TestTwoPhonetics and Phonology
Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics and PhonologyKey words: phonetics, phonology, introduction, difference, relationship, IPA, Consonants, Vowels,Phone, Phoneme, Allophone, Minimal Pair,Phonological RulesIntroductions of Phonetics and Phonology1. PhoneticsPhonetics and phonology are two branches of linguistics that deal primarily with the structure of human language sounds. Without them we will live as deaf or dumb. Phonetics is about the production of sounds, including the production of sound, that is how speech sounds a re actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds. The study of sounds is divided into three main areas: Articulator Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics and Perceptual Phonetics. Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.It approache s speech on different levels. “At one level, it studies organs such as tongue and larynx and their function in the production of speech. At another level, it focuses on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulator phonetics. It also investigates the properties of the sound waves—acoustic phonetics. As speech is intended to be hard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave—auditory phonetics.Study of Phonetics, we…d better know something about the speech organs. For example, their places their function during an air stream producing speech sounds and so on. The knowledge of speech organs can help us in the further learning of PhoneticsThe most important part of Phonetics is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which analyses the speech sound in two ways—“the manners of articulation and the places of articulation”. IPA is the basic part of the lear ning of Phonology, too. We can‟t learn consonants without it. There are some important consonants which we should remember their place in IPA, such as [p] voiceless bilabial plosive; [d] voiced alveolar plosive; [f] voiceless labiodentals fricative and so no, especially the English consonants.----Consonants:In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. The categoriesof consonant are established on the basis of several factors: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, known as the manner of articulation; and where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of air, known as the place of articulation. The manner of articulation: stop [p, b, t, d, k, g], nasal [m, n], fricative [f, v, si], approximant [w, j], lateral [l], trill [r], tap and flap, affricate [ts, dz, tr, dr]. The place of articulation: bilabial [p, b, m], labiodentals [f, v], dental, alveolar [t, d, n, s, z], post alveolar, retroflex, palatal [j], velar [k, g], uvular, pharyngeal, glottal [h]. Description: Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs.②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished.③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. Voiceless--Vowels:A vowel is a sound in spoken language pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel. In all languages, vowels form the nucleus or peak of syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and (in languages which have them) coda. However, some languages also allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable. The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:①the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);②the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);③the length or tenseness of the vowels (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);④the lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)2. PhonologyPhonology is about sound patterns. “It deals with the sound system of language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes”.Another thing we should know is that the sound segments can be grouped into consonants and vowels. V owels are the speech sound made without audible stopping of the breath by the tongue, lips and so on.-- Phone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It‟s a phonetic unit or segment (in the mouth). Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription). Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.--Phoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. It‟s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit. Phonemes are placed in slashes “//” (phonemic transcription)--Allophone: when we have a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme. One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.--Minimal Pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling. Three requirements for a minimal pair:①same number of segment②one phonetic difference in the same place③different meaning--Phonological RulesThe rules contain three parts: class of sounds affected; phonetic change; phonemic environment. There are several rules. Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant. Nasalize vowels before nasals. An alveolar stop becomes a flap when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by an unstressed vowel. Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable. They are called nasalization rule, tantalization rule, and valorization rule and so on. Egg. Voiced fricaive→voiceless /__ voiceless.Difference between Phonetics and PhonologyHowever, there is difference between them. And they focus on different areas.Phonetics focuses on the physical manifestations of speech sounds and on theories of speech production and perception.Phonology is concerned with the systems of rules (or constraints) that determine how the sounds of a language combine and influence one another.For an example: in [leap] and [peel], in phonetics, we focus on the [l].In [leap],[l] is a clear sound. However, in [peel], the [l] is a dark sound. In phonology, we focus on the letters and their positions.The relationship between Phonetics and PhonologyAlthough they have difference, they influent each other in some degree.Phonetics is the basic part Phonology when we learn linguistics. As we learn Phonology step by step we can find it connects with Phonetics closely. For example, consonants and vowels belong to the categories of Phonology, while the ways of telling or naming them bases on the principles of Phonetics.First, we learn consonants by using IPA which belongs to Phonetics. From the definition of consonants we know that realizing how to pronounce them is the best way for us to learn them well. That means we should know enough knowledge about both the organs and the manners of articulation. “In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. The most important factors that the categories of consonants are established on are a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which their passes through certain parts of the vocal tract—the manners of articulation and b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air-- the places of a rticulation” . And the two factors are the basic structures of IPA.Second, the criteria of vowel description bassoon the position of tongue or the kind of opening made at the lips which are analyzed by Phonetics. Concretely, “the description of vowels needs to fulfill four criteria: the part of tongue that is raised—front, center, or back; the extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate—mid-high, mid-low, and low; the kind of opening made at the lips—rounded or unrounded; the position of the soft palate—raised for oral vowels, and lowed for vowels which have been nasalized”.At least since Trubetzkoy many have thought of phonology and phonetics as separate, largely autonomous, disciplines with distinct goals and distinct methodologies. Some linguists even seem to doubt whether phonetics is properly part of linguistics at all. The commonly encountered expression …the interface between phonology and phonetics‟ implies that the two domains are largely separate and interact only at specific, proscribed points.Now I will attempt to make the case that phonetics is one of the essential areas of study for phonology. Without phonetics, I would maintain, (and allied empirical disciplines such as psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics) phonology runs the risk of being a sterile, purely descriptive and taxonomic, discipline; with phonetics it can achieve a high level of explanation and prediction as well as finding applications in areas such as language teaching, communication disorders, and speech technology.In a word, phonetics is one of the disciplines that help to provide answers to phonology‟s questions about why speech sounds behave as they do. Moreover, in its growth over the past couple of centuries it has developed a respectable level o f scientific rigor in creating and testing models of various aspects of the speech mechanism. Phonology can benefit from phonetics‟ methods, data, and theories. Reference: 胡壮麟《语言学教程》语言学论文题目：Phonetics and Phonology。
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
Phonetics and Phonology
第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
2.2 发音机制语音是由各种发音器官（speech organ）而产生的。
因此，正确理解语音需要掌握相关的发音系统知识。
人体发声器官（见《语言学概论》杨忠主编，高等教育出版社2002：15）使流出的气流产生各种各样的变化，从而产生不同的音。
肺部的气流是发声的原动力。
肺部扩大时，空气从外流入，形成吸气音（ingressive sounds）。
肺部收缩时，气流流经气管(trachea)、喉头（larynx）、咽腔（pharyngeal cavity）再经口腔(oral cavity)或鼻腔(nasal cavity) 排除，形成呼气音(egressive sounds)。
Chapter 2_Phonetics and Phonology
Voice and Voiceless
• Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Such consonants are voiced (+V). When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless (-V).
Tongue
• Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [ ] and [ ] • The narrowing of space between hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [ ] • The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [ ] and [ ] • Partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongue produces the sounds [ ] and [ ] • Obstruction between the upper teeth and the lower lip leads to the production of two sounds [ ] [ ] • Obstruction between the lips creates the sounds [ ] and [ ]
Phonetics and phonology - 副本
Reasons & settlements
Diphthong: some students may get confused by diphthong /ei/ and monophthong /e/. That is because they tend to neglect the/i/ in the end of the phonetic symbol. So at the beginning of solving the problem, we encourage students imitate it sedulously. Having got used to it, they can pronounce it correctly
When we pronunce a diphthongs, we tend to neglect the last phoneme of the phonetic symbol. That is because in our Chinese systerm most of the syllables are monosyllabic.
In chongqing’s dielact, /n/ has never appeared. People will use /l/ to take place of /n/ in a word, practise makes perfect. All we need to do in improving our pronunciation is to learn more and practise more.
Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology
8
▪ One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
▪ As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.
14
2.1 Consonants
18
▪ Bilabial ▪ Labiodental ▪ Dental ▪ Alveolar ▪ Postalveolar ▪ Retroflex ▪ Palatal ▪ Velar ▪ Uvular ▪ Pharyngeal ▪ Glottal
19
2.2 Vowels
▪ Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
语言学Chapter+2+phonetics+and__+phonology
Description of consonants
How do you describe (classify) the consonants such as [p], [b], [s], [z]? When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. (P30)
The manner of articulation is very important during the production of the sound. It is based on the size of the air passage. (24 consonants)
Describe the six groups respectively according to manner of articulation
The place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. (the place of obstruction)
Manner of Articulation
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sound and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds according to how they are produced, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
语言学教程课件2 Phonetics and Phonology
2.1 Phonetics
The field study Speech sounds and non-speech sounds Pulmonic and non-pulmonic speech
Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)
Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
Description of speech sounds
We use Phonetic Alphabets to describe speech sounds
mouth Soft palate in lowered position Uvula: the loose hanging end of the soft palate Pharynx Blade of the tongue: including the tip, the part
Diacritics: any mark in sound description additional to letters or other basic elements. [¨], [˜]
Narrow description: detailed Broad description: general
opposite the teeth ridge
Speech Organs 2
Front of the tongue: the part opposite the hard palate
语言学资料 phonetics and phonology
Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the difference between phonetics and phonology✓To have some ideas about the classification of English consonants and vowels✓To understand some important concepts in phonology◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 3 periods.2.1 The Phonic Medium of LanguageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basis than writing. Language is primarily spoken. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when there are needs.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds that humans are capable of producing; they are concerned with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are not only limited in number, but also universal to some extent.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language, and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 Definition and Scope◆Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of language and is concernedwith defining and classifying speech sounds◆Generally, the study of phonetics is composed of the 3 separate branches: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.--- aritculatory phonetics: study the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to produce the sounds. It also deals with theidentification and classification of individual sounds.--- acoustic phonetics: focus on the analysis and measurement of sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.--- auditory phonetics: study the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived (感知) by the hearer.◆The 3 branches are closely related to each other. Speech sounds cannot be divorcedfrom the organs that articulate them and a sound wave does not exist in isolation from the source that generates it. All the approaches are indispensable to an understanding of phonetics.◆In this part we’ll focus on articulatory phonetics and at the same time make somereference to the acoustic properties of sounds when necessary.2.2.2 Vocal Organs / Articulatory Apparatus (p.16)The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in 3 important areas: the pharyngeal cavity – the throat, the oral cavity – the mouth, and the nasal cavity – the nose.The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in the larynx, and in these cavities in various ways. Such modification results from kind of interference with the movement of the air stream.➢The pharyngeal cavity--- when vocal cords are relaxed and folded back at each side to let air flow through freely and silently without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such acondition are voiceless.--- when vocal cords are held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds while forcing its passage through them, the vibration of the vocalcords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of allvowels and some consonants in English.➢The oral cavity--- the greatest source of modification of the air stream is found here.--- of all the speech organs in this cavity, the tongue is the most flexible and is responsible for more varieties of articulation. [k] [g] [j] [t] [d] [] [] --- apart from the tongue and the roof of the mouth, obstruction can be created between the upper teeth and the lower lip and between the lips [f] [v] [p] [b] ➢The nasal cavity--- when the passage of air to the mouth is closed so that air is allowed to exit through the nose, the sounds pronounce are nasalized. [m] [n] []2.2.3 Transcription of Sounds （p.17）✓With the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)came into being in 1888,whose basic principle is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds.✓As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.✓Thus there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds: broad transcription-- the transcription with letter-symbols only and narrow transcription -- the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.✓Broad transcription is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.✓Example 1:[l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], health [hel] and play [plei] –differ [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, --- a clear [l]清晰音, no diacritic is needed[l] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, --- a dark [l]模糊音--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used [l] in [hel], followed by the dental sound and affected by it, --- a dental [l] --- in narrow transcription the diacritic is used[l] in [plei], following a voiceless plosive (p), -- a devoiced [l] 清音化--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [0] is used.✓Example 2:[p] in [pit] and [spit][p] in [pit], pronounced with a strong puff of air --- aspirated [p] --- [p h it][p] in [spit], pronounced with a withheld puff of air--- unaspirated [p] --- [spit]✓Example 3:play broad [plei] narrow [ ] aspiration, devoicingtenth broad [ten] narrow [ ] aspiration, nasalization, dentalization 2.2.4 Classification of English sounds2.2.4.1 English Consonants (24 / 28) p.18An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: vowels and consonants,In the pronunciation of consonants the air that comes from the lungs meets with obstruction in one way or another.Traditional linguists think there are altogether 28 consonants. But modern linguistics believe that there are 24 consonants, not including /tr/, /dr/, /ts/, /dz/because they are notconsidered as independent sounds, but the consonant clusters.Consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation.--- in terms of manner of articulation:6 stops / plosives; 9 fricatives; 2 affricates; 2 liquids (a lateral & a retroflex)3 nasals; 2 glides / semivowels; (trills in some regional accents）--- in terms of place of articulation:4 bilabials; 2 labiodentals; 2 dental sounds; 7 alveolar sounds;5 palatal sounds; 3 velar sounds; 1 glottal2.2.4.2 English Vowels (20/25) p.20As in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulation or place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification.1) Openness of the mouth (close, semi-close, semi-open, open)2) Position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) Degree of lip rounding/shape of lips (rounded, unrounded)4) Length of the vowel (long, short)5) Pure or gliding (monophthong, diphthong, triphthong)Diphthongs – A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another: 8Triphthongs -- a vowel sound that glides successively through three qualities: 52.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and PhoneticsSimilarity: research objects ---- the speech soundsDifference: research approaches and focusesPhonetics – general study of all the speech sounds used in all human languages about how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phoneticfeatures they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology – about how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how they areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.3.2 Phone, Phoneme, and allophone◆Phone and phonemeA phone is A phoneme isA phonetic unit, concrete A phonological unit, abstractOne of many possible sounds Not any particular sound, but represented or heard or produced in languages realized as a certain phoneThe smallest identifiable unit The smallest contrastive unit distinguishing found in a stream of speech, not between meanings of words in the sound necessarily distinguish meaning system of a particular language.Pronounced in a defined way. Pronounced in one or more ways,depending on the number of allophones.Represented between brackets Represented between slashesby convention. E.g. [b], [j], [o] by convention. E.g. /b/, /j/, /o/◆Allophones--- different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.--- variants of a phoneme which do not change the meaning with substitution--- For example, /p/ → [p h i: k] & [spi:k]/t/ → [t h i: k] & [sti:k]/l/ → [li:k] & [fi:l] & [hel] & [milk]--- Distinctive features (p.24):the features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes;shown in the form of a binary opposition, only one of two values [+] or [-];e.g.: /p/ → -syllabic +consonantal –sonorant +anterior –coronal -voiced –nasal构成音节的响音前面的舌尖音的/i:/ → +syllabic –consonantal +sonorant +high – back –round +continuant响音：all vowels + consonants /l/, /m/, /n/, / /, /r/, /w/, /j/2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimalpair (p.24)➢Phonemic contrast--- formed by two distinctive phonemes➢Complementary distribution--- Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. That is, they occur in different phonetic environmentsand they are said to be in complementary distribution.➢Minimal pair--- a basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two soundsthen represent different phonemes.--- an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs:2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment whichoccurs in the same place in the strings → the 2 sound combinations forming aminimal pair → the 2 sounds representing different phonemes.more than 2 sound combinations → constituting a minimal set together.--- This way applies both to the consonants and vowels--- E.g.: pill & bill, bill & kill, kill & till, till & pill → minimal pairspill, bill, kill, till →a minimal set (identical in form except for the initialconsonant) → /p/, /b/, /k/, /t/ phonemesbeat, bet, boot, but, bait, bite, boat → a minimal set (identical except for thevowel) →/i:/, /e/, /u:/, //\/, /ei/, /ai/,/eu/ phonemes2.3.4 Phonological rules (p.25)2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe phonemes of a language cannot not strung together in any random order to formwords. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.e.g.: /b/ , /l/, /i/, /k/ p.25If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following 3 rules;(1)The first phoneme must be /s/(2)The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/(3)The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/e.g.: spring /spri/, strict /strict/, square/skew/, splendid /splendid/, scream /skri:m/Every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. What is not permissible in English might be permissible in another language.2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule⏹When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendencymay become regularized as rules of language. The assimilation rule assimilates onesound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making thetwo phones similar.Nasalization of vowels in certain phonetic contexts.e.g.: [i:] – bean, green, team, screamThe varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal /n/ in some sound combinatione.g.: alveolar nasal /n/ -- still alveolar nasal in indiscreet (for /d/ is an alveolar stop)alveolar nasal /n/ -- velar nasal // in incorrect ( for /k/ is a velar stop) The sound assimilation is actually reflected in the spelling in most cases.Inpossible → impossible, as the /n/ sound is assimilated to /m/Inplausibel → implausible, inlegal → illegal, inregular --. irregular2.3.4.3 Deletion rule⏹It tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g.: sign, design, paradigm → no /g/ sound though it is represented in spelling bythe letter gsignature, designation, paradigmatic →/g/ represented by the letter g ispronouncedThe rule is: delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.2.3.5 Suprasegmental FeaturesSegment -- any linguistic unit in a sequence which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence, e.g. a sound in an utterance or a letter in a written textSuprasegmental – (in phonetics and phonology) a unit which extends over more than one sound in an utterance., e.g. syllable, word, sentence.2.3.5.1 StressStress is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than thesurrounding words or syllables. Briefly, stress is syllable prominence.Stress in a syllable is achieved by changing the pitch, making the syllablelouder, or making it longer.In a word, the basic difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables.The syllable with the greatest prominence had the primary stress and the nextstressed syllable the secondary stress. A word, if long enough, may haveseveral nonprimary stresses. However, no word has more than one primarystress.Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguishing between two words which are alike, e.g. \import (n.) and im\port (v.); emphasizing the syllable or word,e.g. I said induce, not deduce.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.Word stress – the location of stress distinguishes meaning.(1) a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word form a noun to averb.e.g.: \increase (n.) – in\crease (v.); insult (n.) – insult (v.); rebel (n.) – rebel (v.)(2) the alteration of stress occurs between a compound noun and a phraseconsisting of the same elementse.g.: \blackbird (compound) – a particular kind of bird, which is notnecessarily black.black \bird (noun phrase) – a bird whose color is blackgreenhouse – green house; hotdog – hot dog(3) the meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the–ing + noun combinations.e.g.: \dining room (compound) -- -ing serving as a modifier of the nounreading glasses, sewing machinesleeping \baby (noun phrase) – noun as the doer of the action indicatedby the –ing form , which is an –ing participle modifierswimming fishSentence stress(1)the parts of speech that are normally stressed in English are nouns, mainverbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns.(2)The other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs,prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.(3)To give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in a sentence that isusually unstressed can be stressed.e.g.: He is driving my car.2.3.5.2 ToneTone is pitch variations which are associated with the pronunciation of syllables orwords and which affects the meaning of the word.A tone language is a language in which the meaning of word depends on the toneused when pronouncing it.Mandarin Chinese, a typical ton language, makes a distinction between fourdifferent tones.Other tone languages are spoken in Vietnam, Thailand, West Africa, and CentralAmerica.2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen speaking, people usually raise and lower the pitch of their voice, formingpitch patterns. They also give some syllables in their utterances a greater degree ofloudness and change their speech rhythm. These phenomena are called intonation.In other words, when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence ratherthan the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones – the falling tone,the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.。
语言学概论chpt2 phonetics and phonology
Orthographic representation (词形表征,正字
法 ) of speech sounds
A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
The Diagram of Speech Organs
1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 4. Hard palate 硬颚 5. Soft palate (velum)软颚 6. Uvula 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 声带 11. Pharyngeal cavity 12. Nasal cavity
([ʤ]) [ʤ]
Nasals VD [m]
[n]
[ŋ]
Liquids VD
[l], [r]
Glides VD [w]
[j]
Classification of vowels
English vowels can be divided into three large categories:
Monophthongs [ɪ] , [u:] Diphthongs [ɔɪ] (as in “toy”), Triphthong [aʊə] (as in “tower”)
Test on Phonetic and Phonology
Exam on Phonetics & PhonologyI. Choose the best answer.1.Consonant sounds can be either_________ or_________, while all vowel soundsare_________.2. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the_________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.3. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without_________.4. _________refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.5. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called_______transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called _________transcription.6._______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.7. _______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds.8. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.9. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is the most flexible, and is responsible forvarieties of articulation than any other.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of__________ of articulation or in terms of _______ of articulation.11. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, thespeech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a ________.12. _________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.13. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are call ed s_______ rules.13. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as _________.14.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavi ties: the pharyngeal cavity, the _______ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of str ess: word stress and _________ stress.II . Choose the best answer.1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones3. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above4. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]5. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]6. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant7. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords8. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme9.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones10. . Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features11. Conventionally a_________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. Morpheme12.The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as_________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering13. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as_________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. Centering14. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair15. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricativeIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.( )1. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.( )2. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.( )3. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.( )4. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.( )5. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. ( )6. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.( )7. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.( )8. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.( )9. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.( )10. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.( )11.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics. –( ) 12. Sound [p] in the word "spit" is an unaspirated stop.IV. Explain the following terms:1. Minimal pair2. assimilation3.suprasegmental features4. allophone5. Distinctive features6. Free variation7. Complementary distribution8. Auditory phoneticsV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Giveexamples for illustration if necessary:1. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?2.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?3. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or an allophone?4. What is acoustic phonetics?5. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?6. In which two ways may consonants be classified?7.What is meant by phonetic transcription?7.What is the function of vocal cords in the production of sounds?。
Chapter Two phonetics and phonology
------
tʃ, dʒ
Classification 1. Monophthongs: individual vowels 2. Diphthongs: vowels which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [ei, ai, au, əu, oi, iə, eə, uə]
声学语音学
Auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. 听觉语音学
Organs of speech
A. The pharyngeal cavity: 13 windpipe, 12 glottis/vocal cords, 11 pharyngeal cavity B. The oral cavity: 1/2 lips, 3/4 teeth, 5 teeth ridge(alveolus), 6 hard palate,7 soft palate (velum), 14 uvula, 8 tip of tongue, 9 blade of tongue, 10 back of tongue C. Nasal cavity: 15
1. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The present one mainly derives from one developed in the 1920 by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), revised in 1993, corrected (updated) in 1996.
test 2-phonology andphonetics
Quiz of Linguistics \I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. ( T )2. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. ( F )3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. ( F )4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. ( F )5. Of all the speech organs, the lips are the most flexible. ( F )6. A phoneme can be represented by different phones in specific phonetic contexts.( T )7. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all bilabial. ( T )8. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. ( T )9. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of palatal. ( F )10. In such sound combinations as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurring in the final position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent. ( F )II. Multiple Choice ItemsD 1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies_____.A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of soundsB 2. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in _______A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lipsA 3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k, t?A. voicelessB. spreadC. voicedD. nasalB 4. What phonetic feature distinguishes the /p/ in “please” and the /p/ in “speak”?A. voicingB. aspirationC. roundnessD. nasalityD 5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?A. voicingB. nasalC. approximationD. aspirationB 6. The phonological features of the consonant /k/ are ____.A. voiced stopB. voiceless stopC. voiced fricativeD. voiceless fricative D 7. /p/ is different from /k/ in ________.A. the manner of articulationB. the shape of the lipsC. the vibration of the vocal cordsD. the place of articulationD 8. Vibration of the vocal cords results in _____.A. aspirationB. nasalityC. ObstructionD. V oicingB 9. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is _____ phonetics.A. auditoryB. acousticC. articulatoryD. none of the above threeB 10. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of ____.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dentalIII. Term Explanation1. phoneme: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realiz ed by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.2. allophone: The difference phones which can represent a phoneme in a different pho netic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3. phonology: Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.5. supersegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the se gment are called supersegmental features.IV. Short-answer Questionspare and contrast phonetics and phonology.They both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. But a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. So, they are different. The difference phones which can represent a phoneme in a different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Under what conditions will two sounds be assigned to the same phoneme?4.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?5.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletionrule.6.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?7.What are the possible interpretations of the sentence “I can’t eat anything”ifdifferent intonations are applied?。
Phonetics and Phonology
音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及 音节的形式
Similarities
语音学（Phonetics）以人类所有语言的语音
为研究对象，分析其成份和结构，探讨其问 题和特点，以及变化和发展的规律，并提出 各种语音描写、分类和转写的方法。 与之相关，专门研究一种语言中语音的组合 规律的学科，叫做音系学（Phonology）。 音系学与语音学是语音研究上的两个分工， 它们有直接的联系。
In phonology, phonemic transcription is placed between slant lines( / /).
Summary
Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds. But they approach the subject from two different points of view. is general, descriptive and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are. Phonology is concerned with the sound system of language; it studies the functioning of the speech sounds.
（2）Phonology: Progressive assimilation顺同化 Regressive assimilation逆同化
I.from the definition从定义的角度来看 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspects of language - the speech sounds II.从研究发音联系上看 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced transmitted, and 语音学研究语音的发生、传递和 III. 在某些领域，他们研究的实质是相同的，但是它 phonetics theperceived. tip舌尖--------coronal 舌冠音 phonology 感知。 们有各自不同的表达方式 the blade舌叶。 ----coronal舌冠音
Chapter 2 Phonetics and__ phonology
Stop (or Plosive)(塞音) __ Oral & Nasal
Fricative（擦音） (Median) Approximant（通音）
Lateral (Approximant)（边音）
Trill（颤音）
Tap(触音) or Flap（闪音）
Affricate（塞擦音）
Chapter Three Phonetics & phonology
We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.
Assimilation
Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization
are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. The process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound is called assimilation. For example, im before impossible.
1.Phonetics
Phonetics studies how speech sounds
are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Differences between phonetics and phonology
Differences between phonetics and phonologyThe major difference between human beings and animals is the fact that human beings have language and are able to create infinite speech with the help of our brain mechanism. So language is unique to mankind. Therefore, we human beings are bound to have research on it, thereby phonetics and phonology appearing. Although both phonetics and phonology are dedicated to the study of speech sounds, they do have some differences.Firstly, phonetics studies the actual sounds used by the speakers of a language in the world such as how people pronounce them. It is a branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.It is subdivided into three categories:Secondly, phonology studies the mental representation of sounds as part of a symbolic cognitive system and how abstract sound categories are manipulated in the process of language. Phonology more focuses on the sound system such as the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns they fall.Next, let’s illustrate some differences between phonetics and phonology.一．The first difference is their unit: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. One phonetic symbol represents one phone. For example, a monophthong is made up of one phone, and diphthong is made up of two phones. And the different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called its allophones.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are beat and bit. A phoneme is a phonological unit, and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but represented by a phone in a certain phonetic context. In English, ｛p｝can not be distinguished from the verbs play and phone, so it is phone. While ｛l｝in light and ｛t｝in light can be distinguished from meaning, so they are phonemes.二．The second difference is their branches: phonetics is divided into three branches：articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is about the production of speech. It defines and classifies speech sounds according to how they are produced. And it focuses on what organs are involved in the process of speech production.Auditory phonetics is concerned about the reception of speech which studies on the impression that a speech sound makes on the hearer. The last one is acoustic phonetics which lies between the production and reception of speech sounds. It studies on the physical properties of speech sounds.三．Phonetic focuses on the natural attribute of speech sounds, and pay attention to all the speech that occurs in the world. And a phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds and how it is generated.It is the foundation of phonology research. On the other hand, phonology stresses on the social function of speech sounds, the object are those can be used to make sentences. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features,a phonologist cares about the meaningful quantity,quality, their distribution ways, their compound mode, morphological feature, and their semantic feature, and how can function in the course of people’s cognition. A man who is armed with this knowledge, he can produce meaningful speech, and he can distinguish a foreign speech.四．Phonetic has nothing to do with the meaning, but has something to do with how to pronounce.In a word, it is physical rather than meaningful. For example, if you want to pronounce the word pit, what you should firstly consider is your pronouncing organs like lips, teeth, tongue, and your lungs. It is known that they have survival function, but when referring to the study of linguistic, they have speech function. Lungs supply airstream, vocal cords produce vibration in resonating cavity, tongue articulate sounds, teeth provide passive articulate and acoustic baffle, lips articulate sounds.Phonology, on the other hand, is both physical and meaningful. It searches the differences between sounds that change the meaning of a sentence. For example, the word “pit” is very similar to the word “pi g” in terms of the physical manifestation of sounds. The only difference is that at the e nd of “pig,” the vocal chords stop vibrating so that sound is a result only of the placement of the tongue behind the teeth and the flow of air. However, the meanings of the two words are not related in the least. This is the biggest distinction between phonetics and phonology, although phonologists analyze a lot more than just the obvious differences. They also check variations on single letter pronunciations, words in which multiple variations can exist versus those in which variations are considered incorrect, and the phonological “grammar” of languages. If you are a native speaker of English, you pronounce the letter P three different ways. It’s true. You may not realize it, but you do, and if you were to hear the wrong pronunciation, you might not be able to find the problem, but you would think it sounded really weird. Say the word “pop-up.” The first P has more air behind it than the others, the second is very similar to the first, but it doesn’t have much air in it, and the last one is barely pronounced at all. Now, say it again, but put a lot of air in the final P. It is weird, right .That’s because the aspirated P (with air) sound is not “grammatically” correct at the end of an English word. Similarly, Spanish words do not begin with an “s” sound followed by a consonant, which makes it very difficult for Spanish-speakers who are learning English to say words like “school,” “speak” and “strict.” Phonologists study things like that.In general, the research results can be concluded into the following.∙Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to the function or meaning of a sound.∙Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does the meaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?”∙Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describe sounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so eachlanguage has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).。
TheDifferencebetweenPhoneticsandPhonology
Phonetics and phonology are the two fields dedicated to the study of human speech sounds and sound structures. The difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics deals with the physical production of these sounds while phonology is the study of sound patterns and their meanings both within and across languages. If they still sound like more or less the same thing, read on. We’ll discuss each one individually and then compare them side by side, which should clear things up.PhoneticsPhonetics is strictly about audible sounds and the things that happen in your mouth, throat, nasal and sinus cavities, and lungs to make those sounds. It has nothing to do with meaning. It’s only a description. For example, in order to produce the word “bed,” you start out with your lips together. Then, air from your lungs is forced over your vocal chords, which begin to vibrate and make noise. The air then escapes through your lips as they part suddenly, which results in a B sound. Next, keeping your lips open, the middle of your tongue comes up so that the sides meet your back teeth while the tip of your tongue stays down. All the while, air from your lungs is rushing out, and your vocal cho rds are vibrating. There’s your E sound. Finally, the tip of your tongue comes up to the hard palate just behind your teeth. This stops the flow of air and results in a D sound as long as those vocal chords are still going.As literate, adult speakers of th e English language, we don’t need a physical description of everything required to make those three sounds. We simply understand what to do in order to make them. Similarly, phoneticists simply understand that when they see /kæt/, it’s a description of how most Americans pronounce the word “cat.” It has nothing to do with a furry house pet.In fact, if there were a word in any other language pronounced the same way, the phonetic spelling would be the same regardless of meaning. Again, it’s not about meaning.It’s strictly physical.PhonologyPhonology, on the other hand, is both physical and meaningful. It explores the differences between sounds that change the meaning of an utterance. For example, the w ord “bet” is very similar to the word “bed” in terms of the physical manifestation of sounds. The only difference is that at the end of “bet,” the vocal chords stop vibrating so that sound is a result only of the placement of the tongue behind the teeth and the flow of air. However, the meanings of the two words are not related in the least. What a vast difference a muscle makes!This is the biggest distinction between phonetics and phonology, although phonologists analyze a lot more than just the obvious differences. They also examine variations on single letterpronunciations, words in which multiple variations can exist versus those in which variations are considered incorrect, and the phonological “grammar” of languages.If you are a native speaker of English, you pronounce the letter P three different ways. It’s true. You may not realize it, but you do, and if you were to hear the wrong pronunciation, you might not be able to put your finger on the problem, but you would think it sounded really weird. Say the word “pop-up.” The first P has more air behind it than the others, the second is very similar to the first, but it doesn’t have much air in it, and the last one is barely pronounced at all. The word just sort of ends there when your lips close. Now, say it again, but put a lot of air in the final P. See? Weird, right? That’s because the aspirated P (with air) sound is not “grammatically” correct at the end of an English word. Similarly, Spanish words do not begin with an “s” sound followed by a consonan t, which makes it very difficult for Spanish-speakers who are learning English to say words like “school,” “speak” and “strict.” Phonologists study things like that.Side-by-Side Differences Between Phonetics and PhonologyIf you’re still confused about which is which, here’s a little side-by-side comparison to help you out:Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to the function or meaning of a sound.Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does the meaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?” Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describe sounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so each language has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).Hopefully that clears things up, but if you need one more way to remember the difference between phonetics and phonology, look at the word endings. Phonetic ends the same way as kinetic, which refers to movement. Both are purely physical. Phonology, like any other -ology, is more of a science, exploring the hows and whys of the physical.。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理chapter4phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanin gs in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sou nd system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a streamof speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Test Two: Phonetics and PhonologyI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are knownas __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger thanthe segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire thequality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do notcontrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tensevs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place aconsonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are__________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are broughtclose together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highestpoint in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the twophonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of theirneighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. Thesemovements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then givean English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative。