工程教学-翻转课堂

doi:10.1111/bjet.12548A systematic review of research on the flipped learning method in engineering educationAliye Karabulut-Ilgu,Nadia Jaramillo Cherrez and Charles T.JahrenAliye Karabulut-Ilgu is a lecturer in the Department of Civil,Construction and Environmental Engineering at Iowa State University.Nadia Jaramillo Cherrez is a doctoral student in School of Education at Iowa State University. Charles T.Jahren is the W. A.Klinger Teaching Professor in the Department of Civil,Construction and Environmental Engineering at Iowa State University.Address for correspondence:Aliye Karabulut-Ilgu,the Department of Civil,Construction and Environmental Engineering at Iowa State University,394Town Engineering, 813Bissell Road,Ames,IA50011USA.Email:aliye@AbstractThe purpose of this article is to describe the current state of knowledge and practice in the flipped learning approach in engineering education and to provide guidance for practitioners by critically appraising and summarizing existing research.This article is a qualitative synthesis of quantitative and qualitative research investigating the flipped learning approach in engineering education.Systematic review was adopted as the research methodology and article selection and screening process are described.Articles published between2000and May2015were reviewed,and62articles were included for a detailed analysis and synthesis.The results indicated that flipped learning gained popularity amongst engineering educators after2012.The review revealed that research in engineering education focused on documenting the design and development process and sharing preliminary findings and student feedback.Future research examining different facets of a flipped learning implementation,framed around sound theoretical frameworks and evaluation methods,is still needed to establish the pedagogy of flipped learning in teaching engineering.IntroductionFlipped learning—also referred to as inverted learning—extends the typical three-hour learning beyond the confines of classroom time through the use of online platforms.In flipped learning, part or all of direct instruction is delivered through videos and other media;and the class time is used for engaging students in collaborative,hands-on activities(Flipped Learning Network, 2014).Many colleges and universities have embraced flipped learning model as it provides oppor-tunities for increased peer interaction and deeper engagement with the material(Johnson, Adams Becker,Estrada&Freeman,2015).This pedagogical approach has gained such popular-ity in higher education that2015NMC Horizon Report listed flipped learning to be adopted in a large scale in1year or less(Johnson et al.,2015).According to a survey conducted by Center for Digital Education and Sonic Foundry,29%of the higher education faculty in the US reported to be currently implementing flipped learning,and27%reported to be planning to implement it in near future(Bart,2013).Flipped learning appears to be particularly well suited to engineering education because of its potential to“combine learning theories once thought to be incompatible—active,problem-based learning activities founded upon a constructivist ideology and instructional lectures V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAThis is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License,which permits use and distribution in any medium,provided the original work is properly cited,the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.Practitioner NotesWhat is already known about this topic•Flipped learning has gained popularity in higher education.•Flipped learning has been used in a wide range of engineering subdisciplines.•Flipped learning creates opportunities for complex problem solving in engineeringeducation.What this paper adds•There is a paucity of reporting regarding theoretical or conceptual frameworksguiding the development and evaluation of the flipped approach.•Evaluation methods have mostly been limited to quantitative data drawn fromcourse assessments and surveys,and there is a scarcity in qualitative research.•Students involved in the flipped approach have learned as much as their counter-parts in the traditional lecture-style format if not more.Implications for practice and/or policy•Flipped learning course design and research need to be based on a theoreticalframework.•Flipped learning research needs to employ quantitative and qualitative methodsto understand the phenomena in depth.•Further systematic research addressing validity and reliability concerns is neededto consolidate the role of flipped learning in enhancing student learning.derived from direct instruction methods founded upon behaviorist principles”(Bishop&Ver-leger,2013,p.1).Although engineering educators agree that students learn better when they engage in complex problems and projects(Lombardi&Oblinger,2007),they are reluctant to forgo lecturing on theoretical and background information necessary for solving engineering problems(Bishop&Verleger,2013).Flipped learning provides the midway between these two opposite viewpoints and is probably one of the few pedagogical innovations that have received considerable attention and interest(Mitchell,2014).Despite this increasing interest,there does not seem to be an agreement on what flipped learning is and how effective it is in improving student learning(Sharples et al.,2014).Therefore,it is timely to analyze and synthesize research findings to describe the current state of knowledge and inform future research and development efforts.Few articles reviewing flipped learning have been published to date(Estes,Ingram,&Liu,2014; Hamdan,McKnight,McKnight,&Arfstrom,2013)and only one of them focused specifically on engineering(Bishop&Verleger,2013).Bishop and Verleger(2013)reviewed24studies related to the flipped classroom and concluded that studies mostly focused on student perceptions,which were generally positive and single-group designs.Highlighting the scarcity of studies objectively measuring the impact of flipped approach on student learning,these authors recommended con-ducting experimental or quasi-experimental studies to investigate objective learning outcomes. Although Bishop and Verleger’s(2013)review has provided important considerations for engi-neering educators,their review is not categorized as a systematic review since their article selection process was not described,and it included studies that were published through the first half of2012.However,our analyses indicated that approximately90%of the empirical research on flipped learning was published in2013and2014.Including more recent studies provides a more accurate and up-to-date picture of the current state of flipped learning in engineering V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAeducation.The following research questions were addressed in this article by following the sys-tematic review steps recommended by Borrego,Foster,and Froyd (2014).1.What are the trends in flipped classroom in engineering education research?2.What kinds of theoretical frameworks and evaluation methods have been adopted in engineering education investigating flipped learning?3.Is flipped learning effective in teaching engineering according to existing engineering education research?4.What are benefits and challenges of flipped learning as reported in engineering education research?Article selection processTo ensure that relevant studies were located,a wide variety of databases were searched.The key-words searched in all the databases included “flipped”and “engineering”or “flipped”and “engineering education”or “inverted classroom”and “engineering”or “flipped classroom”and “engineering.”Figure 1displays the complete article selection process based on the inclusion criteria.As of May 2015,this search yielded 164results after the duplicates were removed.The articles were organized and tabulated according to context (ie,engineering subdiscipline),and type (eg,empirical,practical,and editorial).The following inclusion criteria were applied:(a)empirical research on the flipped approach in engineering higher education contexts;(b)description of the flipped course design;(c)engineering students and faculty as participants;(d)publication in peer-reviewed journals or conference proceedings.As can be seen in Figure 1,final total of 62studiesFigure 1:Flowchart for article selection process (adapted from Liberati et al.,2009)(Note:numbers do notadd up as one article might be excluded for more than one reason)Flipped Learning in Engineering Education 3VC 2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley &Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAwere included in the final synthesis.Detailed information about each article is provided as Sup-porting Information (Table S1).FindingsSeveral findings emerged as a result of this systematic review of 62studies on flipped learning in engineering education.Trends in the flipped learning and engineering education literatureFigure 2displays the publication trend of proceedings,journal articles and the combined total from 2000to 2014.Studies published in the first half of 2015—when data collection ended—are included in this review but not reported in Figure 2since it does not represent an accurate picture of the whole year of 2015.The first article on flipped learning (using the term “inverted learning”)was published in 2003.From then on,research in this area was very limited,with zero to two or three publications a year until 2013.From 2013,flipped learning started sparking more interest amongst engineering education researchers,and 53%of the articles included in this synthesis were published in 2014.In addition,six studies included in this review were pub-lished in the first half of 2015and they were all journal articles.Although conference proceedings outnumber the journal articles,the increasing trend seems to be similar for both of the publication venues.This trend indicates an increase in the number of engineering courses being converted into a flipped format after 2012.The vast majority of the studies,66%,were published in conference proceedings,and 34%were published in archival journals (Figure 3).The American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE)is the most common publication venue.Theoretical frameworks and evaluation methodsThis synthesis revealed a paucity of published studies that included a theoretical framework guid-ing the research and teaching practices.Out of the 62studies,only 13referred to a theoretical or conceptual framework.One of the most commonly cited rationales behind converting a course from the traditional to a flipped format was the use of in-class time for active learning exercises rather than for lecturing (Cavalli,Neubert,Mcnally,&Jacklitch-Kuikan,2014;Velegol,Zappe,&Mahoney,2015).The other frameworks are listed in Table 1.A detailed description of these theo-retical frameworks can be found as Supporting Information (Supporting Material 2).Researchers adopted a range of data collection methods to evaluate flipped learning.Quantitative methods involved comparison of exam scores,surveys,course evaluations,institutional data (eg,retention rates)and system log data (eg,time spent on certain activities on a coursemanagement Figure 2:The number of studies published from 2000to May 2015[Colour figure can be viewed at]4British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 00No 002017VC 2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley &Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAsystem).Use of qualitative data,such as interviews,classroom recordings and observations,was rather limited.A detailed discussion of the evaluation methods adopted in the studies can be found as Supporting Information (Supporting Material 2).Effectiveness of flipped learning in teaching engineeringResearchers in 30studies compared student learning in traditional classrooms to learning in flipped classrooms (Table 2).Thirteen studies exclusively reported that students in the flipped classroom outperformed their counterparts in the traditional classrooms.Of these,seven studies reported the statistical significance of their findings.In others,the authors reported an increaseinFigure 3:The list of publication venues [Colour figure can be viewed at ]Table 1:Theoretical frameworks included in the studiesTheoretical frameworkStudies Transactional theoryChen,Wang,Kinshuk,and Chen (2014)The Thayer systemChetcuti,Hans,and Brent (2014)Problem-based learning &collaborative learningChiang and Wang (2015)Cooperative educationChoi (2013)Combination of traditional and constructivist approachesDavies,Dean,and Ball (2013)Team-based learningGhadiri,Qayoumi,Junn,and Hsu (2014)Technology acceptance modelIvala,Thiart,and Gachago (2013)Revised community of inquiryKim,Patrick,Srivastava,and Law (2014)Socio-constructivist theoryRedekopp and Ragusa (2013)Self-directed learningRutkowski (2014)Inquiry-based learning Schmidt (2014)Flipped Learning in Engineering Education 5VC 2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley &Sons Ltd on behalf of BERA6British Journal of Educational Technology Vol00No002017Table2:Findings of articles comparing flipped approach to traditional approachFindings StudiesFlipped is more effective Amresh,Carberry,&Femiani(2013);Chao,Chen,and Chuang(2015);Chiang and Wang(2015)*;Fowler(2014);Kalavally,Chan,and Khoo(2014);Lemley et al.(2013);Mason,Shuman,and Cook(2013b)*;McGivney-Burelle and Xue(2013);Ossman and Warren(2014)*;Papadopoulos and Roman(2010)*;Redekoppand Ragusa(2013);Schmidt(2014)*;Swithenbank and DeNucci(2014);Thomas andPhilpot(2012);Yelamarthi,Member,and Drake(2015)*Flipped is more effective and/or no difference Baepler,Walker,and Driessen(2014);Cavalli et al.(2014);Chetcuti,Hans,&Brent(2014);Choi(2013)No difference Buechler,Sealy,and Goomey(2014);Davies et al.(2013);Love,Hodge,Grandgenett,and Swift(2014);Mason,Shuman,and Cook(2013b);Olson(2014);Swift and Wilkins(2014);Talbert(2014);Velegol et al.(2015)Flipped is less effective Hagen and Fratta(2014);McClelland(2013) Flipped is less effective and/or no difference Lavelle,Stimpson,and Brill(2013)*Indicates statistical significance.average scores,but did not report a statistical analysis investigating the significance of the observed difference.Four studies concluded mixed results in terms of learning gain.For example,Baepler et al.(2014) found that students in the flipped section performed significantly higher than the ones in the tra-ditional section during the first year that the flipped approach was implemented,but this difference was not statistically significant in the second year.In nine other studies,researchers did not find any statistically significant difference between flipped and traditional formats in terms of student learning.Two articles reported that students in the flipped classroom did not perform as well as their coun-terparts learning in a traditional environment.Hagen and Fratta(2014)observed that even intrinsically motivated students underperformed in the flipped environment.Students had nega-tive perceptions toward the course and felt unprepared for the exams because they had to manage their own learning.Similarly,McClelland(2013)indicated that the average final score for students in the traditional format was significantly higher than the students in the flipped sec-tions.Other researchers,on the other hand,did not find any statistically significant difference between the two formats in terms of exam scores;however,more students failed the course in the flipped section when compared to the average of nonpass in previous years’traditional offerings, and this difference was statistically significant(Lavelle et al.,2013).To see if there was any difference between student performance in flipped and traditional formats, an analysis of variance was performed based on the mean scores reported in25studies.The results indicated that the mean score for flipped was higher than traditional format but this differ-ence was not statistically significant.However,when we controlled for the author as a clustering effect,the difference was statistically significant at the p<.05level F(1,102)54.26,p5.042.V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAFlipped Learning in Engineering Education7 Benefits and challenges of flipped learningThe results of this synthesis indicated that flipped learning provided various benefits and chal-lenges for students and instructors.The benefits can be listed as flexibility,improvement in interaction,professional skills,and student engagement.Challenges included increased workload for faculty,student resistance,lack of opportunities for just-in-time questions,technical issues, decreased interest and neglected material.One of the most commonly cited benefits of flipped learning was flexibility(Buechler et al.,2014; Kiat&Kwot,2014;Mok,2014;Simpson,Evans,Eley,&Stiles,2003;Velegol et al.,2015).An added value of the flipped approach was being able to rewatch the lecture videos.Students could pause and rewind the videos,take notes and solve example problems while watching the lecture videos.Having access to course materials for24/7provided flexibility for students with different learning preferences and personal commitments.This flexible teaching and learning environment also created time for complex problem solving(Ankeny&Krause,2014;Mok,2014)and oppor-tunities to cover more materials(Mason,Shuman,&Cook,2013a,b).The rationale behind flipped learning is to use face-to-face class time for complex exercises where students can interact with each other and with the instructor.This synthesis concluded that stu-dents enjoyed working with their peers(Bailey&Smith,2013;Ghadiri et al.,2014;Love et al., 2014;Talbert&Valley,2012)and having the instructor available for help(Clark,Norman,& Besterfield-Sacre,2014;Lemley et al.,2013;McGivney-Burelle&Xue,2013;Mok,2014;Swi-thenbank&DeNucci,2014).Student-centered instructional approaches,like flipped learning,not only help students learn the content but also provide opportunities to improve professional skills that“today’s competitive global market and changing work environment demand engineers to possess”(Kumar&Hsiao, 2007,p.18).Several authors argued that flipped learning contributed to students’professional skills such as life-long learning(Luster-Teasley,Hargrove-Leak,&Waters,2014),learner autonomy(Kim,Kim,Khera,&Getman,2014;Mok,2014),critical thinking(Chetcuti et al., 2014)and interpersonal skills(Yelamarthi et al.,2015).Another benefit that this synthesis revealed was student engagement(Lavelle et al.,2013).Several researchers found that students came to class better prepared(Chetcuti et al.,2014;Jungic,Kaur, Mulholland,&Xin,2015;Mok,2014;Papadopoulos&Roman,2010),and they devoted more time and formed better study habits compared to traditional classroom approaches(Papadopoulos &Roman,2010).Although the findings in terms of class attendance varied,some researchers found that the flipped format increased attendance(Chen et al.,2014;Rutkowski,2014)and retention rate(Kim,Patrick,et al.,2014;Love et al.,2014).For example,Rutkowski(2014)found that regular lecture attendance increased from55%to70%when the course was converted to the flipped format.Similarly,Chen et al.(2014)found out that students logged into the course platform more frequently to access course materials compared to the prior versions of the course.Challenges of flipped learningAs with any new approach,flipped learning brings some challenges for instructors and students. The biggest challenge for instructors was the heavy workload prior to and during class.Convert-ing a course from a traditional teaching approach to a flipped format required a reasonable amount of front-end investment from faculty members(Ghadiri et al.,2014;Kalavally et al., 2014).During class,on the other hand,one instructor had to serve many students requesting assistance(Clark et al.,2014).V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERA8British Journal of Educational Technology Vol00No002017 Challenges for students included uninteresting online material,technical issues and insufficient knowledge about the new approach.For example,students in Amresh,Carberry,and Femiani’s (2013)study found the online videos boring.Similarly,the length of the videos contributed to lack of interest in the material(Olson,2014).Other researchers found that students could easily skip some of the materials in the flipped classrooms.For example,Ossman and Warren indicated that rather than watching the videos,students read the slides(2014).Velegol and her colleagues made the lecture attendance optional,so students who were able to finish their homework on their own chose not to attend the class(2015).Although it is generally accepted that today’s net generation students ubiquitously use various technological tools and applications in their daily lives,this synthesis implied that technical issues frustrated students(Clemens et al.,2013;Tague&Baker,2014).Students complained about the connectivity speed which is assumed to have been resolved at least on higher education campuses (Everett,Morgan,Stanzione,&Mallouk,2014).Student resistance was another challenge that flipped learning instructors faced.Having gone through a traditional approach throughout their educational career,students felt overwhelmed when faced with a new approach that required them to actively participate in the learning pro-cess(Amresh et al.,2013;Bland,2006;Gannod,Burge,&Helmick,2008).Students who lacked metacognitive and organizational skills struggled in flipped classrooms(Margoniner,2014)as they opined that they were not being taught;rather,they taught themselves(Talbert&Valley, 2012)DiscussionTrends in the flipped learning and engineering education literatureThe publication trend indicates that there is a proliferating interest in flipped learning in engineer-ing education.Benefits such as learning gain,flexibility,opportunities for interaction and student engagement seem to have encouraged several engineering educators to convert their traditional classrooms to a flipped format.However,the scarcity of archived journal publications indicates that research on flipped learning in engineering education is still in its infancy.The conference proceedings usually adopted a practice-oriented approach;and focused on documenting the design and development process and sharing some preliminary findings and student feedback. Further systematic research investigating different components and claims of flipped learning using various research methods is needed to establish flipped learning as an effective pedagogical approach in the field.Theoretical frameworks and evaluation methodsAs a critical component of disciplined research,theoretical frameworks help researchers to organ-ize and create a strong argument to justify the significance of a given research problem and guide selection of appropriate data collection and analysis methods(Antonenko,2015).More than 50%of the studies included in this review lacked a theoretical framework for implementing flipped learning in engineering education.If flipped learning has the potential to combine learn-ing theories once thought to be incompatible,as Bishop and Verleger(2013)argued,then the research on flipped learning needs to detail how this combination can be successfully imple-mented with the aid of varied instructional technology tools.These models need to present strategies for engineering educators for designing,developing and evaluating instruction.The most commonly cited motivation behind converting a course from the traditional to a flipped format was the use of in-class time for active learning exercises rather than for lecturing.However, active learning itself is an ambiguous term that has been used and interpreted differently by vari-ous researchers and practitioners(Prince,2004).A multitude of activities ranging from pausing the lecture for a few minutes and asking students to compare notes with each other to V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERAFlipped Learning in Engineering Education9 simulations and games would fall under the category of active learning.Some of these activities do not necessarily require flipping the instruction.Therefore,specific pedagogical models that may fall under the umbrella of the term“active learning”such as case-based reasoning,problem-based learning and project-based learning could provide a clearer direction for researchers and practitioners.Evaluation methods were limited to grade comparisons to measure learning gain and surveys to get student feedback.These methods provide valuable information about the role of flipped approach in student learning;however,they may fall short in analyzing the overall impact. Bishop and Verleger(2013)called for more experimental studies to investigate the effectiveness of the flipped approach,but this review indicated that more systematic qualitative and mixed-method approaches are needed to understand what flipped learning entails and how it supports student learning in various ways.Effectiveness of the flipped learningThe results of this systematic review indicated that flipped learning was more effective than tradi-tional lecture method in many cases.It would have been ideal to conduct a meta-analysis to make a definitive conclusion about the superiority of flipped approach over traditional approach; however,majority of the studies included in this study failed to report mean scores,standard devi-ations and number of observations required for a meta-analysis.The studies also used different measurements(eg,final course grades,exam scores,quiz scores)which made such a comparison difficult.However,one-way ANOVA test results based on the studies that reported a mean score indicated that students in the flipped approach learned the content as much as their counterparts in the traditional approach if not better.Benefits and challenges of flipped learningFlipped learning approach seemed to be promising in regards to the benefits it provides for stu-dents and instructors.Yet,the research focused on measuring the effectiveness of the new approach through comparisons to traditional approaches,and the conclusions about benefits were reported as additional findings.Therefore,further research is needed to investigate the transferability of these findings to different contexts.Specifically,the claims about the professional skills and increased interaction need to be investigated thoroughly.For example,only one study included in this review analyzed how students interacted with each other during face-to-face problem sessions and learned how their conversations shifted from simply recalling facts to con-ceptual discussions(Lin et al.,2014).Further research investigating the student engagement and interaction in the face-to-face sessions would help instructors who have hesitations about individ-ual contributions in collaborative group assignments.This line of research can also produce a list of guidelines for successfully flipping an engineering course and help practitioners to identify areas of problems and develop interventions as needed.Some of the challenges cited in these studies,such as heavy workload and technical issues,can be addressed effectively.Instructors might be advised to gradually convert their courses rather than doing it all at once because material development might be overwhelming.Although it may not be plausible to foresee every technical issue,making students aware of possible issues might reduce frustration.Some other challenges,on the other hand,raise some crucial concerns about the design of a flipped classroom.Studies that found a lack of engagement in the flipped format seemed not to make full use of the format(eg,Ossman&Warren,2014;Velegol et al.,2015). Online materials need to be carefully designed and complex problems,where students are required to collaborate and interact with each other and the instructor,should be assigned for in-class sessions.This would increase lecture attendance and engagement as concluded in studies by Chen et al.(2014)and Rutkowski(2014).V C2017The Authors British Journal of Educational Technology published by John Wiley&Sons Ltd on behalf of BERA。