英语词汇学 lexic4 Major Process of Word Formation补充Conversion
《英语词汇学》English Lexicology知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: al most arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) （1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。
英语词汇学自考重点
各章重点内容串讲：Introduction1.Lexicology（名词解释题）（1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）.本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。
（2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。
2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题）（1）Two approachesThere are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.synchronic 共时法diachronic 历时法（2）Definition: A, synchronicFrom a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time.However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning.1.word（名词解释）（1）a minimal free form of a language1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式）2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。
(词汇学)Word Formation
6. “locative”prefixes (sub-, inter-, trans-, )
eg: subway (n) 地铁， subtitle (n) 副标题， subsurface (adj) 表面下的 international (adj), intercity (adj) 市间的， interact (v) 相互作用，相互影响 transport (v) 运输， transfer (v) 转移，调动 transmit (v) 转播 trans-Atlantic (adj) 穿越大西洋的，
3. prefix﹢free root﹢suffix: inaction (n)无行动，懒散， improfitable (adj)无利润的， unfriendly (adj), removal (n),
4. prefix﹢bound root:
predict (v)预言，预示， descend (v)下降， contradict (v)反驳，同…矛盾，
2. Verb suffixes: simplify（简化）， modernize（使现代化）， quicken（加快），
3. Adjective suffixes: useful（有用的）， useless（无用的）， windy（多风的）， foolish（愚蠢的）， manly（有男子气概的）， washable（可水洗的）， pointed（尖的）， cultural（文化的）， poisonous（有毒的），
2. free root﹢suffix:
darkness (n)，friendship (n)，movement (n)， hopeful (a), hopeless (a), mouse-like (a)像鼠一样的， darken (v), badly (adv), clockwise (adv),
英语词汇学各个章节的内容
Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ‟不一致。
英语词汇学知识点总结
Word-formationWord-formation Word-formation or or or word-building word-building word-building is is that that branch branch branch of of of lexicology lexicology lexicology which which which studies studies studies the the the patterns patterns patterns on on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word formation: Composition or CompoundingDefinition : Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or or more more more bases bases bases to to to form form form a a a new new new unit, unit, unit, a a a compound compound compound word. word. word. Compounding Compounding Compounding is is is the the the most most productive word-formation process in contemporary English . Identity crisis 个性危机stand-up collar 竖领hit-and-run tactics 打了就跑的战术spoon-feed 填鸭式灌输，娇养糊里糊涂muddle-headed/minded 笨嘴笨舌heavy-tongued 无忧无虑carefree 饱经风霜weather-beaten/worn 令人心碎heart-breaking 半死不活dead-alive/dead-and-alive 不合时宜ill-timed/badly-timed 批量生产mass-produce Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example, A schoolboy is more concise than “a boy attending school ”; “U p-to-the-minute information information” ” is more vivid than “the latest information ”; “The The old old old man man man would would would sit sit sit for for for hours, hours, hours, thinking thinking thinking sadly sadly sadly of of of all all all the the might-have-beens ” ” is is is more more compact and expressive than “…thinking sadly of the desirable things that could have happened in the past .”The relative criteria of a compound wordOrthographic criterion (书写标准) : Compounds are written in three ways, e.g. solid: airmail ;hyphenated: air-conditioning ; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion (语音标准) : Compound accent: a single stress on the first element; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. E.g. 'blackboard, 'blue ‘bottle (a large buzzing fly with blue body ) ) Normal phrase accent : : a a a secondary secondary secondary stress stress stress on on on the the the first first first element element element and and and a a a main main main stress stress stress on on on the the second element. E.g. ‘ blue 'bottle (a bottle which is blue) Semantic criterion (语义标准) : A compound is a combination forming a unit expressing a a single single single idea. idea. idea. The The The lexical lexical lexical meaning meaning meaning of of of the the the components components components are are are closely closely closely joined joined joined together together together to to to create create create a a compound compound with with with a a a meaning meaning meaning which which which one one one can can can easily easily easily recognize, recognize, recognize, e.g. e.g. e.g. backdoor, backdoor, backdoor, sunset, sunset, sunset, workday. workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. dog days, flatfoot ( a policeman), greenhouse, greenback (美钞)，green-hand(生手), greenroom （演员休息室）, mother wit （天生的智力）, Indian paper （字典纸）. More examples:home letters(家信), home voyage （归程）, home life （家庭生活）, home affairs （家庭事务），home bird （不爱外出的人）（不爱外出的人）, home economics （家政学）, home front （大后方）, home games （在本地举行的比赛）, home help （家务女佣）（家务女佣）, homemaker （主妇）（主妇）, home plate（棒球的本垒打）, home sickness （思家病）（思家病）. Word order: A flower pot (花盆) a pot flower (盆花) tiptoe(脚尖) deaf-mute （聋哑者）（聋哑者）Some of them were influenced by French : court martial(军事法庭) ; president elect （当选总统）; ambassador designate （尚未上任的大使）（尚未上任的大使）Classification of compoundsCompounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds . noun compounds : airplane , flower potadjective compounds: w eather-beaten weather-beaten , snowwhite verb compounds: p roof-read, proof-read, baby-sit proposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside of conjunction compounds : whenever ,whereas pronoun compounds: a nother another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, andverb compounds.noun compounds• Noun + nounrainwater 雨水; ; springwater springwater 泉水; ; houseplants houseplants 室内植物;fireball 火球火球 ; ; firecracker firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船；spacesuits 太空服；mousemat ； 鼠标垫鼠标垫 Dream Team ；bar code 条形码；条形码； lip service 口头上说得好听的话；口头上说得好听的话； information highway 信息高速公路； science fiction 科幻小说；科幻小说； sugar cane 甘蔗；gaslight 煤气灯；煤气灯；• Noun + verbdaybreak 拂晓； nightfall 夜幕降临；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide (山体滑坡)； headache toothache ；stomachache ；heartbeat drumbeat ； footbeat 脚步节拍 ； wingbeat 翅翼振动 ； window-dress 布置橱窗；布置橱窗； water-supply 自来水自来水 ； snowfall 降雪量； toothpick 牙签；牙签； haircut ； pickpocket ； scarecrow 稻草人稻草人 ( scare the crow) • V erb + noun cry baby (爱哭的婴儿)； playboy (花花公子) ；glowworm (发光虫)； watch-dog (看家狗), swearword （骂人话）, breakwater （防波提）（防波提）, driveway （车道）, jump suit （伞兵跳伞服，连衣裤工作服）；rattle snake(响尾蛇响尾蛇) • V erb + adv / prep changeover (转变进程) ； setback (挫折挫折)； breakdown (崩溃)， show-off(炫耀), slip-up（疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off （推迟，搪塞）, follow-up （连续广告法）（连续广告法）sit-in, dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-off• Adjective + nounclear-way(超速道路), easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk ，red tape(官样文章官样文章) • adverb + noununder-clothes(内衣), after-effect （后效，副作用）（后效，副作用）, upgrade（升级）, overburden • V+ing + nounchewing gum(口香糖), baking powder （发酵粉）, reading lamp （台灯）, lodging house （分间出租供人休息用的房屋），leading article(社论), working party （作业队）（作业队）• Adverb + verb outlet(出口), upset （颠覆）（颠覆）, downfall （垮台，陷落）（垮台，陷落）, upstart （暴发户）（暴发户）, onflow （滚滚向前）前）adjective compounds• Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier Post-modifier ( ( ( describe describe describe a a a noun noun noun phrase phrase phrase or or or restrict restrict restrict its its its meaning meaning meaning in in some way) • Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings. • noun + adjective• skin-hungry, power-hungry, news-hungry, career-hungry (急于成名的) , bloodthirsty • duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free • water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof • air-sick, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, heartsick (沮丧的) • user-friendly, reader-friendly • profit-conscious,time-conscious, class-conscious, environment-conscious, security-conscious • slap-happy(被打得晕头转向的) boxer ， trigger-happy (嗜杀成性的)gangster ， travel-happy(对旅游入迷的) • accident-prone, crisis-prone (危机四伏的)，error-prone, • air-tight(不透气的)，water-tight, light-tight(不透光的), rain-tight • work-shy(不愿工作的)，camera-shy(怕上镜头的)， publicity-shy (不愿出头露面的) • color-blind, night-blind • blood-weary (厌战的)，travel-weary(旅途劳累的) •stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feather-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-long, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare （穿旧的）（穿旧的） • college-bound/preparatory (准备考大学的)，labor-short (缺乏劳动力的)，top-heavy(头重脚轻的)，penny-wise(小事聪明的) ， oven-fresh (刚出炉的) line-dry(一晾就干的一晾就干的)，world-famous • adjective + adjectivewet-cold, wet-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, red-hot, red-hot, red-hot, white-hot, white-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel(shabby-genteel(穷酸的)，dead-alive(半死不活的)，dark-blue, dark-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, light-blue, light-blue, light-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, bright-red, bright-red, bright-red, bloody-red, bloody-red, yellow-green, yellowish-green ，social-political• V+ing + adjectivesteaming-hot/smoking-hot steaming-hot/smoking-hot ((滚烫的，热气腾腾的)，soaking-wet/wringing-wet(湿淋淋的，湿得可拧出水来的)，biting-cold/freezing-cold (冷得刺骨的，冰冷的) • Adverb/Prep + adjectiveever-victorious (战无不胜的)，over-cautious, all-round (全面的全面的)， far-reaching (深远的，广泛的)，evergreen (tree), wide-awake (机警的)，over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe (不成熟的)，too-rapid • noun +V+ingpeace-loving, time/space/energy/labor-saving, time-consuming, summer-flowering(夏季开花的), ocean-going (远洋的)， fault-finding, record-breaking, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting (令人捧腹的)，thirst-quenching (解渴的)，man-eating• noun + V+edheart-felt(衷心的), air-born （空降的，（空降的，空运的）, home-made, travel-worn （旅行得疲乏的）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten, thunder-struck, suntanned • adjective/adverb + V+ingfresh-frozen(速冻的), easy-going(随和的), familiar-sounding (听起来熟悉的)，hard-working, ever-lasting (永恒的) • adjective/adverb + V+ednewly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched (牵强附会的)，half-baked(烤得半生不熟的，肤浅的), hard-won (来之不易的)，quick-frozen (速冻的), new-laid (eggs), so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized • noun + Noun+edhot-tempered(急性子的)，chicken-hearted (胆怯的，软弱的)，honey-mouthed, paper-backed (平装本的)， eagle-eyed(目光尖锐地) • adjective/adv. + Noun+edshort-sighted, short-sighted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted(sweet-hearted(性情温和的), ), green-fingered(green-fingered(擅长园艺的)，open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed, kind-hearted, light-hearted, whole/half-hearted, absent-minded, narrow/broad-minded, double-faced, straight-faced, blue-eyed, muddle-minded/headed muddle-minded/headed ((糊里糊涂) ) , , , commercially-minded, commercially-minded, commercially-minded, heavy-tongued heavy-tongued heavy-tongued ((笨嘴笨舌的)，middle-aged, middle-aged, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted(close/tight-fisted(吝啬的)， bare-footed, white-haired, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed (易屈服的)，long-legged, close/tight-lipped (嘴紧的), ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned (脸皮厚/薄)，high-spirited, iron-willed, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued glib-tongued glib-tongued ((油嘴滑舌的)，loose-tongued(嘴不严的) • adjective + Nounlong-distance, full-length （未删节的），white-collar, red-letter(喜庆的), ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time(实时的)， long-range, deep-sea (fish) • Verb + Nounbreak-neck (危险的)， telltale(搬弄是非的)， cut-rate (减价的，次等的减价的，次等的)• Phrases or sentencesat-risk （处境危险的）, in-your-face （明目张胆的）, devil-may-care(不顾一切的), dog-eat-dog （狗咬狗的）, round-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table, matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time, off-the-cuff (临时想起的意见)opinion, back-up (备用) a stand-up collar (竖领), a walk-in closet (走入式大壁橱)，a see-through shirt （透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫） take-home pay ，cross-border raid ，a keep-fit class （保健班）（保健班）（保健班） verb compoundsThe common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation back-formation is is is a a a process process process of of of word word word formation formation formation by by by which which which a a a word word word is is is created created created by by by dropping dropping dropping the the supposed or imagined affixes Housekeeping → housekeep, test-drive(试车)，machine-gun, nickname, spotlight, honeymoon, honeymoon, outline, outline, outline, speed-read, speed-read, speed-read, soft-land, soft-land, soft-land, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, mass-produce, mass-produce, sight-see, sight-see, sight-see, proof-read, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-condition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road(走中间道路), chain-react, face-harden(使表面硬化), wire-pull (幕后操纵)，daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk, highlight, safeguard, whitewash, sweet-talk，job-hop A compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy1.chain-drink: from chain-smoke 2.bottle-feed: feed from a bottle. from breast-feed:• feed from a mother's breast A compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold(扣留), cross-question(盘问)，upbuild (建立建立), uplift, uproot, fast-talk(花言巧语地企图说服)，off-load(卸货)，outeat(吃得比……多)，outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, underline, undermine, undertake, Affixation or DerivationIt is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an already existing word. A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as auto-（from GK a utosautos self）. 据统计下列14个词根和20个词缀出现在词典里10，000多个英语单词中词根词前缀前缀 词根Precept pre- (before) capere (take, seize) detain de- (away, from) tenere (hold, have) intermittent inter- (between) mittre (send) offer ob- (against) ferre (bear, carry) Insist in- (into) stare (stand) monograph mono- (alone, one) graph (write) epilogue epi (upon) egein (say, study) 词根词前缀前缀 词根aspect ad- (to, toward) spicere (see) com- (together) plicare (fold) uncomplicated un- (not); c omnonextended non- (not); e x ex- (out of) tendere (stretch) reproduction re- (back, again); pro- (forward) ducere (lead) dis- (apart from) ponere (put, place) indisposed in- (not); d isoversufficient over - (above); s ub sub - (under) facere (make, do) mistranscribe mis - (wrong); t rans trans - (across) scribere (write) Number-related prefixes from Latin prefix meaning examples uni- one uniform duo- two duet (二重唱二重唱/奏）奏） tri- three trio (三人组）三人组）三人组） quad-, quart- four quadruplets (四胞胎）四胞胎）四胞胎） quint- five quintuplets sext six sexet (六人组）六人组）六人组） sept seven september (7th month, Roman calendar) oct- eight october nona nine nonagenarian (90-99岁的人）岁的人）Number-related prefixes from Latin deca- ten decade cent- hundred centigrade (一百度的）一百度的）一百度的） multi- many multiply prim-, prin- first primary secund second secondary ambi both (双）双）双） ambivalent (两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的）两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的） equi- equal equidistant (等距离的）等距离的）等距离的） omni- all omnipotence (全能）全能） semi-, sem half semester (half a year 学期）学期）demi- half demitasse (half a cup for serving coffee (一小杯清咖啡）一小杯清咖啡）Number-related prefixes from Greek prefix meaning examples Mono- one monologue duo-, di- two dialogue tri- three triangle tetra- four tetrameter (四音步诗）四音步诗） penta- five pentameter ，pentagon hexa- six hexagon hepta- seven heptagon deka-, dec- ten decathlon hemi- half hemisphere pan- all pandemic (大流行病）大流行病）I.Prefixation The definition of prefixation Prefixation Prefixation is is is the the the formation formation formation of of of new new new words words words by by by adding adding adding prefixes prefixes prefixes to to to stems. stems. stems. Prefixes Prefixes Prefixes do do do not not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes Non-class-changing prefixes: n atural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfairClass-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger , form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollegeThe classification of prefixes In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. view. It seems It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories: The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are negative a-, dis-, in-, non-, un- Prefixes which are reversative or privative de-, dis-, un- Prefixes which are pejorative mal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or size arch-, arch-, extra-, extra-, extra-, hyper-, hyper-, hyper-, macro-, macro-, macro-, mini-, mini-, mini-, out-, out-, out-, over-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under- Prefixes which are of attitude anti-, co-, contra- counter-, pro- Prefixes which are locative extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-, Prefixes which are of time and order ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re- Prefixes which are of number semi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly- Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous category Auto-, neo- pan-, proto-, vice-1.Negative prefix a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis- dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagree in- Incomplete, Incomplete, inconsistent, inconsistent, inconsistent, incorrect, incorrect, incorrect, invulnerable, invulnerable, invulnerable, illogical, illogical, illogical, illegal, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest 2.Reversative or privative prefix 含“消除”意思意思 de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, denationalize ，dehydrate depollute, devalue, decentralize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested(公正的，无私的), disambigulate 3.Pejorative prefix mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutrition pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic, 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate super- supermarket, superpower, superstar sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, counterpart anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro- pro-American, pro-American亲美的, pro-Communist, pro-student, proslavery 6) Locative prefixes fore- forearm, forehead inter- international, intergovernmental, interdisciplinary, intercollege trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication U.S. intercontinental missile洲际导弹洲际导弹 是指射程在8000千米以上的导弹。
英语词汇学 unit4 Major Process of Word Formation ppt
Derivational affixes may have more than one meaning. e.g. de 1. to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of decentralize, decode 2. to remove: to debone 3. to reduce: devalue
free = free root morpheme bound root bound inflectional affixes (suffixes) affixes (prefixes) derivational affixes (suffixes)
Allomorphs（词素变体）
Definition: different variants of a morpheme Allomorphs can be phonologically or morphologicaBiblioteka ly conditioned.
10 words from each group with Chinese meaning
Teaching Outline
Basic morphological 形态学的 concepts:
Morpheme. Root Stem
词素
Preffixation Suffixation Compounding 复合法
Chapter 4
Major Process of Word Formation
Presentations and assignments
1. Make sure the meaning of words with affixes indicating the following categories:
英语词汇学4
Chapter Four
Minor Processes of Wordformaing or abbreviation（缩略法）
Three types of initialisms:
1) The letters represent full words. This is the main type e.g. CIA= the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S., IOC = International Olympic Committee, ISBN = International Standard Book Number UN = United Nations IDL = International Date Line CPU = Central processing unit FAS f.a.s. = free alongside ship 船边交货 (价格) FOB f.o.b. = free on board(货物) 离岸价格 CIF = Cost insurance and freight 到岸价格 GT = gross tonnage CAD= computer assisted design
3. Front and back clipping (not a common type of clipping)
The deletion occurs at both ends of a word: e.g. flu = influenza, fridge = refrigerator tec = detective
英语词汇学教程期末总结
1、没了what is lexi c ology?词汇学Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon词典of a given language. It deals not only with simple words, but also with complex and compound words. 2、我从Mor ph ology词态学is the study of the forms of words and their components成分. In morphology, morpheme is a basic concept. Morphemes are considered as the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words.3、Feeling Se man tics语义学is often defined as the study of meaning. Semanticsis usually approached from one of two perspectives: phi loso phi cal or ling uistic 语言的. Ety m ology 语源学is the study of the whole history of words.First ,some word are not etymologically related to ancient forms.second…third P24、挖空Lexico graphy词典学is closely related to the words in a given language. Itinvolves the writing and com pil ation编辑of dictionaries, especially dealing with the principles that underlie the process of compil ing and editing dictionaries.5、Major features of words: 背1). a word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily withour vocal equipment.2). a word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3). the word is an uninterruptible unit.4). a word has to do with its social function.5). a word may consist of one or more morphemes.6). Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7). A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.6、Lexical words: are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Grammatical words arewords like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and so on.7、The morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallestmeaningful units of language.One morpheme: boy, desire, sayTwo morphemes: boy+ish, desire+ableThree morphemes: boy+ish+ness, desire+able+ityFour morphemes: gentle+men+li+ness, un+desire+able+ity8、Phonemes, which are the smallest working units of sound per se, build up intomorphemes, a morpheme is composed of one or more phonemes.9、Lexical item as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of anyinflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants.10、Types of morphemes:1). Bound morphemes and free morphemes2). Derivational and inflectional morphemes10、seven types of meaning: 背conceptual meaning,connotative meaning,social meaning,affective meaning,reflected meaning,collocative meaning,thematic meaning.11、conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.12、connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to , over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations vary from age or age, from society to society, and from individual to individual within the same speech community.13、roots tend to have a core meaning which is in some way modified by the affix, but determining meaning is sometimes tricky.14、polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.15、homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.16、Old English period(450-1066): features: the vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic, a large part of this vocabulary has disappeared from the language.The Middle English period (1066-1500): features: some of the changes were the results of the Norman Conquest and the conditions which followed that event; others were a continuation of tendencies that had begun to appear in Old English; in grammar，English changed from a highly inflected language to an analytical one. The English vocabulary was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.Early Modern English period (1500-1800): the advent of the printing revolution marked its beginning. Printing played a major role in fostering the norms of spelling and pronunciation. Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform. It is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English period.The Modern English period (1800-present): unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary; the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language; the emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.17、major influences on English: 背The Scandinavian influenceThe Norman ConquestThe Latin influence18、borrowing is the process of imitating a word from a foreign language and, at least partly, adapting it in sound or grammar to the native language. The word thus borrowed is called a loanword or borrowing.19、three ways of extending the word stock: borrowing words that already exist in other languages; creating entirely new words; forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.20、English has some built-in processes of creating words: the addition of prefixesand suffixes; blending; compounding; conversion; back formation.21、inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words. P55看表格的例子22、affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem. Two principal kinds of affixation: prefixing and suffixing. Prefixes like un-, pre-, and dis-serve to change the meaning of words, though not usually their part of speech. Suffixes and prefixes often change the grammatical class of words.23、compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. Characteristics : phrases on phonological, syntactic, and semantic grounds.24、conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.P67看Noun-verb:………看P68表格看P74表格25、backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.26、antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.26、there are many different sources of idioms: every-day life; food and cooking; agricultural life; nautical life and military life; many idioms are related to parts of the body, animals, and colors.28、idioms can be divided into three groups:The first group has irregular form but clear meaning.The second group has a regular form but an unclear meaning.The third group is irregular both in form and meaning.Two features of idioms: ambiguity and syntactic peculiarities29、types of dictionaries: 背general and specialized dictionariesmonolingual and bilingual dictionarieselectronic and print dictionaries30、Longman Dictionary of Contemporary EnglishAll the definitions are written using the Longman defining vocabulary of just 2000 common words.The top 3000 most frequent words in spoken and written English are highlighted to show which are the most important to know.Whether In print, on DVD-ROM, online, via a PDA or mobile phone, the user can access language support whenever and wherever he/she wants.31、a euphemism is a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening or unpleasant subjects.32、classification of euphemisms 背，还要有例子P1221). Terms of foreign and/or technical origin (e.g. copulation, perspire…)2).abbreviations (e.g. SOB for son of a bitch…)3).abstractions and ambiguities (e.g. it for excrement…)4).indirections (e.g. unmentionables, privates…)5).mispronunciation (e.g. goldarnit, dadgummit…)6).litotes or reserved understatement (e.g. not exactly thin for fat…)7).changing nouns to modifiers (e.g. makes her look slutty for is a slut…)8). Slang (e.g. pot for marijuana, laid for sex…)33、slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. A slang word is often an informal and transient lexical item used by a specific social group.34、ameliorations refer to the development of more favorable meaning for words. A development of the meaning in the opposite direction, which is perhaps more frequent, is called pejoration. 看P129 第一个表格35、metaphor is very common in English. It is often considered as a variation in the expression of meanings.很抱歉总结晚了，这些就是老师画的范围，有些写着背的是必须背的，会出大题，没写的可能是出大题也可能是出小题。
现代英语词汇学4 word-formation讲解
15
Give clippings for the following words
influenza business parachute refrigerator taxicab
flu biz chute fridge taxi or cab
English Lexicology(II)
ammo conchy telly Aussie rookie trig ump vet
English Lexicology(II)
21
2.2.3 Front Clipping
bus (= omnibus) / bo (= hobo) / chute (=parachute) / coon (=raccoon) / copter (= helicopter) / dozer (=bulldozer) / mum (=chrysanthemum) / phone (= telephone) / quake (=earthquake) 1.2.4 front and back clippings flu (= influenza) / fridge (=refrigerator) / tec (=detective) / scrip (=subscription)/ vic (=convict)
hippo info lab lav math mec
English Lexicology(II)
20
Give clippings for the following words
ammunition conscious objector television Australian recruit trigonometry umpire veterinarian
词汇学术语
词汇学术语第一章词word, lexis词汇vocabulary，lexicon本族词native words外来词borrowed words词汇学lexicology形态学morphology语义学semantics词汇语义学lexical semantics认知语义学cognitive semantics 词源学etymology词典学lexicography认知词典学cognitive lexicography 语料库语言学corpus linguistics纵聚合关系paradigmatic relation 新词coinage时髦词语buzzwords第二章词素morpheme自由词素free form粘着词素bound form\morpheme 变体allomorph词根root自由词根free root粘着词根bound root组合词素combining form词缀affix前缀prefix后缀suffix词缀法affixation派生法derivation派生词derivative构词能力productivity复合法compounding，composition复合词compound转化法conversion 或功能转化法functional shift 或转移法transmutation 零位后缀派生法derivation by zero suffix 或零位派生法zero derivation第三章拼缀法blending截短法clipping首字母拼写法acronmy逆生法back formation由专有名词而来words from proper names拟声法onomatopoeia缩略法abbreviation 或shortening截短词clipped word首字母缩略词initialism首字母拼音词acronym拼缀词blend截除词尾apocope截除词首aphaeresis截除首尾front and back clipping截除词腰syncope缩约形式contractions混成词telescope word行囊词portmanteau word拟声词onomatopoetic word 或imitative word或echo word基本拟声词primary onomatopoeia次要拟声词secondary onomatopoeia第四章语义sense词义meaning意义（概念）meaning（concept）理据motivation拟声理据onomatopoeic motivation形态理据morphologic motivation语义理据semantic motivation词源理据etymologic motivation固定意义timeless meaning 或字面意义literal meaning 应用固定意义applied timeless meaning语义情景意义occasion meaning说话者的情景意义utterer`s occasion meaning概念意义conceptual meaning外延意义denotative meaning认知意义cognitive meaning语义特征semantic features语义成分semantic components内涵意义connotative meaning社会意义social meaning情感意义affective meaning褒义化appreciative贬义化pejorative依附性范畴parasitic category联想意义reflective meaning委婉词语euphemistic expressions搭配意义collocative meaning主题意义thematic meaning语义成分分析法componential analysis语义场理论semantic field theory义素sememe 也称语义特征、语义成分或语义标示semantic markers区别性语义特征distinctive semantic feature表活动的词activity verb表过程的词process verb表身体感受的词verb of bodily sensation表过度性事件的词transitional event verb表短暂活动的词momentary verb同义义场synonymy反义义场antonymy同义场又分为：dialectal synonyms，stylistic synonyms，collocational synonyms，semantically different synonyms 反义场分为：gradable antonyms，complementary antonyms，relational antonyms认知现实主义cognitive realism框架语义学frame semantics第六章词义关系sense relations同义词synonym概念标准conceptual criterion语义标准semantic criterion基本意义denotation内涵成分connotation可替换性标准interchangeable criterion完全同义词absolute，exact，perfect synonyms部分同义词near，partial，loose synonyms口语体colloquial俚语slang方言dialect书面体written学术体learned术语体terminological古语archaic语义相反semantic oppositeness绝对反义词true antonym或矛盾词contradictory terms或二元反义词binary antonym或互补词complementaries 或不可分级反义词non-gradable antonym两极反义词polar antonym或相反词contrary terms或可分级反义词gradable antonym相对反义词converse antonym或相互反义词reciprocal antonym 或关系反义词relational opposites多项不相容词multiple incompatibility矛盾修饰法oxymoron一词多义polysemy多义词polysemic words原型prototype家族相似形family resemblance直线形关系发展linear relation非直线形关系发展non-linear relation指代anaphora同型异义关系homonymy音同sound-alike形同look-alike同形（同音）异义词homonym同音异形（异义）词homophone同形异义词homograph层级关系hierarchical relation下义词hyponym下义关系hyponymy共下义词co- hyponym上义词superordinate term包含关系relationship of inclusion 准下义关系quasi- hyponymy词汇分类结构lexical taxonomy分类关系taxonomy分类词taxonyms上类词superordinate共类词co- taxonyms共类关系co- taxonomy准分类关系quasi-taxonomy核心分类词core taxonym原型分类词prototypical taxonym 外围分类词peripheral taxonym可及性transitivity可推理性deduction部分整体关系partonomy分总的层次关系part-whole总项superordinate分项meronym必要分项necessary meronym非必要分项optional meronym空词项lexical gap第七章词义的发展meaning development 词义的转移meaning shift字面意义literal meaning比喻意义figurative meaning语言内部linguistic语言外部extra- linguistic迂回说法circumlocution词义的扩大the enlarging/widening/extension/expansion of meaning词义的一般化the generalization of meaning词义的缩小the narrowing/restriction of meaning词义的特殊化the specialization of meaning词义的升格the elevation/ascent/amelioration of meaning词义的降格degradation/degeneration/deterioration/catachresis/pejoration of meaning 委婉词语euphemism新义的诞生废弃义obsolete meaning过时义archaic meaning/old-fashioned词义转移semantic shift类比analogy隐喻metaphor相似likeness 联想association借代metonymy提喻synecdoche移位修饰transferred epithet通感synaesthesia拟声onomatopoeia中心范畴central category边缘范畴marginal category相似性similarity 相邻性contact放射型或辐射型radiation连锁型concatenation综合性词义的繁衍proliferation第八章历时的角度diachronic overview谱系分类法genetic classification原始语parent language语系大家族superfamily古英语old English中古英语middle English现代英语modern English本族词语native words借词loan/borrowed words新词neologism世界性词汇cosmopolitan vocabulary 源语言source language接受语言borrowing language第十章新词neologism或vogue words重新分析法reanalysis重叠法reduplication第十一章搭配collocation词语组合combinations of words固定型组合fixed combination自由型组合free combination习惯型搭配natural collocation语言环境linguistic context搭配的理据motivation of collocation 语法理据grammatical motivation语义理据semantic motivation语用理据pragmatic motivation语用性习惯性用语pragmatic idioms认知理据cognitive motivation第十二章成语idiom自由词组free phrase固定词组restricted collocation纯成语pure idioms半成语semi- idioms字面意义的成语literal idioms习用性idiomaticity定型性syntactic frozenness整体性semantic unity不透明性semantic opacity语言的晦涩或透明的程度差异degrees of opacity 透明的transparent半成语semi- idiom半透明semi- transparent不透明的opaque隐喻metaphor 明喻simile idioms比喻成语figurative idioms隐喻成语metaphorical idioms明喻成语similized idioms单词动词single-word verb多词动词multi-word verb短语动词phrasal verbs介词动词prepositional verbs短语介词动词phrasal- prepositional verbs英语谚语English proverbs头韵alliteration元韵assonance尾韵end rhyme头韵兼尾韵alliteration and end rhyme英语谚语词格特征明喻simile隐喻metaphor借喻analogy换喻metonymy拟人personification夸张hyperbole重复repetition排比parallels对偶antithesis倒装inversion省略ellipsis英语词组或英语成对词twin words或words in pairs。
英语专业词汇学课件7the_minor_processes_of_word-formation
* Creations by blending are also called portmanteau words, following Lewis Carroll, the author of Through the Looking Glass . He wrote:
3. Reverse acronyms: the creators start with a word they want as their name, say, CORE, and then they work from those letters to find four words which represent something like the idea they want to be associated with. e.g. MADD
4) the title of a technical or professional post: e.g. MA, PhD, DA, EE, A.E. and P, PA 5) semi-acronyms e.g. A-bomb, H-bomb, D-notice, V-day, E-mail
• Blending : a process of word-formation, in which a new
1) From nouns ending in -er, -ar,-or,-sion,etc. :
to rove from rover to edit from editor
to peddle from peddler to emote from emotion
Lexicology -IV Word formation 词汇学-构词
IV - Word formationIt is the word we use to discuss, or describe the coining, the creation of word, and consist in a series of processes used to coin words. Words are coined thanks to already existing linguisting maternal.Word formation can also be defined as a set of rules which are presiding over the formation of words. These rules are always used to create word. These processes can varied from one language to another.∙ 1 - AcronymIt is an abreviation, a shortening of word. We take the first letter of each, several words and we would make a new word from those initial letters.ex : NASA, MODEM, NATOIf the letters are individually pronounced, it is an initialism.ex : TV, DIY, O.KThere is also hybrid forms.ex : CD-ROM, JPEGA reverses acronym consist in choosing the letters first, and then the word to express your idea. ex : AIM American Indian Movment.∙ 2 - Borrowing / LoanwordThe name is misleading. When you borrow something, you are supposed to get it back when you have finished. When you borrow word, you keep it.ex :Celt -> Avon, cloak, locknessLatin -> street, wall, camp, paperGreek -> paradise, catastrophy, lexiconScandinavian languages -> Apple, rugby, yorkFrench -> city, judge, libertyItalian -> gondola, artichoke, stanzaDutch -> cookie, drill, apartheidSpane -> cocoa, flotilla, torero∙ 3 - Loanshift / calqueIt can be define as a word which is been translated morpheme by morpheme.ex : Ubermensch -> SupermanInstead of using the foreign material , we use the material of our own language to built a new word.∙ 4 - CLippingIn that case the user or the speaker decide to suppress a part of the original word.ex :For-clipping -> omni|bus = busBack-clipping -> cat|erpillar = catDouble-clipping -> in|flu|enza∙ 5 - Compound wordsYou take the root of a word and you add to it a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb.Root (mot racine) : A form which is not further analizable. It is a part of the word which remains that all the affixies had been remooved.ex : un|touch|able (touch is the root)Stem (mot radical) : A part of the word whcih remains when all the inflectional orthographies. There are 3 ways use to write and spell :- A joined compound (accolé) -> greenhouse- A linked compound (relié) -> car-wash- A separated compound (séparé) -> black marketThere are 4 different classes :- noun compound any root + nounex : ash-tray, pick-pocket- verb compound any root + verbex : baby-sit-adjective compound any root (except verb) + adjectiveex : blue green- special noun compound verb + adverbex : drive-in6 - OnomatopoeiaThis type of word is define as a word which is used to imitate the sound of what it represents.A word could spelling which reflect the sound of an object that it denotes.ex :"cock-a-doodle-doo" ("cocorico")"quack" ("coin coin")3 categories by Leonard Bloomfield :- Imitative like : "oh !", " ah !" "ouch !" (by a person)- Symbolic : "bang" (by an animal or object)- "seem suited to meaning" : flush (bruit de la chasse d'eau), sniffThere are also some sequences which are used to convey a peculiar idea.ex : /gl/ This sequence is closely associated to the notion of light (glee, glisten, glitten, gleam, glaw).Those sequences are word fragments.- They do not try to reproduced a sound.- They are neither word nor morphemes or syllables.- Can only be identified because they belonged to a whole set.∙7 - EponymsThese words come from Greek language and composed of two parts :"epi" -> upon"onym" -> nameName from mythology, folklore, history, place name, brand nam.ex : boycott, lynch, cardigan, sandwich (at first it was men's name), bikini (brand name), cheddar (place name), an atlas (mythology name), to google (brand name)∙8 - ToponymsToponyms are word derived from one or several place-name.ex :Hamburg -> hamburgerKashmir -> cashmereNew York London -> nylonGenevra -> Genever -> gin∙9 - Folk etymology / Popular etymologyUsed by people, speakers who can not analyse an obscure form. They replace it with different form which is morphologically transparent.ex :asparagus -> sparrow grassUSB drive -> memory stick∙10 - Affixation / derivationThese word are creating by adding one or two affix(es).ex : dismantleYou take suffixes and preffixes and you add them to a root base. We can create new words from the root base of one word.ex : sens -> sensible, sensitive, sensual, sensuality, sensualy.∙11 - CoinageThese words are created according to the phonoligical possibilities of a given language.ex :Lewis Caroll -> the JabberwockyJ.R.R Tolkien -> HobbitThese words can become part of the common vocabulary.∙12 - Blend / blendingIt is a new lexeme built from two or more words.ex :smo|g -> smoke + fogtig|on -> tiger + lionmot|el -> motor + hotelb|log -> web + log∙13 - Back formationIt is a word which is created by clipping what is mistakenly taken for an affix. We erase a part of the original word.ex :dona|ion -> donateact|ion -> actedit|or -> editlas|er -> to lase14 - Conversion(Jackson) - A process by which a word belonging to one word classis transfered to another word class without any change of form and pronounciation of spelling. We let the word as the original.ex : a transfer -> to transferSometimes conversion can involve a change within the same word class.ex : some beer (uncountable) / a beer (countable)There are 4 kinds :- A noun becoming a verb- A verb becoming a noun- An adjective becoming a verb- An adjective becoming a nounAll these 14 processes are contributing to the creation of new words, yet we must keep in mind that these words are short-lived.William Shakespear was the most contributor (pourvoyeur) to English vocabulary invented hundred thousand of words. Some words are becoming obsolet (due to social or cultural changes), and sometimes it is because you borrow a word to another language. But the only way for words to survive is to belong to a dialect. They can dissapear because notion and elements does not exist anymore.。
英语词汇学(英文版)English Lexicology (IV)
English lexicology (III)
9
10.1 Types of changes
Transference
subjectiveness
objectiveness
hateful: a hateful job, a hateful crime
painful:a painful experience, a painful task
pompous language/style/manner
Villain, clown, churl Democracy, revolution, liberalism,
communism, landlord, trade union
English lexicology (III)
14
10.2 Causes of changes
National Psychology
American English or British English?
English lexicology (III)
24
Questions
What is American English? Is it American English or British English we are speaking
This chapter will deal with the major patterns that changes in meaning follow and the causes of changes.
英语词汇学第四章词的意义
英语词汇学第四章词的意义Words are the building blocks of language and play a crucial role in our ability to communicate effectively. In the field of vocabulary studies, the fourth chapter is dedicated to the study of word meaning, or semantics. This aspect of language is fundamental to our understanding and use of vocabulary, as it delves into the nuances and complexities of how words convey meaning.At the heart of semantics is the concept of lexical meaning which refers to the inherent meaning of a word itself, independent of the context in which it is used. This meaning is often described as the denotative meaning the word carries, or its dictionary definition. For example the word "book" denotes a physical object consisting of pages bound together. This denotative meaning forms the core of the word's semantic representation.However words can also carry connotative meanings which are the associated or implied meanings that go beyond the literal definition. These connotations are shaped by cultural, emotional, and experiential factors and can vary greatly between individuals andcontexts. The word "book" for instance may connotate knowledge, academia, or leisure depending on the person's perspective. Mastering the ability to recognize and utilize both denotative and connotative meanings is crucial for effective communication and language comprehension.Another key aspect of word meaning explored in this chapter is sense relations which examine how words relate to and interact with one another semantically. These relations include synonymy where words share highly similar meanings like "large" and "big", antonymy where words have opposite meanings like "hot" and "cold", and hyponymy where a word is a type or instance of a more general category like "rose" is a hyponym of "flower". Understanding these sense relations allows us to build connections between words, expand our vocabulary, and communicate with greater precision.Polysemy is another important semantic concept covered in this chapter. This refers to a single word having multiple distinct meanings, often related in some way. The word "bank" for instance can mean a financial institution, the edge of a river, or the list of backup data. Polysemy adds richness and flexibility to language but can also lead to ambiguity if the intended meaning is not clear from the context.Closely tied to polysemy is the notion of homonymy where two ormore words are spelled and pronounced the same but have completely unrelated meanings, such as "bat" the flying mammal and "bat" the sports equipment. Differentiating between polysemy and homonymy is an important skill for developing nuanced vocabulary comprehension.The chapter also delves into semantic change examining how the meanings of words can evolve over time. Words may undergo semantic broadening where the meaning expands, narrowing where the meaning becomes more specific, or even complete shifts in meaning. For example the word "nice" originally meant "foolish" or "stupid" but over centuries has come to mean "pleasant" or "agreeable." Tracking these semantic changes is crucial for understanding the dynamic nature of language.Semantic field theory is another key concept explored, which posits that words cluster together into semantic fields or lexical sets based on shared meanings or conceptual associations. For instance, words related to the "kitchen" semantic field might include "stove," "oven," "utensil," "ingredient," etc. Recognizing these semantic connections allows us to organize our vocabulary more effectively and make informed guesses about unknown words.The chapter also covers the role of context in determining word meaning. The same word can take on vastly different meaningsdepending on the surrounding text, tone, situation, or intent of the speaker. For example the word "table" has a different meaning in the phrases "set the table" versus "table the discussion." Mastering the ability to derive meaning from contextual cues is essential for fluid language comprehension.Figurative language is another critical aspect of semantics discussed in this chapter. This includes metaphors, similes, idioms, and other expressions where words take on non-literal meanings. For instance, saying someone has "a heart of gold" is a metaphorical way of describing their kind and generous nature. Familiarity with common figurative expressions and the skill to interpret their intended meanings are hallmarks of advanced vocabulary knowledge.Semantic analysis also involves examining the morphological structures of words and how the combination of roots, prefixes, and suffixes contribute to overall meaning. For example, the word "dislike" is composed of the root "like" combined with the prefix "dis-" to indicate the opposite. Understanding these morphological building blocks empowers learners to decipher the meanings of unfamiliar words.Finally, the chapter explores the role of semantic networks and how words are cognitively organized in the mind. Researchers have found that words are not stored in isolation but are interconnected basedon meaning, sound, spelling, and other associations. These semantic networks allow us to rapidly retrieve words, make connections, and engage in higher-order thinking about language.In conclusion, the fourth chapter of vocabulary studies provides a comprehensive exploration of the semantic dimension of words. From denotation and connotation to sense relations, polysemy, semantic change, and figurative language, this chapter equips learners with a robust understanding of how words convey meaning. Mastering these semantic concepts is essential for developing strong vocabulary skills, engaging in nuanced communication, and deepening one's overall language proficiency.。
英语词汇学 lexic4 Major Process of Word Formation补充Conversion
Word Formation Conversion
（转化法）
What is conversion?
• Don’t trouble troubles until trouble troubles you. • Can you can a can as a canner can a can?
b. Transitive verbs meaning " to cause someone or sth. to be become, the quality denoted by the adjective", such as: e.g. • calm (down), clear, cool, dry, dirty, empty, narrow, slow (down), sober up.
• Sometimes a word may be under multiple conversion, which enables it to function as a member of several word-classes, but the actual grammatical classification of any word depends upon its use in a sentence. E.g.,
•
Suffixation: a few verb-forming affixes in English. be-, en-, -ify, -ize and –en Back-formation
•
Ways of conversion:
a. To put in/on N: e.g. can The workers canned apples. The workers put apples in cans. bottle, cage, corner, pocket. b. To give N, to Provide N: e.g. shelter They sheltered the orphans. cf. They gives shelter to the orphans coat, wax, sugar, label, plaster, grease. c. To deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted by the noun from sth.: e.g. Bill weeded the garden. cf. Bill cut off weeds in the garden. core, dust. skin, gut, peel.
major word-formation 主要构词法解释
e.g. be- adj →v. becalm, belittle de- n. →v. deform, debug en- n. →v. enslave, endanger, encourage un- n. →v. unleash, unearth anti- n. →adj. anti-war, anti-aircraft, antiaging inter- n. →adj. interstate, inter-laboratory, post- n. →adj. post-war, postliberation pre- n. →adj. precalculus, preplant, prewar, preschool
英语词汇学自考重点
英语词汇学自考重点各章重点内容串讲：Introduction1.Lexicology（名词解释题）（1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）.本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。
（2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。
2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题）（1）Two approachesThere are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.synchronic 共时法diachronic 历时法（2）Definition: A, synchronicFrom a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time.However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning.1.word（名词解释）（1）a minimal free form of a language1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free formof a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式）2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。
英语词汇学EnglishLexicology
英语词汇学English Lexicology English LexicologyClass: 1104Number:Name:American EnglishI. The Growth of American English th A. From the 17 century to the end of The War of Independence1. The setting of Jamestown (in 1607)2. The setting of Virginia(in 1609)3. The second internal settlement in Plymouth - by "the May Flower".4. By 1732,the English has set up 13 colonies and then English became theircommon language.5. In 1756,the word "American Dialect"was firstly proposed.6. In 1783,the book The American Spelling Book ,advocating the independence of the American English.B. From The War of Independence to The Civil War1. Because of the immigration more and more people began to speak English.2. In the book An American Dictionary of the English Language, the writer told people the characteristic of the spelling of American English. C. After The Civil WarAmerica became the "main country"of the western country. II. Characteristics of American EnglishA. 美国英语的一致性作为美国唯一的官方语言和多民族通用语言，美国英语具有惊人的一致性。
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d. "Agent of V..": e.g. He is a great bore. cheat, spy, coach, help, rebel. e. "Instrument of V" e.g. The cloth is a good cover for the table. cure, wrap, polish f. " Place of the V": e.g. This is the divide between the two rivers.-This is the place where the .. turn, rise, retreat, dump
Conversion
• • • • • • Definition Noun to Verb conversion Verb to Noun conversion Adjective to Verb conversion Adjective to Noun conversion Other types
Word Formation Conversion
（转化法）
What is conversion?
• Don’t trouble troubles until trouble troubles you. • Can you can a can as a canner can a can?
• FATHER JAILED FOR MURDER OF DAUGHTER
• …after being threatened with bread knife • Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.
b. Transitive verbs meaning " to cause someone or sth. to be become, the quality denoted by the adjective", such as: e.g. • calm (down), clear, cool, dry, dirty, empty, narrow, slow (down), sober up.
• Conversion is a result of the almost entire loss of inflection in Modern English • conversion is extremely productive.
– The percentage of converted words in the vocabulary of contemporary English is about 10.5%.
Types of conversion (2): Verb to Noun conversion
Ways of verb to noun conversion:
a. "state" (static verbs can be changed to count or mass nouns) e.g. He has a desire to be a scientist. He desired to be a scientist. doubt, disgust, want, surprise.
2) verbs from animal nouns: e.g. Tom parroted what the boss had said. cf. Tom repeated what the boss had said by rote like a parrot. Ape, monkey, dog, wolf
•
Suffixation: a few verb-forming affixes in English. be-, en-, -ify, -ize and –en Back-formation
•
Ways of conversion:
a. To put in/on N: e.g. can The workers canned apples. The workers put apples in cans. bottle, cage, corner, pocket. b. To give N, to Provide N: e.g. shelter They sheltered the orphans. cf. They gives shelter to the orphans coat, wax, sugar, label, plaster, grease. c. To deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted by the noun from sth.: e.g. Bill weeded the garden. cf. Bill cut off weeds in the garden. core, dust. skin, gut, peel.
Types of conversion (4): Adj. to Noun conversion
• to plan a table, or to table a plan; • to book a place, or to place a book.
Conversion vs. derivation
• GIRL OF 18 RAPED AFTER THREAT WITH BREAD KNIFE
b. "Event/activity (from dynamic v):
his usual morning commute to work. to give a cry, shudder, start, howl, laugh; to have a look, swim, ride, try, drink; to make a dash, dive, guess, search, an attempt; to take a peep, stroll, turn. c. "Object or result of V": e.g. This little restaurant is quite a find. catch (of dish), answer, cough, import, reject
– Also called "functional shift" or “derivation by zero suffix."
e.g., mushroom
– n. a fast-growing fungus (菌类) of which some kinds can be eaten.
v. to gather mushrooms; now to spread or grow rapidly.
3) verbs from inanimate nouns: e.g. The police shadowed the suspected spy. cf. The police followed the suspected spy closely like a shadow. make
f. To
...into N:
d. To ...with N:
e.g. John braked the car. cf. John stopped the car with a brake. She fingered the soft silk. cf. She felt the soft silk with her fingers. screw, glue, nail, elbow, knife x-ray, head. be e. To N with respect to ...: act as 1) verbs from human nouns: e.g. She mothered the orphan. cf. She looked after the orphan like an mother. nurse, pilot, referee, usher.
change e.g. Please cash this cheque for me. cf. Please change this cheure, orphan, fool, group
send g. To by N: go e.g. Will you please mail the parcel? cf. Will you please send the parcel by mail. We bicycled to the Summer Palace. cf. we went to the Summer palace by bicycle. motor, boat, ski. h. To spend the period of time denoted by N: e.g. We summered in Qingdao. cf. We spend summer in Qingdao holiday, winter, weekend, honeymoon, vacation
a. intransitive verbs meaning "to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective," pale, slim, sour, mellow, dim (out), and idle (away). e.g., She is trying to slim by jogging [dieting].
• Sometimes a word may be under multiple conversion, which enables it to function as a member of several word-classes, but the actual grammatical classification of any word depends upon its use in a sentence. E.g.,