英语语言学讲义Chapter4 Syntax
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis) has two ways of representation: Tree diagram brackets
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms, but they are never completely accurate. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes. For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
现代英语语言学理论 CHAPTER 4
4.1 The Traditional Approach
– Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. – The study of sentence formation, therefore, involves a great
and structure of words(morphology), with their customary arrangement in phrases and sentences(syntax), and now often with language sounds(phonology): usually distinguished from the study of word meaning(semantics) • The system of word structures and word arrangements of a given language at a given time. • A body of rules for speaking and writing a given language.
英语语言学Lecture 4 Syntax
1.1 Definition of Syntax
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
Chapter 4 Syntax
Content
I. Introduction to Syntax II. Syntactic relations III. Traditional Approach IV. Structural Approach V. Generative Approach VI. Functional Approach VII. Systemic-functional Approach
4.1 Paradigmatic Relation
It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
4. The Structural Approach
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises
1. What is syntax?
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. What is phrase structure rule?
The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:
NP →(Det) N (PP) ...
VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...
AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...
PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...
We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V , A or P.
The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)
老师新编简明英语语言学教程第二版第4章答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax
1. What is syntax?
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. What is phrase structure rule?
The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:
NP →(Det) N (PP) ...
VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...
AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...
PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...
We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis (IC).
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.4.1 Structural analysis
A descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames, which can be sentences with empty slots in them.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系） (4) The _____ makes a lot of noise. (nouns: car, radio, child, dog) (5) I heard a _____ yesterday. (nouns: car, radio, child, dog)
chapter4 syntax
Chapter 4：Syntax
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.
2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.
4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.
5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
新篇简明英语语言学 Chapter Four Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学
一、定义
1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。（把单词凑在一起形成句子）
二、知识点
4.2 Category 范畴
Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.
这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：（1）包括单词所表达的意义的类别，（2）它们所带词缀的类别，（3）它们所能出现的结构的类别。
4.2.1 word level category词层面类型（对于句法学而言最核心的类型）1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型（词性）：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv（open开放性词类,can add new words）P43图（在句子构成中起重要作用）
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Categories
Category（范畴）refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)
Phrase structure rules (PS-rule 段语结构规则）
The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram(同名3586)
states. Adjectives can elaborate the properties or attributes of
Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (Universal Grammar普遍文法).
4
In this chapter we are concerned with the composition of sentences by introducing some of the most common categories of words in English as well as some simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural units.
23
The XP rule XP规则
XP (X短语)
Specifier X Complement Head
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax - Supplementary Readings Text 1
Supplementary Readings
Text One
Direction: The following text is about the grammars of English. What’s your opinion of Grammar 1, Grammar 2 and Grammar 3? (M. E. Heatherington, How Language Works. Winthrop Publishers, 1980)
The definitions of the word “grammar” take up three columns in the O.E.D., so it is clear that the word is used to indicate several different concepts. Probably the three most applicable usages for our purpose are what W. Nelson Francis calls “Grammar 1,”“Grammar 2,”and “Grammar 3.”Grammar 1 Francis describes as “the set of formal patterns in which the words of a language are arranged in order to convey larger meanings”; Grammar 2 refers to “the branch of linguistic science …concerned with description, analysis, and formulization of formal language patterns”; and Grammar 3 means “linguistic etiquette.” Since these three very different meanings of the word “grammar”are often used interchangeably and therefore confusingly, we shall here substitute different words for the separate meanings.
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
on the shelf;
chapter4 syntax
ii. infinite v. phrase (非限定性) ⑴infinitive v. phrase. Ex, I am glad to see you. ⑵gerund v. phrase. ex, Working here is a great pleasure. finite v. phrase (要与人称，数保持一致，如： I have finished…/He has finished…/we shall do…) ⑶participle v. phrase( present and past participle) ex, The book is rather boring./ Dressed in red , the girl looks very nice.
of result: He has bought her everything she wants so that he won her heart at last. ⑺…of degree: she is so greedy that he can`t put up with it. ⑻…of concession: Although he loves her very much, he decides to leave her. ⑼…of comparison: In his eyes, she is as beautiful as xishi. ⑽…of contrasting: He is in GZ while she is in Beijing. ⑾…of purpose: In order that he can win her heart, he buys her bunches of red roses every day.
胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (4)
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.1 The traditional approach
4.1.1 Number, gender and case
4.1.2 T ense and aspect
[For these two sections, please consult materials on traditional English grammar. –
icywarmtea]
4.1.3 Concord and government
Concord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of
some categories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord
in number as in this man, these men. And the form of a subject should agree with that of
the verb in terms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English; They speak
English.
Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
In our textbook, categories refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
英语中有被动语态，用“分词”表示。主动 态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或 用“by短语” Active voice Jim caught the ball. Passive voice The ball was caught. Passive voice with “by-phrase” The ball was caught by Jim.
数(Number)
Number is also reflected in pronouns(as in I/we) and verbs since in English there is concord (agreement) of number between nouns and verbs ( The boy runs / The boys run). Noun Pronoun Verb (agreement) works work
语言学Chapter4课后练习答案(20200602074319)
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises
1. What is syntax?
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. What is phrase structure rule?
The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ...
VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...
AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...
PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...
We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.
The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)
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Chapter 4 Syntax
Teaching aims
1. Overview of syntax as a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.
2. Overview the four phrases of syntactic study in the history
3. Examine the composition of sentences in terms of category and structure
4. Discuss grammatical relations between each noun phrase and the verb in a sentence.
5. Introduce IC analysis and five phrases of generative approach.
4.1 Introduction to syntax
Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
Grammatical sentences & Syntactic rule
1) Sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences.
2) Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules
Introduction to syntax
According to traditional approach grammar is divided into two parts: morphology and syntax.
As a major component of grammar,Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
Grammatical & ungrammatical sentences
A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
On the other hand, a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized, then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of their language.
Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
Grammatical sentences & Syntactic rule
1) Sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences.
2) Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules
4.2 Syntax as s system of rules
Discussion:
Can we make a dictionary of sentences? Why or why not?
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances that speakers implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences. .
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances that speakers implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences. .
The major goal of linguistics is, then, to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge
The infinite numbers of sentences & Syntactic rule
1) For any natural language, a set of syntactic rules are capable of yielding an endless number of sentences in that language.
2) That is, the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
4.3.1 Lexical categories --- Word Class
A language has major and minor lexical categories of a finite set.
1) Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.
2) Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.
English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories, given below with examples:
English Four Major Lexical Categories
•Noun (N): student, linguistics, lecture, John
•Verb (V): like, read, go
•Adjective (Adj): tall, lovely, red
•Adverb (Adv): loudly, constantly, hard
English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories, given below with examples:
•English Six Minor Lexical Categories
•Determiner (Det): the, a, this, his
•Auxiliary (Aux): can, will, do, be, have
•Preposition (Prep): in, at, to, on
•Pronoun (Pron): he, she, us, mine
•Conjunction (Conj): and, or, but, while
•Interjection (Int): oh, ah, eh
4.3.2 Phrasal categories --- Phrasal Class
Except for a very few number, lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrases.
In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP) , prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP)