creating, maintaining, and managing collections of phonetic transcriptions; BVProfi ler, an uncomplicated, fully automatic, vocabulary profi ler; TheScribe, an application that integrates a word proces-sor and a word list manager into a real-time vocabulary profi ler engine. All these software titles are free to download and use.The data and fi ndings upon which this phonetic guide of the GSL is based come from a study that will be published in full in due course.ReferencesAdolphs, S., & Schmitt, N. (2003). Lexical coverage of spoken discourse. Applied Linguistics 24, 425–438.Adolphs, S. & Schmitt, N. (2004). V ocabulary coverage according to spoken context. In: P. B ogaards, P., Laufer, B. (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language. John B enjamins Publishing, Amsterdam, pp 39–49.Bauman, J., Culligan, B. 1995. About the General Service List. Retrieved September 21, 2006, from /aboutgsl.html.Carter, R., McCarthy, M., 1988. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. Longman,London.Catford, J.C., 1987. Phonetics and the teaching of pronunciation. In: Morley, J. (Ed.) Current Perspectives on Pronunciation: Practices Anchored in Theory, TESOL, Washington, D.C., pp. 83–100.Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D.M., Goodwin, J.M., 1996. Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Cross, D., 1992. A Practical Handbook of Language Teaching. Prentice Hall, Lon-don.Dalton, C., Seidlehoffer, B., 1994. Pronunciation. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Derwing, T.M., Munro, M., 2005. Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach, TESOL Quarterly 39 (3), 379–398.Fraser, H., 2000. Tips for teaching pronunciation: Recording students’ voices. ATESOL Journal, ACT and NSW.Gilbert, J., 1993. Clear Speech: Pronunciation and Listening Comprehension in North American English (2nd ed., Teacher’s Resource Book). Cambridge University Press, New York.Kjellin, O., 1999. Accent addition: Prosody and perception facilitates second lan-guage learning. In: Fujimura, O., Joseph, B.D., Palek, B. (Eds.), Proceedings of Linguistics and Phonetics Conference ’98 at Ohio State University, The Karolinum Press, Prague, pp. 373–398.Kreidler, C., 1989. The Pronunciation of English: A Course B ook in Phonology, B lackwell, Oxford.Kreidler, C., 1997. Describing Spoken English: An Introduction, Routledge, Lon-don.Ladefoged, P., 2001. A Course in Phonetics, fourth ed., Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York.Ladefoged, P., 2004. V owels and Consonants, second ed., B lackwell, Oxford. Lorge, I., Thorndike, E.L., 1938. A Semantic Count of English Words. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.Morley, J. 1999. Rapid Review of V owel & Prosodic Contexts. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Nation, P., 1990. Teaching and Learning V ocabulary. Newbury House, B oston.Nation, I.S.P., 2001. Learning V ocabulary in Another Language, Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Nation, P., Waring, R., 1997. Vocabulary size, text coverage, and word lists. In: Schmitt, N., McCarthy, M. (Eds), 1997. V ocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 6–19.Neufeld, G. 1978. On the acquisition of prosodic and articulatory features in adult language learning. The Canadian Modern Language Review 34, 163–174.O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., Aronoff, M., 1993. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction, second ed., St. Martin’s Press. NY.Schmitt, N., 2000. V ocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.West, M., 1953. A General Service List of English Words. Longman, London. Zimmerman, C.B., 1997. Historical trends in second language vocabulary instruc-tion. In: Coady, J., Huckin, T. (Eds.), Second Language V ocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 5–19.。

语言学考试整理名词解释

1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .4.Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human languagethat tell the difference between human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings ofmind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwords is called morphology.9.Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.10.P honology：Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 11.P honeme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme；it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact，a phoneme is nota sound；it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.12.A llophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.13.I nternational phonetic alphabet：It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.14.I ntonation:When pitch，stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation，they are collectively known as intonation.15.P honetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages16.A uditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point ofview. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.17.A coustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the soundwaves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.18.P hone:Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.19.P honemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning，they are in phonemic contrast.20.T one：Tones are pitch variations，which are caused by the differing ratesof vibration of the vocal cords.21.M inimal pair：When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings，the two words are said to form a minimal pair.22.M orphology：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.23.I nflectional morphology：The inflectional morphology studies the inflections24.D erivational morphology：Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.25.M orpheme：It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.26.F ree morpheme：Free morphemes are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.27.B ound morpheme：Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot beused independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.28.R oot：A root is often seen as part of a word；it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear，definite meaning；it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.29.A ffix：Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational. Inflectionalaffixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories，while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.30.P refix：Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify themeaning of the stem，but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.31.S uffix：Suffixes are added to the end of the stems；they modify themeaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.32.D erivation：Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivativeaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.33.C ompounding：Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two orsometimes more than two words to create new words.34.S yntax：Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structureof language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35.S entence： A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement，question or command. Normally， a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.36.C oordinate sentence：A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined bya linking word called coordinating conjunction，such as "and"，"but"，"or".37.S yntactic categories：Apart from sentences and clauses， a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word （called a lexical category）or a phrase （called a phrasal category）that performs a particular grammatical function.38.G rammatical relations：The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases，grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.39.L inguistic competence：Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages，syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.40.T ransformational rules：Transformational rules are the rules that transformone sentence type into another type.41.D-structure：D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that existsbefore movement takes place. Phrase structure rules，with the insertion of the lexicon，generate sentences at the level of D-structure.42.S emantics：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning inlanguage.43.S ense：Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form；it is abstract and de -contextualized.44.R eference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience45.S ynonymy：Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity ofmeaning.46.P olysemy：Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may havemore than one meaning.47.H omonymy：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form，i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling，or in both.48.H omophones：When two words are identical in sound，they are calledhomophones.49.H omographs：When two words are identical in spelling，they arehomographs.50.C omplete homonyms：When two words are identical in both sound andspelling，they are called complete homonyms.51.H yponymy：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a moregeneral，more inclusive word and a more specific word.52.A ntonymy：Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.53.C omponential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze wordmeaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features.54.T he grammatical meaning：The grammatical meaning of a sentence refersto its grammaticality，i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.55.P redication：The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.56.A rgument：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It isgenerally identical with the nominal element （s）in a sentence.57.P redicate：A predicate is something that is said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.58.T wo-place predication：A two-place predication is one which contains twoarguments.59.P ragmatics：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of alanguage use sentences to effect successful communication.60.C ontext：Generally speaking，it consists of the knowledge that is shared bythe speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types：theknowledge of the language they use，and the knowledge about the world，including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.61.U tterance meaning：The meaning of an utterance is concrete，andcontext-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning；it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication，or simply in a context.62.S entence meaning：The meaning of a sentence is often considered as theabstract，intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.63.C onstative：Constatives were statements that either state or describe，andwere verifiable.64.P erformative：performatives，on the other hand，were sentences that didnot state a fact or describe a state，and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.65.L ocutionary act：A locutionary act is the act of uttering words，phrases，clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax，lexicon and phonology.66.I llocutionary act：An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker'sintention；it is the act performed in saying something.67.P erlocutionary act：A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resultingfrom saying something；it is the consequence of，or the change brought about by the utterance；it is the act performed by saying something. 68.C ooperative Principle：It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principlethat guides our conversational behaviours. The content is：Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.69.S ociolinguistics：Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.70.S peech community：The social group isolated for any given study is calledthe speech community or a speech community is a group of people who forma community and share the same language or a particular variety oflanguage. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must，in some reasonable way，interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties，as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.71.S peech variety：Speech variety，also known as language variety，refersto any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical，phonological，morphological，syntactic，or a combination of linguistic features.72.L anguage planning：Language standardization is known as languageplanning. This means that certain authorities，such as the government or government agency of a country，choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it，including its pronunciation and spelling systems，across regional boundaries.73.I diolect：An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional，social，and stylistic variation，in one form or another. In a narrower sense，what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality，pitch and speech rhythm，which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual's speech.74.S tandard language：The standard language is a superposed，sociallyprestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system，used by the mass media，and taught in educational institutions，including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.75.N onstandard language：Language varieties other than the standard arecalled nonstandard languages.76.L ingua franca：A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as amedium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.77.P idgin：A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by nativespeakers of other languages as a medium of communication.78.C reole：A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become establishedas a native language in some speech community.79.D iglossia：Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very differentvarieties of language co-exist in a speech community，each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.80.B ilingualism：Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which twostandard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers，such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.81.E thnic dialect：Within a society，speech variation may come about becauseof different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language，often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation，such as racial discrimination or segregation. 82.S ociolect：Social dialects，or sociolects，are varieties of language used bypeople belonging to particular social classes.83.R egister：Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use inparticular speech situations，in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.Format reason，registers are also known as situational dialects.84.S lang：Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive butnon-standard vocabulary，typically of arbitrary，flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.85.T aboo：Taboo，or rather linguistic taboo，denotes any prohibition by thepolite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.86.E uphemism：A euphemism，then，is a mild，indirect or less offensive wordor expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh，unpleasantly direct，or offensive.。

新编简明英语语言学教程PPT课件284页PPT

Language is symbolic in nature
Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”---Shakespeare
language for special purpose, colloquial language) the abstract system underlying the totality of the
speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language) the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language) a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. (rule-governed)
A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.
To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on
linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic

Exercise 2-2含答案

6
phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. 7. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8. rounded vowel: one of the criteria used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. If a vowel is pronounced with the lips rounded, then the vowel in question is a rounded vowel.
Ⅴ. 根据国际音标做出语音描述
1.[t] voiceless alveolar stop 2.[d] voiced alveolar stop 3.[m] bilabial nasal 4.[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel 5.[u] high back lax rounded vowel 6.[a] low back tense unrounded vowel

语言学—戴炜栋（自己整理的）

语言学——戴炜栋（牟杨译本的学习指南）重要人物汇总 1. Ferdinand de Saussure 索绪尔 the founding father of modern structural linguistics 现代结构
主义语言学创始人 ●提出语言 language 和言语 speech 的区别 ●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory. 2. Noam Chomsky 乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar 生成语法创始人 ●提出关于语言能力 competence 与语言运用 performance 的区分概念 ●1957 年提出转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar 简作 TG Grammar 的研
6.英语语音的分类(the classification of English speech sounds) 英语元音和辅音的本质区别：发元音(vowel)时气流从肺部出来的气流没有受到任何阻塞。在辅音(consonants)发出的过程中气流受到了这样或那样的阻塞。㈠辅音的两种划分标准：发音方式（Manners of articulation）、发音部位（Places of articulation）和【清浊特征】
15.
中存储的词语-形象 word-image 的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
Parole（言语）：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 actual use of
language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体

phonemic contrast语言学定义

Phonemic contrast语言学定义Phonemic contrast是语言学中一个重要的概念，它指的是在一种语言中不同的音素（phoneme）之间的对比。

音素是语言中的基本音位，是构成单词和语音的最小单位。

而phonemic contrast则是指在一种语言中，不同的音素在特定的环境下能够区分不同的词义。

在许多语言中，音素之间的对比是非常重要的，因为它决定了某些词的意义。

在语言学研究中，对phonemic contrast的研究可以帮助我们更好地理解语言的结构和演变。

在实际的语言中，phonemic contrast通常是以一种音位的替换来实现的。

这意味着在特定的语音环境下，一个音素可以被另一个音素替代，从而改变一个词的意义。

这种现象在许多语言中都是非常普遍的。

在英语中，“p” 和“b” 是两个不同的音素，它们之间有明显的对比关系。

在很多情况下，当一个单词中的“p”被替换成“b”时，会改变这个单词的意义。

这就是phonemic contrast的一个典型例子。

另外，phonemic contrast还与语音的调音特点有关。

在一些语言中，不同的音节重音位置不同，这就会导致不同的音素对比关系。

在汉语中，“shi” 和“si” 这两个音节的对比就与声调有关。

一个音节的声调可以改变这个音节的意义，这就是phonemic contrast在语音调音特点中的体现。

对于语言学研究者来说，phonemic contrast是一个非常重要的研究领域。

通过研究不同语言中的phonemic contrast，可以更好地理解不同语言的语音特点，有助于语言比较研究和语言学习。

对phonemic contrast的研究还有助于理解语言演化的过程，探讨语音的起源和发展。

phonemic contrast是语言学中一个重要的概念，它关乎语言中音素之间的对比关系，对于理解语言结构和比较不同语言有着重要的意义。

通过对phonemic contrast的研究，我们可以更好地了解语言的形成和演变，对语言学的发展有着重要的意义。

GaAs_光阴极像增强器的选通特性

第 31 卷第 17 期2023 年 9 月Vol.31 No.17Sept. 2023光学精密工程Optics and Precision EngineeringGaAs光阴极像增强器的选通特性李冬*，杨凯翔，盛亮，李阳，段宝军，张美（强脉冲辐射环境模拟与效应国家重点实验室（西北核技术研究所），陕西西安 710024）摘要：针对GaAs光阴极像增强器在ns级选通成像中的时空特性，通过引入传输线阻抗完善了光阴极径向RLC传输模型，更准确地描述了选通过程中光快门的变化趋势，实验证实去除防离子反馈膜有利于改善光快门，使得光快门与电快门更为一致，在驱动电脉冲宽度为17.7 ns时，光快门宽度与电快门宽度的差异仅为1.1 ns；基于蒙特卡罗模拟方法，建立了光电子在分段线性快门脉冲电压驱动下经过第一近贴后的空间弥散模型，模拟结果表明：GaAs光阴极相较于S20光阴极在选通成像中的空间分辨下降更小。

在20 lp/mm时，GaAs的动态空间分辨是静态空间分辨的80%，而S20光阴极不足70%，理论模拟与实验结果相一致，所建立的模型可用来分析和优化像增强器结构参数，为优化选通成像性能提供理论依据。

关键词：GaAs光阴极；选通特性；动态空间分辨；像增强器中图分类号：O462.3 文献标识码：A doi：10.37188/OPE.20233117.2505Gating characteristics of GaAs photocathode image intensifier LI Dong*，YANG Kaixiang，SHENG Liang，LI Yang，DUAN Baojun，ZHANG Mei （State Key Laboratory of Intense Pulsed Radiation Simulation and Effect（NorthwestInstitute ofNuclear Technology）， Xi’an 710024， China）* Corresponding author， E-mail： lidong@Abstract： Considering the spacetime characteristics of the GaAs photocathode image intensifier in ns-level gated imaging， this study undertakes a theoretical simulation and experimental validation. For theoretical simulation， the radial RLC transmission model of the photocathode is enhanced by incorporating transmis⁃sion line impedance. This refinement enables a more accurate description of the optical shutter's behavior during the gating process.Experimental evidence confirms that removing the anti-ion feedback film en⁃hances the optical shutter， aligning it closely with the electric shutter. Specifically， when the driving elec⁃tric pulse width is 17.7 ns， the difference between the optical shutter width and the electric shutter width is merely 1.1 ns. For experimental validation， a spatial dispersion model of photoelectrons， driven by a seg⁃mented linear shutter pulse voltage after the first close attachment，is established using the Monte Carlo simulation method. Simulation outcomes indicate that the spatial resolution degradation of the GaAs photo⁃cathode in gating imaging is inferior to that of the S20 photocathode. At a spatial resolution of 20-line pairs per millimeter （lp/mm）， GaAs maintains 80% of its static spatial resolution， whereas the corresponding figure for the S20 photocathode is less than 70%.Notably，the theoretical simulation aligns seamlessly with the experimental results， affirming the applicability of the model for analyzing and optimizing image 文章编号1004-924X（2023）17-2505-10收稿日期：2023-03-02；修订日期：2023-04-04.基金项目：卓越青年基金资助项目（No.JQZQ021901）；国家自然科学基金资助项目（No.12175183）第 31 卷光学精密工程intensifier structural parameters. This model serves as a foundational framework for enhancing gating im⁃aging performance.Key words： GaAs photocathode； gating characteristics； dynamic spatial resolution； image intensifier1 引言对电爆炸、Z箍缩、惯性约束聚变等超快过程的研究［1-3］，促进了超快成像的发展。

英语语言学考试重点题型

第一章Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.7. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de SaussureⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Chomsky defi nes “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.2. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.5. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.6. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.第二章1.V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.4.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.5.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.6.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.1.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords2.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. V oicedC. vowelD. consonantal3．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/4. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar5. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair6.The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative7. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle8. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features9. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme10.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones第三章1. The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2. The compound word “mother wit”refers to inborn wit. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.3. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.4. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words5. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme6. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic7. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.8. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes9. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A.WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences10. “-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.第四章Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.1. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command.3. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.4. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.5. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.6._______ relation is a kind of relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.7. The technique of breaking up sentences into smaller units by making successive binary cutting is called _______.1. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory6. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical7. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite8. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational9._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structure第五章1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d_______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.2. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.4. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.5. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.6. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.7. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.8. According to the n______ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.True or False1. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.2. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.3. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reducemeaning to observable contexts.4. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.6. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.Of the following pairs of sentences, say whether a entails b in each case.a: John is a bachelor. b: John is a man.a: Eliza plays the fiddle. b: Someone plays a musical instrument.a: I’ve done my homework. b: I haven’t brushed my teeth.a: Some of the students came to my party. b: Not all of the students came to my party.a: Mary owns three canaries. b: Mary owns a canary.a: John picked a tulip. b: John didn’t pick a rose.第六章1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.13. _________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes _______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.15. The notion of _________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an ___________.17.The meaning of a sentence is _______, and decontextualized.18. ________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.19. ________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.20. A _________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.21. An __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.22. A _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.23. An ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.24.There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive30. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century.32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act33. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.B 31.A 32.C 33.D。

《语言学导论》重点整理

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

单频激光干涉仪非线性误差修正方法

单频激光干涉仪非线性误差修正方法卢明臻;高思田;施玉书;崔建军;杜华【摘要】提出了一种谐波分离的干涉仪信号处理方法,利用傅里叶级数对校准信号进行最小二乘拟合得到修正模型.该方法适合于消除干涉信号中引起非线性误差的各种谐波成分.通过将修正分为初始相位计算和精确相位计算,可以使单频激光干涉仪的非线性误差修正达到最优化.模拟验证结果表明,当噪音信号幅度为基波信号幅度的5%时,残余误差的幅度约为±1 nm;而当噪音为0.5%时,残余误差约为±0.1 nm.【期刊名称】《计量学报》【年(卷),期】2010(031)004【总页数】5页(P289-293)【关键词】计量学;激光干涉仪;非线性误差修正;傅里叶级数;最小二乘法【作者】卢明臻;高思田;施玉书;崔建军;杜华【作者单位】中国计量科学研究院,北京,100013;中国计量科学研究院,北京,100013;中国计量科学研究院,北京,100013;中国计量科学研究院,北京,100013;中国计量科学研究院,北京,100013【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TB921 引言伴随着纳米技术、微电子技术和MEMS的发展，对尺寸和位移测量的精度要求越来越高。

例如美国国家标准技术研究院(NIST)的Teague认为，在集成电路工业中，当线宽将于2014年达到50 nm以下时，国家级计量院应能保证达到0.4 nm的测量精度[1]。

激光干涉仪使用光波的波长作为基本刻度，其测量结果可以直接溯源到米定义波长基准，是长度计量中最为广泛使用的基准测量仪器。

干涉仪的误差来源主要为激光波长的精度、测量噪音和非线性误差。

当激光干涉仪作为纳米计量仪器的测量基准时，为了保证0.4 nm的线宽测量精度，其测量不确定度应达到0.1 nm。

此时非线性误差就成为了干涉仪的最主要的误差来源。

单频激光干涉仪的非线性误差是以λ/2为周期的周期性误差，主要是由相位混叠产生的。

产生相位混叠主要原因是：(1)干涉仪中的波片、分光镜等光学零件均非理想元件，如偏振分光镜不可能将两束偏振光100%的分离、各表面的反射损失、波片的相位延迟误差等；(2)干涉仪的调整不够理想，参考光和测量光的光束不能够完全同轴；(3)光电转换器的非线性。

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