Democracy, a short history
国外民粹主义研究前沿 精品

国外民粹主义研究前沿周凡尽管列宁在1912年所写的《中国的民主主义和民粹主义》一文中把孙中山的民主革命纲领称作民粹主义的纲领并把孙中山称作“中国的民粹主义者”,[1]尽管有学者断言毛泽东曾染上民粹主义色彩甚至认为中国的“文化大革命”就是民粹主义性质的政治运动,[2]但是,民粹主义无论作为概念术语、作为社会思潮、作为政治运动抑或作为一种意识形态,最初并不起源于中国。
俄国十月革命一声炮响,给中国送来了马列主义,同时,也让中国人了解了民粹主义——中国人最早就是通过马列主义知道民粹主义这个概念的。
世界最早的民粹运动发生在俄国,而且,不论是马克思、恩格斯还是列宁,都一无例外地遭遇过、思考过、探讨过、回应过俄国民粹主义(Narodnichestvo)问题。
在19世纪晚期的俄国,马克思主义是在俄国民粹派和其他民粹主义运动不能说服民众加入他们的事业之后才获得长足发展的,因此,就俄国当时的情况而论,马克思主义在俄国的胜利在某种意义上也就意味着俄国民粹主义的失败;但是,俄国民粹主义的失败并不等于民粹主义的销声匿迹。
自俄国在19世纪六、七十年代出现轰轰烈烈的民粹主义运动以来,作为现代社会的一种独特现象,民粹主义在世界范围内从来没有彻底断绝过、消失过。
一如保罗•塔格特所言,“民粹主义是间歇性的插曲,它不时强劲地迸发并带来激进政治变革的潜能,遽然之间,它又消退殆尽;然而,民粹主义并非全无效验,在其极盛时,它总会使政治的内容和基调发生结构性变化,哪里有代表民意的政治,哪里就有作为极具潜力的运动和政治观点的民粹主义”。
[3] 就在俄国民粹主义日渐衰竭并濒于消亡之际,美国在19世纪晚期爆发了著名的“人民党(Populist Party)”运动。
二十世纪三、四十年代,法西斯主义利用民粹主义的动员方式登上了欧洲的政治舞台,而随着纳粹主义的覆灭和冷战时代的到来,民粹主义在1950-1960年代成为拉丁美洲政治的主流。
二十世纪80年代以来,民粹主义在国际范围内此伏彼起、掀起了一次又一次的高潮,特别是20世纪90年代以来,民粹主义在欧洲持续升温,所谓“新民粹主义(Neo-Populism)”声浪日壮,欧洲各国中右政党和极右势力纷纷抬头。
把正文给我_别管脚注_评格拉夫敦和他的_脚注趣史_陆扬

陆 扬 把 正 文 给 我 别 管 脚 注
格拉夫敦的背景, 无论家庭还是学术, 都不寻常。作为犹太后裔, 他的祖父曾是沙皇的骑兵。而作 为学者, 他领域异常宽广, 但就核心而言, 是以学术史和精英知识传播史为重心的近代西方文化史。简 单来说, 就是包括古典文化和基督教在内的知识系统在文艺复兴以来的西方世界里, 如何得到传承、 改 。 、 , , 造并在各领域内体现出来 从人文 宗教和科学的著述 到艺术与建筑的实践 再到阅读的历史和书籍 的制作等等, 都是这一过程的重要组成部分。这些无疑也都是格拉夫敦关照的方面, 因此说他是一位全 。 1960 , 能型的西方知识史的探究者并不为过 年代他在芝加哥大学攻读博士 期间为了博士论文的研究 对象而去伦敦瓦堡研究所( Warburg Institute) 从学于意大利史学大家莫米利亚诺( Arnaldo Momigliano ) , 从此深受莫氏学风和学识规模的影响。学界一般视他为莫米利亚诺最出色的弟子之一。而我推测格拉 夫敦心底里的另一位偶像是艺术史家潘诺夫斯基( Erwin Panofsky ) 。用格拉夫敦本人对潘诺夫斯基的 “从视觉材料到文献, 评价来说, 也就是 从文学到科学, 从古典到巴洛克, 他都能像芭蕾舞大师般轻松自
历 史 学 报 二 ○ 一 四 年 第 五 期
把正文给我 , 别管脚注
— — — 评格拉夫敦和他的《脚注趣史 》脚注趣史》 是美国史家安东尼·格拉夫敦的一部著作。该著考察了史学脚注从 17 世纪的发
源到 19 世纪成为职业史家的必要工具的过程 。 格拉夫敦本人的学术贡献集中体现在对文艺复兴以来西 方知识史和文化史的研究 。他在学术旨趣和方法上深受莫米利亚诺和潘诺夫斯基等学者的影响 。 近年 《脚注趣史 》 来, 他在西方史学界影响力的上升标志着西方史学自身的转向, 而 既体现了他的学术特色, 也 是他的影响由学术圈扩展到知识大众的一部重要著作 。该著的真正目的是要通过对史学脚注形成的讨论 来探讨自 17 世纪以来西方史学的重要阶段的特点 。在追寻脚注形成的缘由时, 该著着意避免目的论式的 分析, 同时挖掘大量被现代学术史忽略的人物及其贡献, 对不少重要的史家的史学特点也做了有价值的重 估。该著提醒读者, 脚注和史学撰作的紧张关系源自于现代史学本身的特点和局限 。 关键词: 脚注; 安东尼·格拉夫敦; 莫米利亚诺; 古物研究者; 文人共和国 作者简介: 陆扬, 北京大学中国古代史研究中心研究员( 北京 100871 )
希罗多德的alter egos: 《历史》叙事中的“第二自我”与《历史》叙述

希罗多德的alter egos:《历史》叙事中的“第二自我”与《历史》叙述摘要:希罗多德《历史》叙事中的“第二自我”(alter egos)从不同层面揭示出这位“历史之父”的多重身份,并不同程度地推进了《历史》的叙事与叙述主题的多角度展现。
希罗多德通过建构文本中的“第二自我”试图树立自身的权威,并向雅典的受叙者(narratee)传递影响超越文本局限的“永恒真理”。
伴随着叙事情节发展与希罗多德史学思想传递的需要,《历史》叙事中的“第二自我”产生转变,并表现出二元特征,叙事中的“第二自我” 和受叙者与希罗多德和雅典听众间存在着多重的互应关系。
关键词:希罗多德;《历史》;第二自我希罗多德的《历史》(Historia)是一部宏大的叙述作品,他将众多内容、形式迥异的叙事(logos)①串联,融进《历史》庞杂②的叙述③体系。
传统观点认为,希罗多德《历史》中的logoi(古希腊语logos的复数:叙事)仅仅是一些被用来创造戏剧性效果(dramatic effect),以取悦受众的“插话”(digressions),而自身并不包含那些有益于子孙后代,并为他们提供参考和借鉴意义的永恒真理(historical truth)。
然而,从单一叙事(logos)文本的角度研究希罗多德的叙述动机(narrative motive),容易把它与《历史》整体的叙述割裂开来。
值得注意的是,希罗多德拥有多重面相。
一个叙事中,特定的人物形象在文本叙述中往往被视为真实作者个人形象的再现或真实作者理想的、文学化的形象创造,它被称为叙述者在文本中重构的“第二自我”(second self,persona)。
[1](P99)希罗多德在《历史》的叙事中采用了“第二自我”(alter ego)的叙述策略,以从不同侧面展示他的多重身份。
希罗多德处于深受雅典民主制下口头表演文化(oral performance culture)[2](P8~29)影响的古典时期,对于演说技巧演说在古希腊文化中具有十分重要的意义,在荷马社会,拥有出色的演说才能是赢得领导权的有效手段。
历史学专业英语复习

一些形容词和副词用法短语一些连词和短语thereforeHistoricans, therefore, have to assess their evidence with a critical eye.It is therefore difficult to offer mor than a vague description…I shall therefore propound answers to my four questions…moreoverMoreover, the purpose of history as a serious endeavor to understand human life is never fulfilled by the mere sifting of evidence for facts.furthermoreEach such revolution, furthermore, has occurred in a particular way in a unique set of social –structural and international circumstances.henceHence this part demonstrates how the conflicts unleashed in the revolutionalry crises led to social –revolutionary outcomes, with certain patterns common to all three Revolutions and others distinctive to one or two of them…thus…the experience of historical thinking which hey have thus acquired…be inclined toHistorians are increasingly inclined to discuss the struggle for power at the level of the factory, the school, or even the family.in so far asIt is scientifically valuable only in so far as the new arrangement gives us the answer to a question we have already decided to ask.sum up… the contrast between old and new history might be summed up in six points.be dated from, be dated back to…democracy, as a practical word, can be dated from about the same time..to a large extent, to some extentIt is true that all these advancces were based to a large extent on the exploitation of the many and benefited them very little.in principleEverything has a past, which can in principle be reconstructed and related to the rest of the past.in particularHe must be not only an histrian but a philosopher; and in particular his philosophical thought musthave included sepeical attention to the problems of historical thought. 提出观点用语I think…I suggest…I argueI propound…I propose..。
《综合英语(二)》复习资料

《综合英语(二)》复习资料《综合英语(二)》复习资料1I. Multiple Choice1. Don’t let the child play with scissors_________he cuts himself.A. in caseB. so thatC. now thatD. only if2. He wrote the letter _________a new pen.A. inB. onC. withD. by3. ________ it’s an old ritual, ________ Coming-of-Age Day is changing.A. Though; butB. Although; butC. Though; /D. Although; and4. She says she would do the same work _________ she didn 't receive any money for it.A. ifB. even ifC. so thatD. because5. The teacher had no control _________ the children.A. overB. onC. ofD. to6. He suggests we_________to the cinema at once, otherwise we will be late.A. must goB. goC. will goD. would go7. You will not be_________about your food in time of great hunger.A. specialB. particularC. peculiarD. specific8. I wish you_________go with me tomorrow.A. willB. wouldC. shallD. can9. There is much I enjoy about the changing seasons, but my favorite time is the _________from fall to winter.A. transmissionB. transformationC. transitionD. transfer10. In some countries, the Grown-up celebration is a very formal ________.A. accidentB. eventC. incidentD. matter11. _________,so he didn’t come to school last week.A. Though he was illB. Being illC. Having been illD. He was ill12. He will be back in ________________ day or twoA. aB. theC. anD. /13. During rumspringa, Amish teenagers can do ________they want to do.A. whatB. thatC. whateverD. those14. ____________________today, he would get there by Friday.A. Would he leaveB. Was he leaving成考复习资料C. Were he to leaveD. If he leaves15. These rules are similar ________ the first rule I just discussed.A. toB. withC. asD. by16. They all remained __________ in the lecture hall.B. standingC. stoodD. to stand17. If I had come here yesterday, I _________________him.A. would have seenB. would seeC. have seenD. saw18. Most rites of passage have three ________, or parts, in the ritual: separation, transition, and incorporation.A. stagesB. proceduresC. tasksD. periods19. This movie is not_________for children to see: it contains too much violence and too many love scenes.A. profoundB. validC. decentD. upright20. The crowd cheered wildly at the sight of Liu Xiang, who was reported_________________ the world record in the 110-meter hurdle race.A. breakingB. having brokenC. to have brokenD. to break21. Many people like white color as it is a_________of purity.A. symbolC. signalD. symptom22. A student is allowed to leave the room __________ a teacher has given permission.A. in caseB. only ifC. even ifD. as soon as23. ________ N(n)ew kimonos are expensive, ________ many women do not buy them.A. Because;soB. /;soC. /;andD. As;so24. Many of my mother’s friends _________ Buddhism.A. believeB. believe inC. have faith inD. have confidence in25. He has been doing badly __________ his operation.A. since everB. from then onC. ever sinceD. after thatII. Word Formation.Directions: Complete the sentences with the proper form of the words in the brackets.1.She had attended an interview, at her boyfriend’s __________ (insist).2.After their meeting, both men described the talks as frank, friendly and _____ (construct).3.The young man met all the health __________ (qualify) a fighter pilot needs.4.In modern society, work and ongoing education are becoming __________ (separate); learninghas become a lifelong necessity.5.Both the sisters work in a supermarket wrapping and __________ (delivery) gifts.成考复习资料6.__________ (expose) to lead is known to damage the brains of young children.7.Through some __________ (fortunate) accident, the information reached me a day late.8.He is a university professor who __________ (special) in the history of Russian empire.9.Is it possible to __________ (pursuit) economic reform and democracy at the same time?10.The border crossing with Egypt is restricted to travelers with special permission, and thecrossings with Israel are virtually __________ (penetrable) for Palestinians.III. Blank Filling.1.My income caries from month to month. It __________ to be about 5,000 yuan.2.Yes, now we know that the owner of the coal mine is responsible for the death of the 43 miners.But on one can yet __________ how he could have hidden the facts for so long.3.I took the teacher’s warning and decided to work __________. As time went by, I began toimprove rapidly. My efforts proved to be very rewarding.4.I never felt at ease in front of strangers when I was a kid, soI usually __________.5.I forgot the time __________ carelessness. So by the time I got to the cinema the movie was allbut over.6.He did not look very impressive __________ personal appearance, but he turned out to be aman of very unusual talents.7.The 33 Chilean coal miners were __________ love for their country when they were finallybrought up to the surface safe and sound.8.There are corrupt officials __________. But I believe there are honest officials around as wellwho care about the people and their own good name, and will rise to the occasion when the moment comes.9.Many young people fresh out of university are __________ a reasonably inexpensive place tolive. The city government knows this and has promised to see to it that they will soon have apartments they can afford.10.It is understood that during the president’s absence, the vice-president will __________ theweekly meeting.IV. ClozeThe man who brings my milk used to knock for his money for the week’s milk while I was eating breakfast on Saturday morning.1lately he has been arriving before I get up. Staff 2mean thatfour men are sharing fiverounds. So he has to start 3. Delivering milk to people’s homes is scarcely good business, especially when the consumer may have a choice of two or three firms 4 a single road. 5my local difficulties, however, labor troubles are not as acute as a few years ago. There are enough men prepared to make an early morning stake 6an open-air job 7 a fair measure of freedom.8 they did stop calling, women should find 9hard work to collect all the milk they need 10 self-service stores. Dairies 11that stopping deliveries in the United States resulted in falling sales.Marketing ideas have included introducing extra lines, 12dairy products, 13the milkmen can carry to increase turnover. Already they have taken over many rounds given up by bakeries. One dairyman said: “It won’t be long 14the milkman delivers more bread than milk.” Some milkmen deliver pot atoes, 15it seems as though diversification will be limited only 16the size of the vans.So the milkman is likely to remain a familiar 17, and the dairy products he sells 18 change very much in this decade. Flavored milk is popular on the Continent. In Britain those who like it buy plain milk and add their own flavoring.19the returnable bottle continues to be used. As long as it has a reasonable life-----30 to 40 trips are usual-----the cost of collection and cleaning is 20.1. A) Soon B) Just C) After D) When2. A) storage B) lack C) short D) shortages3. A) early B) earliest C) earlier D) more early4. A) serving B) deserving C) reserving D) preserving5. A) In spite of B) in case of C) Because of D) With6. A) for the reason of B) for the sake of C) in order for D) as for7. A) with B) for C) in D) to8. A) If B) Though C) As D) Because9. A) that B) it C) this D) X10. A) from B) for C) into D) through11. A) noticed B) are aware C) get to know D) understand12. A) except for B) for example C) in addition to D) such as13. A) for which B) in which C) of which D) which14. A) that B) when C) after D) before15. A) and B) for C)so D) however16. A) for B) by C) in D) with17. A) figure B) number C) staff D) rate18. A) are unlikely to B) are likely to C) are surely to D) are likely not to19. A) So B) For C) Even D) As成考复习资料20. A) worthy B) worthwhile C) worthless D) worth答案Ⅰ. Multiple Choice1-5ACCBA 6-10 BBBCB 11—15 DACCA 16—20 BAACC 21—25 ABBBC II. Word formation1. insistence2. constructive3. qualifications4. inseparable5. delivering6. exposure7. unfortunate8. specializes9. pursue 10. impenetrableⅢ. Blank filling1. averages out2. account for3. with a will4. kept to myself5. out of6. in terms of7. bursting with8. to be sure.9. stuck for 10. preside overIV.Cloze1-5 BDCAA 6-10: BAABA 11-15: BCDDA 16-20: BAACB成考复习资料《综合英语(二)》复习资料2I. Multiple Choice1. ______ is not considered a good practice.A. To make promises without keeping themB. Made promises without keeping themC. Making promises without keeping themD. She makes promises without keeping them2. ______ many earthquake victims, but they also helped them to recover from the shock.A. Not only did the medical team saveB. The medical team not only savesC. Not only the medical team savedD. Not only does the medical team save3. The fact that he was able to avoid the seemingly inevitable crash made him a national hero. Theitalicized part is ______.A. attributive clauseB. subjective clauseC. appositive clauseD. objective clause4. ______ his nervousness, he kept shaking my hand and wouldn’t let go of it.A. Owe toB. BecauseC. Owning toD. Owing to5. I like to sleep _____ the windows open.A. asB. whenC. withD. if6. The job was not very well paid. She took it just _______ interest.A. becauseB. out ofC. withD. in7. Well, we agreed that night that we _______ meet here again exactly twenty years from that date and time.A. willB. are going toC. was going toD. would8. She is _______to what people think of her.A. sensibleB. reasonableC. sensitiveD. sentimental9. What the lecturer has said ____ everyone present.A. is concerned aboutB. applies forC. is concerned inD. applies to10. The struggle between the two parties became so bitter that it was almost ____ a riot.A. in the nature ofB. in terms ofC. in the respect ofD. in view of11. A lot of people were waiting for the shop ___.A. openB. to be openedC. to be openingD. to have been opening12. ----Come on; please give me some ideas about the project.----Sorry. With so much work _______ my mind, I almost break down.A. filledB. fillingC. to fillD. being filled13. These are kamikaze jobs, the ones almost to end your career.A. guaranteedB. guaranteeC. guaranteesD. guaranteeing14. If you have a spouse and children who _______ you at home every day, overworking would be difficult.A. hopeB. expectC. wishD. anticipate15. Soon I saw a small brick cottage that glowed pinkly in the ________ sun.A. westB. westernC. westeringD. wester16. People did not teach their children to be _______ of strangers in the past.A. variedB. varyC. wariedD. wary17. The sound of their laughter died away.Which one of the following definitions has the same meaning with the underlined phrase?A. to become gradually weaker or fainter and finally disappearB. to become as dead as a cold stoneC. to become lifeless and finally dieD. to become not so lively and finally no one can feel it18. The cries of _____ filled the air.A. injured and dyingB. the injured and dyingC. injuring and diedD. the injuring and died19. ______ hurling pumice stones and ash into the air.A. Once had not Vesuvius stoppedB. Once not had Vesuvius stoppedC. Not once had Vesuvius stoppedD. Not had once Vesuvius stopped20. They waited there, too ______ to run further, ______ the end.A. frightening … expectedB. frightened … expectedC. frightening … expectingD. frightened … expecting成考复习资料Ⅱ. Word FormationDirections: Complete the sentences with the proper form of the words in the brackets.1. The modest group size allows our teachers to ___________ (responsible) to the needs of each student.2. Worrying about the things that are not in our control is wasteful and ___________ (destroy).3. Eating with the troops and sitting and listening to their stories was incredibly ___________ (reward).4. Within the next day or two, they have to make a ___________ (moment) choice.5. Xenia Forrester and her husband Mark decided to ___________ (extension) a helping hand to the street artists after hearing about the difficulties they faced while trying to sell their work.6. It is an economic ___________ (revive) driven in large part by massive stimulus measures around the world.7. He said that building works and interior design will be carried out to a high ___________ (specify).8. There are fewer than 1000 pandas left alive, probably insufficient to sustain the ___________ (continue) of the species.9. Without an audience the performance is ___________ (point).10. Let us descend from the virtual world of perfection to the real, ___________ (perfect) world we are living in.III. Blank Filling1. Everybody can see that he is ________ power. I don’t think he will succeed in winning the support of the people again.2. All business companies are out to make a profit. Tha t’s why the law must _________ they don’t get away easily if they cheat us.3. The word “terrorist”is worth analyzing. We can’t refer to everyone who fights as a terrorist. ___________, we can’t describe those who kill innocent women and children as “revolutionaries” either. We must make a distinction between these people.4. What we _______ as “The Palace Museum” today used to the emperor’s palace. It is also known as the Forbidden City, and was first built in the Ming Dynasty.5. We invited her to go mountain climbing with us, but she didn’t ________ go because the doctor had been warning her against too much exercise.6. We were nervous at first. Then the professor told us that he had been looking forward to this party because he loved the dumplings we were about to make for him today. This immediately put us _______.7. You can’t expect a child of ten to _________ the full meaning of social responsibility. The boy only used this expression out of curiosity.8. At the recent APEC meeting, we emphasized the problems we had _________ and suggested we work for closer cooperation, and all countries responded to our suggestion warmly.9. Everybody _______ the big gap between the rich and the poor, and we also have many good suggestions on how to solve this problem. We only lack the courage to act on these suggestions.10. He did not look very impressive in terms of personal appearance, but he ________ to be a man of very unusual talents.IV. ClozeA land free from destruction, plus wealth, natural resources, and labor supply ——all these were important 1in helping England to become the center for the Industrial Revolution. 2 they were not enough. Something 3 was needed to start the industrial process. That “something special” was men4individuals who could invent machines, find new5of power, and establish business organizations to reshape society.The men who6the machines of the Industrial Revolution 7from many backgrounds and many occupations. Many of them were8inventors than scientists. A man who is a 9 scientist is primarily interested in doing his research 10. He is not necessarily working 11 that his findings can be used.An inventor of one interested in applied science is 12trying to make something that has a concrete 13. He may try to solve a problem by singing the theories 14science or experimenting through trial and error. Regardless of his method, he is working to obtain a 15 result: the construction of a harvesting machine, the burning of a light bulb, or one of 16other objectives.Most of people who 17the machines of the Industrial Revolution were inventors, not trained scientists. A few were bothscientists and inventors. Even those who had 18or no training in science might not have made their inventions 19 a groundwork had not been laid by scientists years20.1. A) cases B) reasons C) factors D) situations成考复习资料2. A) But B) And C) Besides D) Even3. A) else B) near C) extra D) similar4. A) generating B) effective C) motivating D) creative5. A) origins B) sources C) bases D) discoveries6. A) employed B) created C) operated D) controlled7. A) came B) arrived C) stemmed D) appeared8. A) less B) better C) more D) worse9. A) genuine B) practical C) pure D) clever10. A) happily B) occasionally C) reluctantly D) accurately11. A) now B) and C) all D) so12. A) seldom B) sometimes C) usually D) never13. A) plan B) use C) idea D) means14. A) of B) with C) to D) as15. A) single B) sole C) specialized D) specific16. A) few B) those C) many D) all17. A) proposed B) developed C) supplied D) offered18. A) little B) much C) some D) any19. A) as B) if C) because D) while20. A) ago B) past C) ahead D)before答案Ⅰ. Multiple Choice1-5: CACDC 6-10: BDCDA 11-15 BBABC 16-20 DABCDII. Word formation1. respond2. destructive3. rewarding4. momentous5. extend6. revival7. specification8.continuity9. pointless 10. imperfect Ⅲ. Blank filling1. out for2. see to it that3. On the other hand4. refer to5. care to6. at ease7. take in8. in common9. is aware of 10. turned outIV.Cloze1-5 CAADB 6-10 BACCD 11-15 DCBAD 16-20 CBABD成考复习资料《综合英语(二)》复习资料3I. Multiple Choice1.Suddenly, he ______ me with a knife.A. went atB. went forC. went in forD. went by2.The king in disguise passed through the crowd without ______.A. been recognizedB. being recognizedC. recognizedD. recognizing3.It is important to understand the powerful economic and social forces ______ behind our ownaction.A. at workB. on workC. in workD. by work4.This technology will ______ if the United States goes to war with Iraq.A. come into playB. come into beingC. come into effectD. come into power5.Mary heard the ______ bell of an ambulance.A. penetratedB. penetrableC. penetratingD. penetration6.The pair of emphasizing coordinating conjunctions in “…the business of the college is not onlyto train you, but to put you in touch with what the best human minds have thought.” connects ___________.A. two nounsB. two infinitive phrasesC. two modal verbsD. two prepositional phrases7.I don’t like the way ______.A. the man talkedB. that the man talkedC. which the man talkedD. on which the man talked8.Which one in the following cannot be considered as an antonym of “indifferent”?A. interestedB. differentC. keenD. enthusiastic9.He all but cried with relief when he knew he passed the exam. In the following choices, whichexpression has the same meaning as “all but”?A. completelyB. almostC. hardlyD. merely10.He lost his job ______ because of his incompetence ______ because of his age. At 45, he wasconsidered too old.A. not only...but alsoB. not so much...forC. not so much...asD. either...or11.She ______ at the thought that she could have been killed.A. shudderedB. shiveredC. shookD. shimmered12.It was possible to protect oneself from the pumice stones but not from the gas, and Pompeiiansdied ______.A. with the hundredsB. in the hundredsC. by the hundredsD. on the hundreds13.Over the past decades, sea ice ______ in the Arctic as a result of global warming.A. had decreasedB. decreasedC. has been decreasingD. is decreasing14.Mary is ______ hardworking than her sister, but she failed in the exam.A. not soB. no moreC. not lessD. no less15.There is no doubt ______ the committee has made the right decision on the housing project.A. whyB. thatC. whetherD. when16.Ken is not present, so I shall accept the prize ______.A. on his partB. on his behalfC. for his partD. for his behalf17.The owls were ______ into England, not native.A. broughtB. producedC. introducedD. recommended18.Many, ______ not most, college students have part-time jobs.A. justB. ifC. onlyD. are19.To stop there was like clearing the ground without any idea of what was ______ on it.A. builtB. being builtC. to buildD. to be built20.The universe has left the conditions of human existence ______.A. precariously balancedB. to be balancedC. precarious balanceD. was balancedII. Word FormationDirections: Complete the sentences with the proper form of the words in the brackets.1.You must realize that it is _________ (arrogant) that has cramped your progress.2.It was _________ (consider) of him to keep us waiting like that.3.The _________ (extend) of the garden will take several weeks.4.She later developed a deep _________ (admire) for Mike.5.To my great _________ (amuse), his false beard fell off.6.He noticed with shock the _________ (frail) of her thin body.7.He is amazingly _________ (persist) in trying to get that beautiful girl to go out with him.8.An _________ (overwhelm) majority of the members were against the idea.9.In this new digital age, how do we keep ourselves from being _________ (inform)?10.The poet expressed in his poem his deep and _________(endure) affection for hismotherland.Directions: Complete the sentences, using the proper form of the expressions listed below.成考复习资料1.They decide to stop exporting wheat because as a result of the terrible drought, they _________enough food to feed the nation.2. A man needs a rest. _________ economy. You can’t expect economy to keep on growingrapidly forever.3.He knew that he had hurt his brother’s feelings. He wished to _________.4.Interracial relationship is not easy because soon their cultural differences will _________.5.After he analyzed the complicated situation there, he _________ that it wouldn’t be so easy tofind a peaceful settlement for the moment.6._________ government policy the unemployment rate has dropped. It was reduced to less thanfour percent for the first half of the year.7.I was just about to leave the office yesterday when hesuddenly _________ the room withoutknocking at the door, wild with anger.8.You can’t expect a child of ten to _________ the full meaning of social responsibility. The boyonly used this expression out of curiosity.9.I forgot the time out of carelessness. So by the time I got to the cinema the movie was_________ over.10.I never felt at ease in front of strangers when I was a kid, so I usually _________.IV. ClozeThe last tunnel across the English channel is reported to have been linked at the end of June, 1991. Thus, the long-expected Eurotunnel will soon be open 1 public. Before long, one will be able to travel from London to Paris 2 3.5 hours.Until recently, the English Channel was 3 by the British as their last-ditch defence 4 their enemies. It was not until after World War II 5 the British began to 6 the importance of an all-weather link 7 the outside world. 8 there is still a psychological 9 that stands between the British public and a bridge 10 this particular stretch of water. Some people think that it’s going to have 11 disadvantages than advantages. For example, the British have 12 to control the spread of rabies (狂犬病). They are afraid that Eurotunnel will 13 back this terrible disease. Some people 14 that the opening of the tunnel will 15 Britain i nto a s muggler’s paradise. Others 16 that the vast construction of the tunnel will17 the quiet greenery of the Knet countryside.18 all these objections, the desire 19 a closer link with the 20 and the entire world is irresistible. Most people believe that the tunnel will be good for Britain.1. A) for B) into C) to D) towards2. A) in B) for C) with D) within3. A) considered B) organized C) served D) turned4. A) against B) towards C) around D) beyond5. A) that B) which C) when D) and6. A) confirm B) realize C) define D) restrict7. A) over B) through C) in D) with8. A) Therefore B) Moreover C) Besides D) Yet9. A) block B) lock C) jam D) tie10. A) above B) across C) on D) up11. A) rather B) much C) many D) more12. A) planned B) developed C) managed D) succeeded13. A) return B) come C) bring D) get14. A) afraid B) fear C) frighten D) threaten15. A) plunge B) put C) turn D) set16. A) argue B) quarrel C) inquire D) judge17. A) collapse B) destroy C) impact D) grind18.A) In addition to B) Despite C) Regardless D) But for19. A) of B) for C) concerning D) around20. A) land B) country C) continent D) people成考复习资料答案Ⅰ. Multiple Choice1-5 ABAAC 6-10 BABBC 11—15: ABCDB 16—20:DCBDA II. Word formation1.arrogance2. inconsiderate3. extension4. admiration5. amusement6. frailty7. persistent8. overwhelming9. misinformed 10. enduringⅢ. Blank filling1.are stuck for2. the same goes for3. make it up to him4. come into play5. came to the conclusion6. Thanks to7. burst into8. take in9. all but 10. kept to myselfIV. Cloze1-5 CDAAA 6-10 BDDAB 11-15 DCCBC 16-20 ABBBC。
英语翻译——精选推荐

英语翻译1.Put the following English sentences into Chinese1)I would like to point particularly to the last paragraph in which there is anadmirable degree of pragmatism which I think is typical of that country in the present day.译:我想特别指出最后⼀段的内容,此处运⽤了适度的实⽤主义,⽽当今这⼀理论在这个国家体现的⾮常明显。
2)The assertion that it was difficult, if not impossible, for a people to enjoy its basicrights unless it was able to determine freely its political status and to ensure freely its economic, social and cultural development was now scarcely contested. 译:有⼈断⾔除⾮⼈们能够⾃由的决定其政治地位,同时保证其经济、社会、⽂化发展的⾃由度,否则⼈们⽆法享受⾃⼰的基本权利。
⽽这⼀断⾔如今鲜受质疑。
3)While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians,modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past.译:尽管现在对于历史的解释⼏乎和历史学家⼀样多,现代历史实践⼤多与⼀点保持紧密⼀致,那就是将历史看做是⼀种对过去重⼤事件重塑和解释的尝试。
英语习语在日常生活中的应用

On the Application of English Idioms in Daily Life英语习语在日常生活中的应用摘要众所周知,英语习语一直都很流行,如果运用恰当准确的话,将会得到很好的表达效果。
英语习语具有简单的句子结构和深刻的意义,许多的文化信息都用习语来表述。
从某些意义上讲,英语习语是环境的反映、生活的反映和历史文化的反映等。
它们通常运用于各种语言类型当中,非正式的和正式的、口语的和书面的。
英语习语通常包括成语、俗语、格言、歇后语、谚语、俚语、行话等。
它是一种由词语共同组成的,不同于字典定义单个单词的短语,他可以使努力学习习语的学生和学习者较难理解。
习语的短语和短句由两个或多个词组成,它作为一个意义单位,不能被认为是由各种单词组成的意思。
其表现形式音节优美,音律协调,或含蓄幽默,或严肃典雅,言简意赅,形象生动,妙趣横生,给人一种美的享受。
习语是语言的精华,他带有浓厚的民族色彩和鲜明的文化内涵。
这篇文章主要谈论英语习语以及在日常生活中怎样准确运用习语。
关键词:英语习语;意义;运用;日常生活AbstractAs is known to us all, English idioms are always very popular among people, if used properly, we can get a very good expressive effect. They contain brief structures and profound meanings. Lots of cultural information is embodied in idioms. In some senses, idioms are the reflection of the environment, life, historical culture, etc. They are commonly used in all types of language, informal and formal, spoken and written. In brief, idioms are fixed phrases. It usually includes proverb, saying, slang, jargon and so on. An idiom is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words, which can make idioms hard for students and learners to understand. The idioms are set phrases and short sentences made up of two or more words; it functions as a unit of meaning which cannot be predicted from its literal meaning of its component words. Its forms of expression are beautiful in syllable, and harmonious in rhythm. Some are implicit or humorous; some are serious and elegant; some are concise, vivid and interesting, which are gratifying man’s aesthetic sense. Idioms are also the essence of a language, which have strong national colors and distinctive cultural connotations. This thesismainly talks about English idioms and how to use English idioms properly in daily life.Key words: English idioms; meanings; applications; daily lifeContents摘要 (I)Abstract (II)1. Introduction (1)2. An Analysis of English idioms (3)2.1 Origin of English Idioms (3)2.2 Classification of English Idioms (6)2.3 Significance of English Idioms (7)3. Application of English Idioms in Daily Life (7)3.1 Application of Different Types of English Idioms (7)3.1.1 Food Culture and the English Idioms (7)3.1.2 English names and English idioms (8)3.1.3 Color and English idioms (9)3.1.4 Numbers and English idioms (10)3.1.5 The Bible and the English idioms (11)3.2 Restrictions on the Use of English Idioms in Daily Life (12)3.2.1 Idioms Used in Passive or Active V oice (12)3.2.2 Idioms Used on Formal and Informal Occasions (12)3.3.3 Idioms Not Used in Present Participles (12)4. Conclusion (13)Bibliography (14)Acknowledgements (15)1. IntroductionIdioms, as a matter of fact, have no strict and accurate definition of themselves and it is just a custom from one generation to another. What is idiom about? After the comprehensive researching of a large amount of English-Chinese dictionaries, references and related documents, idioms in broad sense may include: set phrases, proverbs, singings, epigrams, slang expressions, colloquialisms, quotation two-part allegorical sayings,of which the fist part, always stated, is descriptive, while the second part sometimes unstated, carries the message (chiefly in Chinese) . Idioms are widely recognized as the essence or the crystallization of language, and fixed sentences or phrases which have been refined through ages of use. Idioms from the productive labor of ordinary people and life experiences, is the essence of the language and the epitome of a man in a long-term agreement to vulgar language practice. Idioms are unique, fixed expression of a language in the course of formation. Idioms formed in the course, after the test of practice, and gradually accepted by the people, they have a fixed structure and the strong historical colors. Idioms are the same as the essence of literary language. They carry the cultural characteristics and cultural information of a nation. While a relatively long history of language contains a lot of idioms, Chinese and English language all the same.Idioms, after a long-term use of language, derive from fixed phrases or short sentences. Idioms, or conventionalized multiword expressions, often but not always non-literal, are hardly marginal in English, though they have been relatively neglected in lexical studies of the language. This neglect is especially evident in respect of the functions of idioms. The apparent existence of idioms everywhere makes us realize the importance of them. The rest of the thesis will mainly explore the features and application of English idioms, in spite of the fact that they are the most opaque part of the vocabulary. Such as “not a word to anyone” (don’t tell anybody; keep it secret), “pull all one’s eggs in one basket”(place one’s all efforts, interest or hopes in a single person or thing), and “leave no stone unturned”( use every possible effort to find out; employ every possible enquiry).As English is becoming widely used, more and more people attach much importance to learning English.In the process of teaching high school English, teachers often blend the English idiom in subtly,not only can improve the students’ interest in learning English, but also enrich our knowledge, broaden our horizons.In order to stimulate students’ interest in learning English teachers often spare no efforts to find ways.Through our own teaching practice, we found that English idioms greatly stimul ate students’ interest in learning.As English teachers, in order to increase the students’ vocabulary, we tend to adopt a number of ways of teaching.The word associated with a particular idiom linked to students’ vocabulary as a snowball rapidly. For example, a white lie(善意的谎言),green-eyed(嫉妒的), cry over spilled milk(做无益的后悔), put all one’s eggs in one basket(孤注一掷) and so on. We should try our best to put what we have learnt into practice. To be an English learner knowing much about English is very important to comprehend the exact meaning of each idiom, and to use it properly. At the same time, you cannot infer the meaning of many English idioms personally and literally. Any small mistake in use may result in different meanings. If you are not prudent enough and use idioms in an improper way, maybe you will not express what you really want to, even misunderstood by others.Language is the carrier of culture, language, essentially speaking, teaching the course is to teaching the process of culture.Idioms der ive from people’s long-term use the phrases or sentences, which is the core and essence of the language.It reads fluently and sounds easy to remember.Very few words, but the reader can vividly convey his ideas and cause extensive association.People are becoming more and more interested in English idioms, because using vivid English idioms in proper time can make speaking and writing expressive, effective, concise, lively and unique. A s the role and importance of idioms Gorky said:It is a great way to teach us to learn to save time,compression language.All the people and experience life on the social history are typically concretized.Thus, a writer must know this material.Because of this,famous writers from all times are experts of using idioms,and idioms, sayings and more loved by the masses.In short,idioms are unique and have deep historical and cultural roots.It is a concentrated expression of the language in the form of special ingredients and a variety of ethnic and rhetorical devices. The following will focus on the resources, classification and meaning of English Idioms and the application of English idioms.2. An Analysis of English idioms2.1 Origin of English IdiomsAny language in a long and splendid history has its magic power and great influence on the people who speak or learn it. As a result, idioms have appeared since the people can record the history. Idioms come from the productive labor of ordinary people and life experiences. It has been long ages and has become conventions. They come from many aspects in our daily life. Most of the idioms in the world are derived from folk works. A large amount of English idioms are created by sailors on the sea, hunters in the woods, farmers in the fields, workers at mills, housewives and cooks in the kitchen and so on. When they are engaged in their specialized activities and production labors, it is always the case that there is a need of condensed sentences to express their thoughts associated with their jobs. Therefore, some sentences and phrases are produced by putting together the surrounding things that they are familiar with. A series of metaphor of vividness and provide food for thought are beloved by everyone and become their technology term in their occupation. As time goes by, the people have found out that this kind of terms and phrases can be used in a more extensive sense, and then using them in a variety of similar circumstances, most of which convey the exquisite philosophy that are enough to instruct and admonish the people. In the course of time, the idioms fall into a pattern that is universally appreciated, and become an essential part of modern English language. For instance, to hit the hay (to go to bed and sleep), the last straw (the final thing after a series of bad things, the thing that finally make you angry) are both created by farmers. The rope is used to tie down the livestock, the original meaning of end of one’s rope is the livestock which were tied down to one end of the rope, and the livestock can only eatthe gras s within the length of the rope and couldn’t move any farther. Now, its meaning is the limitation of one’s capacity. the end of one’s rope, to strike while the iron is hot (to do things at a proper time), to go through the mill (to go through a lot of hardships) etc. are invented by the English workers; while to cry over split milk(it’s no use to recall things that had passed away), to be half-baked (a little learning), in hot water (in a difficult situation), in apple-pie order(in good order), you cannot eat a cake and have it (you cannot own two things at one time) are produced by housewives and cooks. The idioms are full of wit and humor, spread from mouth to mouth. Some idioms come from historical stories, some come from fables, such as Greek fable, Norse mythology.The Greek mythology is the earliest folk oral creation, created between the twelfth century and the eighth century B.C. It has been spread by the Greeks from person to person, from generation to generation for hundreds of years. The continuously artistic treatment of it enables its existence in works of literary, history, philosophy. The Greek mythology occupies an important position in European culture; a great deal of myths became household known in some English speaking countries, thus having been a salutary lesson and reference in English idioms. There were two capes in the eastern part of the Strait of Gibraltar: one is in Europe, the other is in Africa. The two capes used to join together, it was Hercules who broke the two capes apart, so they were called “the Pillars of Hercules”. At that time, the Greeks thought they were the farthest distance between the two places, so the idiom the Pillars of Hercules means “the ends of the earth”. In the idiom to act the part of a Trojan Horse, Trojan Horse alluded to the Greek mythology. “The ancient Greeks kept attacking on the Troy city but without victory, they pretended to withdraw the troops while leaving a pretty huge wooden horse with ambush in it. The huge wooden horse was taken into the Troy city as booty, at night, however, the Greek troops returned to Troy, cooperated with the ambush in the wooden horse and the Troy finally fell to the Greeks.” Today, the phrase Trojan House is taken as a matter of a trap for the enemy or the adversary and widely used as a thing that seems to be good for one while the truth is destructive. The king Augeas in Elis (in Greek myth) kept three thousand head of cattle, but the stockade had not been swept for thirty years, thedirty dung was piling up like a hill. Hercules received Eurystheus’ order to clean the stockade; Hercules used the water from the Alpheus River cleaned up the stockade in one day, the deed soon became one of the most heroic deeds of Hercules. Afterwards, “Augean stables”became an English idiom, whose meaning is the dirtiest place; the meaning of to cleanse the Augean stables is the figurative form of “to clean the gathering litters (the material, moral, religious, legal litters)”Fable originated in oral folk creation, some idioms derive from the Bible. The Bible is the classic works of the Christianity, which occupies an important place and has a great influence in the world literary works. Its English translation, especially the Authorized Version by the England King James I, laying the foundation of modern English, moreover, many literary works such as poems, plays and novels are all based on Bible. The Bible has a rather extensive influence on some Americans who believe in Christian, thus lots of idioms are from the Bible. The Bible influences the idioms mainly in two forms: the first influence is some Biblical characters and Bible stories were spread far and wide, finally they become the idioms; the second influence is that the Bible is well known in the western countries, the sentences and phrases are widely recited by the people, as time goes by, the sentences and phrases become idioms. Take the idiom to put new wine into old bottles for example, it means against the grain and extracted from New Testament—Matthew, Chapte r nine: “Neither do men put wine into old bottles, else the bottles break, nor the wine rennet out, and bottles perish, but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved.” In this chapter, the “bottles” is translated into “leather bags”, becau se the containers at ancient times are made of hides, but not the same bottles as those we use now.Along with the development of English language, the literal meanings of numerous idioms originated from the Bible have been extended in varying degrees, such as cast pearls before swine derived from the New Testament—Matthew, Chapter seven, the original meaning is: “never cast pearls before pigs, or they may tramp the pearls and come to bite you in turn.” Now the extended meaning is “a bright pearl thrown int o darkness”; to make bricks without straw, an extract from Old Testament—Exodus: “Pharaohs never provide the arrested Israelis with straws, butcommand them to pick subtle of wheat, however, the amount of bricks they made must be as many as they made befor e.” Its extended meaning now is “You cannot make something out of nothing.”The above rough definition of idiom demonstrates us the classifications of them, of which the more profoundly we get the knowledge of its type, the more precisely we extract essence of it. As a result, before trying to translate the idioms we are required to check their classifications.2.2 Classification of English IdiomsThe idioms, in a broad sense, include slang, proverbs, common sayings and idioms. They have various forms, for example, phrases, clauses and sentences. Each nation has its own language, among which idiom is the essence and treasure, and has strong cultural characteristics. Relying on idiom’s advantages, it has a long history, and a profound moral and strong expression. Idioms often have strong national color and local color. Generally, idioms could be divided into four aspects: set phrases, proverbs, common sayings and a two-part allegorical saying. According to semantic relationship, the meaning of the idioms can be clearly figured out from each word’s meaning. For example, show one’ teeth; what done is done; green as grass (young or inexperienced). According to the grammatical functions:1)Idioms adjective in nature, their constitutes are probably not adjective. Forexample: as poor as a church mouse (having or earning barely enoughmoney for one’s own needs); all things to all men (take great pain to todayto all person).2)Idioms adverbial in nature, the idioms here contain numerous prepositionalphrases, which can be considered both as adjective and adverb, so the idioms which have the same structure may function differently in a sentence. For example, tooth and nail (with great violence and determination), heart and soul and so on.As we mentioned before, idioms are stable. The constitutes can not be changed or replaced, so the sentence idioms are sayings and proverbs, which can be subdivided into simple, compound sentences. e.g.:Am I your brother’s keeper? (simple)Pig might fly if he had wings. (complex)He who has ears, let him hear. (complex )Whatsoever a man sowed, that should he also reap. (compound).2.3 Significance of English IdiomsIt is important to know the exact meanings of them through using proper idioms on proper occasions. The previous parts focus on the origins and classification of the idioms which are extremely helpful for comprehending the meanings of English idioms. So we should know something about the origins of idioms first. It is better for us to try to learn and use idioms consciously as many as possible and try to apply them into our daily lives. Only in this way can we get to know the exact meanings of idioms, although it is a traditional way for study.Language is the carrier of culture. Language and culture are inseparable. English idioms are the essence of English and the cultural heritage of the people.3. Application of English Idioms in Daily Life3.1 Application of Different Types of English IdiomsAs everybody knows, the purpose of learning is to put what we learn into practice. From previous parts we have gotten a general comprehension of English idioms as well as classification and meanings of idioms. What we need to do next is to study the application of idioms in our daily life, and know how to use properly on suitable occasions. Generally speaking, it can divide the application into 6 aspects from different perspectives: first, application of different types of idioms; second, application of idioms for expressing different feelings or opinions; third, the restrictions in the use of English idioms.3.1.1 Food Culture and the English IdiomsNo matter in western countries or in China, food always have some symbolic meanings, so many idioms come from food culture.Bread is the main food in western countries, and it is the necessary food for westerners. In the Bible, bread is the staff of life, Jesus said to his followers,“ I tellyou the truth, it is my Father who gives you the true bread from heaven. For the bread of God is who comes down from heaven and gives life to the world. I am the bread of life. I am the bread of life. I am the living bread that comes down from heaven. If anyone eats of this bread, he will live forever. This bread is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world.”“take the bread out of someone’s mouth”;“have one’s bread buttered for life”;“one’s daily bread”(Holy Bible, 256)Milk is not replaced in western countries, meanwhile, milk is a symbol of good and rich. Such as the two sentences, “A land flowing with milk and honey” means the land is fertil e. “The milk of human kindness” means the good nature of human beings.Honey is an important symbol, it is the supernatural being’s and poet’s favorite food. And it is related to purity, inspiration, eloquence and bless of God, meanwhile, honey stands for sweet of love. Such as “be as sweet as honey”“The honeymoon is over.”“It was no honeymoon.”After knowing about idioms and folk culture, we should understand an idiom in context. Let us see an example below.If there is a saying: “this tin opener’s driving me round the bend! I think I’ll throw it away and get a new one.” Then the context and the common sense tell us that Drive round the bend refers to something different from driving a car round a curve in the road. So the context point out that the tin opener is not working properly and that it’s having an effect on the person using it.“Drive or send somebody round the bend” is an idiom used as an informal style meaning “to make someone very bored or very angry.”(Wang Fuxiang, 58)3.1.2 English names and English idiomsDid heroes create history? Or did history produce heroes? This question has confused people for ages. Plenty of English idioms with names relate to historical figures. John Hancock, one of Boston’s leaders during the crisis, led to the outb reak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress for two years and was the first governor of the Commonwealthof Massachusetts. People remember him for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence. John Hancock is a synonym for signature in the United States. For example: Please put your “John Hancock” on this document. Another well-known idiom is from Sir Jack Robinson, the Constable of the Tower of London or several years from 1660 onward. It is said that he was in any way unusually quick in dispatching the Tower’s inmates. Therefore, before you can say Jack Robinson became an expression of a short time e.g. “Done!”There are enumerable English idioms with names coming from Greek and Roman mythology, or Aesop’s fables. For example, Pandora’s Box refers to box full of trouble. In Greek stories, Zeus held a banquet in celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. However, Eris, goddess of discord, was uninvited. Angered by this snub, Eris arrived at the celebration, where she threw a golden apple (the Apple of Discord) into the proceedings, on which was the inscription the fairest one. Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. They asked Zeus to judge which of them was fairest and eventually Zeus reluctant to declared that Paris.3.1.3 Color and English idiomsThe cognition of human beings towards colors is the most fundamental and direct one. But color words or color idioms are the most distinct, the direct and the most concrete image pattern that human beings hold. The diversity of things makes up the diversity of colors. In return the diversity of colors advances the diversifying development of human vocabulary, with the consistent evolution of human thinking; human beings are more and more exposed to other things. So it’s a great need to obtain both abundant and precious color words to describe our beautiful world. The frequent use of color idioms fully reflects the close relations between languages and cultures. Color words are the most culturally connotative one in English vocabulary. Besides representing their concrete colors, they also reflect their cultural background.In both China and England, red is related to some celebrations or happy days. For example, in English, a red letter day means a celebration day or a happy day. In Chinese, kaimenhong and zouhongyun represent happy and successful things. White makes people be associated with no value. For example, in English, they have whiteelephant or white hope. That means something with no value. In Chinese, we have baifei,baida and so on. All these can be translated into all in vain, which have no association with white. Black represents disastrous or unwelcoming people or things. For example, in English black Friday refers the financial crises that happened on September 24th, 1869 and September19th, 1873. In Chinese, we have black Monday or black July representing unlucky days.3.1.4 Numbers and English idiomsWesterners think that unharmony is good. Even number is unlucky and singular number is lucky expect 13 in their heart, that is contrary to the Chinese culture. So when people express further feelings, they often add hundred or thousand to “one”, such as “have one thousand and one things to do” and “one hundred and one thanks”.“Three” is respected by all western countries. And it is regarded as a dignified and lucky symbol, which is made by the trinity. Westerners consider that world is made of earth, ocean and sky. And nature includes animal, plant and mineral. On all accounts, westerners prefer the number “3” which is regarded as a perfect number.“All Good thing go by three.”“This is the third time; I hope good luck lies in odd numbers”“three-ring circus”“Three’s a crowd.”“three score and ten.”“Seven” is the most mysterious number, and it influences further on western culture and even all over the world. “Seven” is a holy number in the western culture. Westerners pay attention to seven kinds of virtues, seven periods of human beings and so on, because “seven” is scared. For example, God use six days to create the earth, the seventh day is regarded as the rest day. The virtue and sin are related to “seven”.e.g.“seven virtues.”“seven deadly sins.”“the seven corporal work of mercy.”“There are many idioms about seven.”“ A man may lose more in an hour than he can get in seven.”“ keep a thing seven years and you will find a use for it.”“ the seventh son of a seven son.”“Thirteen” is a frighten ing number. Westerners regard “thirteen” as the first taboo. In the history, there is a saying in the western country that “Thirteen is an unlucky number.” Westerners never use thirteen in their floor number and house number as soon as possible.“Friday” is an unlucky day in westerners’ eyes, too. If one day is the thirteenth and Friday, westerners will feel more anxious on that day. e.g.:“Black Friday.”“Man Friday.”“Friday face.”3.1.5 The Bible and the English idiomsThe western traditional belief is Christianity. Religious is the spirit power of westerners and God is the master of westerners. So there are many idioms with God and religion. e.g.:“He loses nothing that loses no God.”“Have God and have all.”“A man without religion is a horse without a bridle.”“The danger past and God forgotten.”Having great faith in Christianity, westerners use idioms with God in many aspects. When people curse, they say “Good God”; when people swear, they say “By God”. If you are lucky all of sudden, you can say “God comes to see without a bell”. If you talk about somebody who just pursues luxury, you can say “make a God of one’s belly”.The bible is the most important and unique classical work, so many idioms come from the Bible.“The Salt of the Earth” comes from the Bible. According to the Matth ew, Jesus said to his followers that “Y ou are the salt of the earth: but if the salt lost his savor,where shall it be salted?” Jesus compared his followers to “the Salt of the Earth”, which is the highest praise. The words are often used to describe the excellent people.“Gast pearls before swine”, which comes from the Bible “Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.” (Feng Qinghua, 231)3.2 Restrictions on the Use of English Idioms in Daily LifeEnglish idioms are so commonly used in people’s daily lives, which do not mean that you can use any idioms on any occasions at will. In this part, I generally discuss some restrictions in the use of phrasal verbs, whether they can be used in passive tense or active tense, on formal or informal occasions, in present participles.3.2.1 Idioms Used in Passive or Active VoiceSome idioms can only be used in passive tense, while some can only used in active tense.“Hitch one’s wagon to a star”(be ambitious), is often used in active tense. (Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida)“Pay the penalty”(suffer from punishment), is only used in active tense.I only gave several examples, and there are some others. We should be very careful when we use these phrasal verbs in daily life.Passive voice, for example, “Rome is not built in a day.” “be kept inside a drum”.3.2.2 Idioms Used on Formal and Informal OccasionsSome idioms, as informal idioms, can be used habitually in spoken English, but some are used in formal written styles.“Make a beeline for” (run straight towards), is used as informal expression.“Flunk out” (fail), is used as informal expression.3.3.3 Idioms Not Used in Present Participles“Swallow up” (make somebody disappear), is rarely used in present participle.“Look good” (seem suitable), is not used in present participle.“Grab at a straw”(catch a straw that can save one’s life)。
美国文学__选择题__诗歌分析题 前4章

American LiteratureChapter 1 The Romantic PeriodI. Choose the right answer:1. Of all the following issues, _____is definitely NOT the focus of the Romantic writers in the American literary history.A. Puritan moralityB. Human bestialityC. Noble savagesD. Divinity of man2. Henry David Thoreau’s work, ________, has always been regarded as a masterpiece of the New England Transcendental Movement.A. WaldenB. The PioneersC. NatureD. "Song of Myself"3. "Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind" is a famous quote from______’s writings.A. Walt WhitmanB. Henry David ThoreauC. Herman MelvilleD. Ralph Waldo Emerson4. ’Leaves of Grass’ commands great attention because of its uniquely poetic embodiment of________, which are written in the founding documents of both the Revolutionary War and the American Civil War.A. the democratic idealsB. the romantic idealsC. the self-reliance spiritsD. the religious ideals5. According to Whitman, the genuine participation of a poet in a common cultural effort was to behave as a supreme_________.A. democratB. individualistC. romanticistD. leader6. The period before the American Civil War is generally referred to as ___________.A. The Naturalist PeriodB. The Modern PeriodC. The Romantic PeriodD. The Realistic Period7. In the following works, which sign the beginning of the American literature?A. The Sketch BookB. Leaves of GrassC. Leather Stocking TalesD. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn8. _____is the author of the work ’The Legend of Sleepy Hollow’.A. Washington IrvingB. James JoyceC. Walt WhitmanD. William Butler Yeats9. Washington Irving’s ’Rip Van Winkle’ is famous for_________.A. Rip’s escape into a mysteriousB. The story’s German legendary source materialC. Rip’s seeki ng for happinessD. Rip’s 20-years sleep10. Which of the following statement is not true about Washington Irving?A. Washington Irving is regarded as Father of the American short stories.B. Irving’s relationship with the Old World in terms of his literar y imagination can hardly be ignored considering his success both abroad and at home.C. I rving’s taste was essentially progressive or radical.D. Washington Irving has always been regarded as a writer who "perfected the best classic style that American literature ever produced."11. The Publication of ______established Emerson as the most eloquent spokesman of New England Transcendentalism.A. NatureB. Self-RelianceC. The American ScholarD. The Over-Soul12. The phrase "a transparent eye-ball’ compares philosophical mentation of Emerson’s. It appears in_________.A. The American ScholarB. NatureC. The over SoulD. Essays: Second Series13. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmeasas :Our Intellectual Declaration of Independence".A. "Self-Reliance"B. "Divinity School Address"C. "The American Scholar"D. "Nature"14. _____is the most ambivalent (有争议的) writers in the American literary history.A. Nathaniel HawthorneB. Walt WhitmanC. Ralph Waldo EmersonD. Mark Twain15. "There is evil in every human heart, which may remain latent, perhaps, through the whole life; but circumstances may rouse it to activity", which author of the following authors does the mention belong to________.A. Washington IrvingB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Nathaniel HawthorneD. Walt Whitman16. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as________.A. saviorsB. villainsC. commentatorsD. observers17. All of the following are works by Nathaniel Hawthorne except_______.A. The House of the Seven GablesB. White JacketC. The Marble FaunD. The Blithedale Romance18. Walt Whitman is radically innovative in the form of his poetry. What he prefers for his new subject is__________.A. free verseB. blank verseC. lyric poemD. heroic couplet19. Which of the following features cannot characterize poems by Walt Whitman?A. Lyrical and well-structuredB. Free-flowingC. Simple and rather crudeD. Conversational and casual20. " The horizon’s edge, the flying sea-crow, the fragrance of salt marsh and shore mud. These became part of that child who went forth every day, and who now goes, and will always go forth every day." The two lines are taken from____________.A. "There Was a Child Went Forth" by Walt WhitmanB. "In a Station of the Metro" by Ezra PoundC. "Cavalry Crossing a Ford" by Walt WhitmanD. "Ulysses" by JoyceAnswer: A (P454)21. "Moby Dick" is regarded as the first American_________.A. Prose epicB. Comic epicC. Dramatic fictionD. Poetic fictionAnswer: A (P460)22. The giant Moby Dick may symbolize all EXCEPT________.A. mystery of the universeB. sin of the whaleC. power of the great NatureD. evil of the worldAnswer: B (P461)23. Which of the following comments on the writings by Herman Melville is not true?A. "Bartleby, the Scrivener" is a short story.B. "Benito Cereno" is a novella.C. The Confidence---Man has something to do with the sea and sailors.D. Moby-Dick is regarded as the first American prose epic.Answer: C (P459---460)24. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is____, therefore, self-reliant.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking10. It is on his____________ that Washingt on Irving’s fame mainly rested.A. childhood recollectionsB. sketches about his European toursC. early poetryD. tales about America12. As a philosophical and literary movement, the main issues involved in the debate of Transcendentalism are generally concerning ____________________.A. nature, man and the universeB. the relationship between man and womanC. the development of Romanticism in American literatureD. the cold, rigid rationalism of Unitarianism13. About the novel The Scarlet Letter, which of the following statements is NOT right?A. It’s very hard to say that it is a love story or a story of sin.B. It’s a highly symbolic story and the author is a master of symbolism.C. It’s mainly about the moral, emotional and psychological effects of the sin upon the maincharacters and the people in general.D. In it the letter A takes the same symbolic meaning throughout the novel.15. In his poems, Walt Whitman is innovative in the terms of the form of his poetry, which is called “____________________.”A. free verseB. blank verseC. alliterationD. end rhyming21. More than five hundred poems Dickinson wrote are about nature, in which her general Skepticismabout the relationship between ______ is well-expressed.A. man and manB. men and womenC. man and natureD. men and God22. Which of the following is right about Emily Dickinson’s poems about nature?A. In them, she expressed her general affirmation about the relationship between man and nature.B. Some of them showed her disbelief that there existed a mythical bond between man and nature.C. Her poems reflected her feeling that nature is restorative to human beings.D.Many of them showed her feeling of nature’s inscrutability and indifference to the life andinterests of human beings.23. As a great innovator in American literature, Walt Whitman wrote his poetry in an unconventionalstyle which is now called free verse, that is _________.A. lyrical poetry with chanting refrainsB. poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme schemeC. poetry without rhymes at the end of the lines but with a fixed beatD. poetry in an irregular metric form and expressing noble feelings31. Which of the following statements can be said about the works of Scott Fitzgerald, a spokesman of the “Roaring 20s”?38. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as ______________.A. commentatorsB. observersC. villainsD. saviors39. Besides sketches, tales and essays, Washington Irving also published a book on ______, which is also considered an important part of his creative writing.A. poetic theoryB. French artC. history of New YorkD. life of George Washington43. Emily Dickinson wrote many short poems on various aspects of life. Which of the following is nota usual subject of her poetic expression?A. Religion.B. Life and death.C. Love and marriage.D. War and peace.44. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______ at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmes as "Our intellectual Declaration of Independence."A. "Nature"B. "Self-Reliance"C. "Divinity School Address"D. "The American Scholar"46. In American literature the first important writer who earned an international fameon both sides of the Atlantic Ocean is_______________.A. Washington IrvingB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Nathaniel HawthorneD. Walt Whitman47. The American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne is known for his“black vision.”TheTerm “black vision” refers to______________.A. Hawthorne's observation that every man faces a black WallB. Hawthorne's belief that all men are by nature evilC. that Hawthorne employed a dream vision to tell his storyD. that Puritans of Hawthorne's time usually wore black clothes52. Though Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson were romantic poets in theme and technique, they differ from each other in a variety of ways. For one thing, whereasWhitman likes to keep his eye on human Society at large, Dickinson often addresses such issues as_______, immortality, religion, love and nature.A. progressB. freedomC. beautyD. death53. The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the_______in the American literary history.A. individual feelingB. survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature61. American Romanticism stretches from the end of the ________ century through the outbreak of ______.A. 18th, the Civil WarB. 18th, the War of IndependenceC. 19th, WWID. 19th, WWII62. _________ believes that the chief aim of literary creation is beauty, and “the death of a beautiful woman is, unquestionably, the most poetical topic in the world.”A. Walt WhitmanB. Edgar Allen PoeC. Anne BradstreetD. Ralph Waldo Emerson63. In Emily Dickinson’s Because I Could Not Stop for Death, ______________.A. death is personified as a devilB. death is described as the tragic end of a person’s lifeC. death is a stage of life and it leads people to the Heaven of immortalityD. death is described as a beautiful girl who couldn’t find her final destination64. Which is generally regarded as the manifesto and the Bible of American Transcendentalism?A. Thoreau’s WaldenB.Emerson’s NatureC. Poe’s Poetic PrincipleD. Thoreau’s Nature65. Henry David Thoreau’s work, ________, has always been regarded as a masterpiece of the NewEngland Transcendental Movement.A. WaldenB. The PioneersC. NatureD. "Song of Myself"66. ‘Leaves of Grass’ commands great attention because of its uniquely poetic embodimentof________, which are written in the founding documents of both the Revolutionary War and theAmerican Civil War.A. the democratic idealsB. the romantic idealsC. the self-reliance spiritsD. the religious ideals67. ________is the author of the work “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.A. Washington IrvingB. James JoyceC. Walt WhitmanD. William Butler Yeats70. We can perhaps summarize that Walt Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except that they are _______________.A. conversational and crudeB. lyrical and well-structuredC. simple and rather crudeD. free-flowing77. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is ____________.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking78. The Publication of ______established Emerson as the most eloquent spokesman of New England Transcendentalism.A. NatureB. Self-RelianceC. The American ScholarD. The Over-SoulAnswer: C (P402)II. Read the quoted part and answer the questions:1. "T ime grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of matrimony rolled on: a tart temper mellows with age, and a sharp tongue is the only edge tool that grows keener by constant use. For a long while he used to perpetual club of the sages, philosophers, and other idle personages of the village.Questions:1) Please identify the author and the title of the work.2) What’s the meaning of this passage?参考答案:1) This is an excerpt from "Rip Van Winkle" by Washington Irving. (P408)2) With his wife’s dominance at home, the situation became harder and harder for Rip Van Winkle. His wife’s temper became worse and she scolded him for more often. He had to stay in the club with idle people. (P407)附:Question: Please describe the changes Rip Van Winkle experienced.Answer: 1) Rip Van Winkle was the hero in Irving’s works. He was a good-natured man, a henpecked (惧内的,妻管严的) husband.2) Because his wife’s shrewish (泼妇一样的) treatment, Rip had to escape from his home to the little inn in the village. When it failed to give him some restful air, he had to go hunting in the high mountain, where Rip met a stranger, and the man asked Rip to carry keg for him. Then Rip reached the place in the valley, where many strangers were playing nine-pins. Later Rip got drunk after drinking the liquor, which made him sleep for 20 years.3) Rip woke up as an old man, entering the village learned that his wife had died, he got the freedom of his own,; and the American had been dependent from the control of Britain, he had changed from a subject ofthe King (George III) into a citizen of the independent new U.S.....2. " I celebrated myself, and sing myself,And what I assume you shall assume,For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you"Questions:1) Please identify the author and the title of the poem that had used when published. 2) What is the theme of this poem?参考答案:1) In the 1856, the title was "Poem of Walt Whitman, an American", then it became "Walt Whitman" in 1860, until 1881, it finally became "Song of Myself". The author is Walt Whitman. (P456--457)2) In this poem Whitman sets forth two principle beliefs:A. The theory of universality (普遍性), which is illustrated by lengthy catalogues of people and things;B. The belief in the singularity (个别性) and equality(平等性) of all beings in value. (P457)3. "Standing on the bare ground, ----my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, -----all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball. I am nothing. I see all."Questions:1) Please identify the author and the title of the work.2) Please briefly interpret this passage.3). What rhetorical device of "transparent eye-ball".4) Emerson said he want to become a transparent eye-ball, what king idea did he want to express?参考答案:1) This selection is from "Nature" by Emerson. (P427)2) In the essay Emerson clearly expresses the main principles of his Transcendentalist pursuit and his love for nature. Emerson develops his concept of "Over-Soul" Or "Universal Mind". Last but not the leas, it affirms the divinity of the human beings. (P423)3) It used the device of metaphor. (P423) 4) He wanted to tell us: Nature can purify (净化) our quality and let us get comfort. (P243)III. Questions and answers:1. The Romantic Period was called "The American Renaissance". Discuss the background of the Romantic Period, and compare it with the Romanticism of Britain.Answer:1) The two Romanticism both stress the imaginative and emotional qualities of literature;2) They all pay attention to psychic states of the characters and exalt the individual and common man;3) American Romanticism revealed unique characteristics: (difference)<1> American authors describe their native land,, especially the spirit of the pioneering into the west, the desire for an escape from society and a return to nature;<2> American writers use local dialect in language;<3> Puritanism has great influence over American Romantics;<4> Calvinism of original sin is obvious in their works;<5> Transcendentalism is very important theory in American Romanticism;<6> The important setting in American Romanticism are: ①the early puritan settlement; ②the confrontation with the Indians; ③ the frontiersmen’s life; ④ the wild west; ⑤ imagination. (P399—402)2. Analyze the themes and characteristic of Hawthorne.Answer:Hawthorne was a man with inquiring imagination, meditative mind and dark vision to life.His themes in writing are:1) Man was born with evil and sin, one source of them is over-reaching intellect, whose image was always villain; (Chllingworth e.g.)2) Hawthorne was influenced greatly by Puritanism, while he criticized it bitterly;3) He believed Calvinistic ideas, thinking man was depraved and corrupted; they should obey God for saving the spirits;4) He concerned the moral life of man and human history;5) He was keen on the description of man’s development of psychology. (P432—433)3. Explain the theory of Transcendentalism, then list its important author and works.Answer:Transcendentalism is a very important theory in American Romanticism, its main ideas are:1) Man has the capacity of knowing truth intuitively, or the ability of getting knowledge transcending the senses;2) Nature is ennobling and individual is divine, therefore, man should be self-reliant.3) Man is divine/holy and perfectible and man can trust himself to decide what is right and act accordingly; (but to Hawthorne and Melville man is a sinner);4) Universe is over-soul -a symbol of the spirit, God or the universe, there is an emotional communication between an individual soul and the universal "over-soul" -unity of Nature.5) The important authors are: Emerson (The American Scholar) and Thoreau.6) "Nature", Emerson’s works, is called the unofficial manifesto fo r the club. (P421—P422)4. Hawthorne was a master in using symbol and allegory; cite some example to analyze it.Answer:1) Allegorically, Young Goodman Brown becomes an Everyman called Brown, who will be aged in one night by an evil adventure, and the evilness makes everyone a fallen idol in the world.2) In the angle of Symbol: "Brown look up to the Heaven and resist the wicked one" symbols Brown has the force to resist the evilness of the Nature and he still has the faith to God; but "he is alone in the forest" symbols the society is the place full of sins and evilness, Brown’s strength is not enough at all; then after returning, he lives a dismal and gloomy life symbols he has been crushed down by the social evilness and lost his belief in goodness and piety. (P434—435)5. Washington Irving was called "Father of the American short stories" and "the American Goldsmith". What characteristics did he have?Answer:1) He was nostalgic author, and he always juxtaposing the Old and the New world;2) He remained a conservative and always exalted a disappearing past, and he prefer the past to present, prefer a dream-like world to a real one;3) His stories were always from legend, especially German legends, showing best classic style. (P405—406)6. Sea adventure s are Melville’s favorite subject; "Moby-Dick" is a great novel in the theme, which is alsonoted for its symbolism, please analyze it in detail.Answer:1) About the sea adventure: it symbols the voyage of the mind in quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe; a spirit exploration into man’s deep reality and psychology;2) About the boat; it symbols the society, and the crew symbol all kinds of people with different social and ethnic ideas;3) About the white whale: To the author, it symbols nature, it is a complex, unfathomable and beautiful; To the captain Ahab, it is evilness, is a wall. So he will lead all his crew to cut through the wall to dig out all the unknown, mysterious things behind it. To the narrator, Ishmael, it is a mystery. (P460—461)7. Walt Whitman is a unique poet. Can you explain what make him unique?Answer:1) His themes are: Democracy; the Revolutionary War and the Civil War; freedom; openness; brotherhood; individualism; the growth of industry and the wealth of the cities; universality.2) His styles are special: "free verse"; "catalogue"; simple and even crude language. (P448-551)PART TWO: AMERICAN LITERATUREChapter 2 The Realistic PeriodI. Choose the right answer:1. Emily Dickinson was sometimes curious about the feeling of speech of death and in one of her poems she wrote about the______of death, the title of the poem is "I heard a Fly buzz when I died".A. momentB. sufferingC. happinessD. meaningAnswer: A (P518)2. Theodore Dreiser belonged to the school of literary ______which emphasized heredity and environment as important deterministic forces shaping individualized characters who were presented in special and detailed circumstances.A. naturalismB. realismC. determinismD. humanismAnswer: A (P524)3. More than five hundred poems that Dickinson wrote are about nature, in which her general _____about the relationship between man and nature is well expressed.A. skepticismB. eulogyC. happinessD. denialAnswer: A (P518)4. "This is my letter to the World" is a poem expressing Emily Dickinson’s _____about her communication with the outside world.A. happinessB. angerC. AnxietyD. sorrowAnswer: C (P520)5. Though secluded herself in her own house, Emily Dickinson was never really indifferent of the outside world, as could be seen in her poems such as "I like to see it lap the Miles", which describes a(n) ______, an embodiment of modern civilization.A. snakeB. animalC. the roadD. trainAnswer: D (P521)6. After "The Adventure of Tom Sawyer", Twain gives a literary independence to Tom’s buddy Huck in a book called_____, and the book from which "all modern American literature comes".A. Life on the Mississippi RiverB. The Gilded AgeC. Adventures of Huckleberry FinnD. The Sun Also RisesAnswer: C (P479---480)7. Winterbourne is used as a ______in Henry James’s "Daisy Miller".A. ProtagonistB. Narrator of the eventsC. A character of central consciousnessD. PersonaAnswer: C (P499)8. Emily Dickinson’s verse is most aptly characterized as ___________.A. exposing the evils of the societyB. paving the way for the following generation of free verse poetsC. sharing the same poetic conventions as Walt WhitmanD. exhibiting sensitiveness to the symbolic implications of experience, such as love, death, immortality and etc.Answer: D (P518)9. The author of "The Portrait of a Lady" is best at_______.A. probing into the unsearched secret part of human lifeB. a truthful delineation of the motives, the impulses, the principles that shape the lives of actual men and women.C. a dramatizing the collisions between two very different cultural systems on an international sceneD. disclosing the social injustices and evils of a civilized society after the Civil War.Answer: C (P496)10. The period ranging from 1865 to 1914 has been referred to as _____________.A. the Age of RealismB. the Age of ModernismC. the Age of RomanticismD. the Age of Colonicalism Answer: A (P471)18. Which of the following is NOT a usual subject of poetic expression of Emily Dickinson’s?A. War and peaceB. Love and marriageC. Life and deathD. ReligionAnswer: A (P517)3. "We passed the School, where Children stroveAt Recess---in the Ring---We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain----We passed the Setting Sun---”Questions:1) Please identify the poem and the poet;2) What does "the School, the Fields of Gazing Grain and the Setting Sun" stands for?Answers:1) The lines are from "Because I could not stop fro Death", Emily Dickinson. (P523)2) It stands for three stages of life: the School----youth;the Fields of Gazing Grain----mature period;the Setting Sun------end of life. (P523)4. "The Eyes around---had wrung them dry---And breaths were gathering firmFor that last Onset----when the KingBe witnessed---in the Room----"Questions:1) What is the meaning of the first line? 2) What does "the King" refer to? 3) What idea does the poem fromwhich this stanza is taken express?Answers:1) It means the relatives and friends had cried and cried so that there were no tears any more. (P521)2) "The King" refers to the God of death. (P521) 3) The poem expresses that the author even imagined her own death, the loss of her own body, and the journey of her soul to the unknown. (P518)6. Please analyze the characteristics of Emily Dickinso n’s poems.Answer:1) Dickinson’s poems are usually based on her own experiences, her sorrows and joys. But within her little lyrics Dickinson addresses those issues that concern the whole human beings, which include religion, death, immortality, love, and nature. (theme)2) Her masterpiece -----"I heard a Fly buzz---when I died", she looked at death from the point of view of both the living and the dying. She even imagined her own death, the loss of her own body, and the journey of her soul to the unknown.3) The style of Dickinson:A: A particular stress pattern: dash“-------”B: Capital letters as a means of emphasis;C: Language: brief, direct, and plain;D: Poem: short, always on single image or symbol (e.g. "I like to see it lap the miles"---------describe a train in the personification of the literary device)E: Her poems tend to be personal and meditative (e.g. “Because I could not stop for Death”).(P517---519)。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。
John KeaneDemocracy, a short history©OriginsDemocracy commonly refers to a type of political system in which the people or their representatives lawfully govern themselves, rather than being governed, say, by a military dictatorship, totalitarian party or monarch. In recent decades, democracy in this sense has enjoyed unprecedented popularity. Democracy has become one of those English words - along with computer and OK - familiar to many millions of people around the world. Some observers speak of a global victory for democracy or claim that democracy is now a universal good. Yet what the word means and whether and why democracy is to be preferred over its rivals continues to be disputed. Opinions remain divided about whether actually existing democracies like the United States or Britain or India or Argentina live up to their democratic ideals. These ideals are also controversial. The most common disagreement is between the advocates of ‘participatory’ or ‘direct’ democracy, understood as the participation of all citizens in decisions that affect their lives, for instance by voting and accepting a majority verdict; and those who favour ‘indirect’ or ‘representative’ democracy, a method of governing in which people choose (through voting and the public expression of their opinions) representatives who decide things on their behalf.The beginning of wisdom in such disputes is to see that democracy, like all other human inventions, has a history. Democratic values and institutions are never set in stone; even the meaning of democracy changes through time. During its first historical phase, which began in ancient Mesopotamia (c. 2,500 BCE) and stretched through classical Greece and Rome to the rise and maturation of Islamic civilization around 950 CE, democracy was associated with the creation and diffusion of public assemblies. During these centuries, nobody knows who invented the term or exactly where and when the word ‘democracy’ was first used. It is commonly thought that it is of classical Greek origin, but new © Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. This paper is also available at the Evatt Foundation website: .au/publications/papers/168.htmlresearch shows that the feminine noun dēmokratia (meaning the rule of the people: from dēmos, ‘the people’, and kratein, ‘to rule’) has much older roots. It is traceable to the Linear B script of the Mycenaean period, seven to ten centuries earlier, to the late Bronze Age civilization (c. 1500-1200 BCE) that was centred on Mycenae and other urban settlements of the Peloponnese. Exactly how and when the Mycenaeans invented terms like damos (a group of people who hold land in common) and damokoi (an official linked to the damos) is unclear, but it is probable that the family of terms we use today when speaking of democracy have Eastern origins, for instance in the ancient Sumerian references to the dumu, the ‘inhabitants’ or ‘sons’ or ‘children’ of a geographic place.The uncertainty surrounding the origins of the language of democracy is tempered by the discovery by contemporary archaeologists that the practice of self-governing assemblies is not a Greek invention. The custom of popular self-government was born of the ‘East’, of peoples and lands that geographically correspond to contemporary Iraq and Iran. Assemblies were later transplanted eastwards, towards the Indian sub-continent; they travelled westwards as well, first to city states like Byblos and Sidon, then to Athens, where during the fifth century BCE they were claimed as something unique to the West, as a sign of its superiority over the ‘barbarism’ of the East. By the 5th century BCE, in Athens and scores of other Greek city states, democracy meant self-government through an assembly of equal male citizens who gathered in a marketplace or town district for the purpose of discussing some matter, putting different opinions to the vote and deciding, often by a majority of raised hands, what course of action was to be taken. According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE), democracy was self-government among equals, who rule and are ruled in turn. Democracy was the lawful rule of an assembly of male citizens - women, slaves and foreigners were normally excluded - whose sovereign power to decide things was no longer to be given over to imaginary gods, or an aristocracy, or to bloodthirsty tyrants.So understood, democracy implied that within the political order questions concerning who gets what, when and how should remain permanently open. That in turn required certain political customs and institutions. These included written laws, the payment of elected officials, the freedom to speak in public, voting machines, voting by lot, and trial before elected or selected juries. It also required efforts to stop bossy leaders in their tracks by using such peaceful methods as limited terms of office and - in an age yet without political parties, or recall and impeachment procedures - the ostracism of demagogues from theassembly by majority vote. The first phase of democracy also saw the earliest experiments in creating second chambers (called damiorgoi in some Greek city states) and confederations of democratic governments co-ordinated through a joint assembly called a myrioi, as proposed by the Arcadians during the 360s BCE. Towards the close of its first phase, the democratic tradition was enriched by contributions from the Islamic world. It was responsible for the spread of a culture of printing and efforts to cultivate self-governing associations, such as endowment societies (the waqf) and the mosque and, in the field of economic life, partnerships that were legally independent of rulers. Islam also cultivated the defence of shared virtues like toleration, mutual respect among sceptics and believers in the sacred, and the duty of rulers to respect others’ interpretations of life.Representative DemocracyFrom around the tenth century CE, democracy entered a second historical phase whose centre of gravity was Europe. Shaped by forces as varied as the rebirth of towns, the rise (in northern Spain) of the first parliaments, and the conflicts unleashed by self-governing councils and religious dissent within the Christian Church, democracy came to be understood as representative democracy. This at least was the term that began to be used in France and England and the new American republic during the eighteenth century, for instance by constitution makers and influential political writers when referring to a new type of government with its roots in popular consent. Again, nobody knows who first spoke of ‘representative democracy’, though one political writer and thinker who broke new ground was the French nobleman who had been foreign minister under Louis XV, the Marquis d’Argenson (1694-1757). He was perhaps the first to tease out the new meaning of democracy as representation. ‘False democracy’, he noted in his Considérations sur le government ancien et present de la France (1765), ‘soon collapses into anarchy. It is government of the multitude; such is a people in revolt, insolently scorning law and reason. Its tyrannical despotism is obvious from the violence of its movements and the uncertainty of its deliberations. In true democracy, one acts through deputies, who are authorised by election; the mission of those elected by the people and the authority that such officials carry constitute the public power.’This was a brand new way of thinking about democracy, by which was meant a type of government in which people, understood as voters faced with a genuine choice between at least two alternatives, are free to electothers who then act in defence of their interests, that is, represent them by deciding matters on their behalf. Much ink and blood was to be spilled in defining what exactly representation meant, who was entitled to represent whom and what had to be done when representatives disregarded those whom they were supposed to represent. But common to the second historical phase of democracy was the belief that good government was government by representatives. Often contrasted with monarchy, representative democracy was praised as a way of governing better by openly airing differences of opinion – not only among the represented themselves, but also between representatives and those whom they are supposed to represent. Representative government was also hailed for encouraging the rotation of leadership guided by merit. It was said to introduce competition for power that in turn enabled elected representatives to test out their political competence before others. The earliest champions of representative democracy also offered a more pragmatic justification of representation. It was seen as the practical expression of a simple reality : that it wasn’t feasible for all of the people to be involved all of the time, even if they were so inclined, in the business of government. Given that reality, the people must delegate the task of government to representatives who are chosen at regular elections. The job of these representatives is to monitor the spending of public money. Representatives make representations on behalf of their constituents to the government and its bureaucracy. Representatives debate issues and make laws. They decide who will govern and how – on behalf of the people.As a way of naming and handling power, representative democracy was an unusual type of political system. It rested upon written constitutions, independent judiciaries and laws that guaranteed procedures that still play vital roles in the democracies of today : inventions like habeas corpus (prohibitions upon torture and imprisonment), periodic election of candidates to legislatures, limited-term holding of political offices, voting by secret ballot, referendum and recall, electoral colleges, competitive political parties, ombudsmen, civil society and civil liberties such as the right to assemble in public, and liberty of the press. Compared with the previous, assembly-based form, representative democracy greatly extended the geographic scale of institutions of self-government. As time passed, and despite its localised origins in towns, rural districts and large-scale imperial settings, representative democracy came to be housed mainly within territorial states protected by standing armies and equipped with powers to make and enforce laws and to extract taxes from their subject populations. These states were typically much bigger and more populous than the political units of ancient democracy. Most states of theGreek world of assembly democracy, Mantinea and Argos for instance, were no bigger than a few score square kilometres. Many modern representative democracies - including Canada (9.98 million square kilometres), the United States (9.63 million square kilometres), and the largest electoral constituency in the world, the vast rural division of Kalgoorlie in the federal state of Western Australia that comprises 82,000 voters scattered across an area of 2.3 million square kilometres - were incomparably larger.The changes leading to the formation of representative democracy were neither inevitable nor politically uncontested. Representative democracy was in fact born of many and different power conflicts, many of them bitterly fought in opposition to ruling groups, whether they were church hierarchies, landowners or imperial monarchies, often in the name of ‘the people’. Exactly who were ‘the people’ proved to be a deep source of controversy throughout the era of representative democracy. The second age of democracy witnessed the birth of neologisms, like ‘aristocratic democracy’ (that first happened in the Low Countries at the end of the sixteenth century) and new references (beginning in the United States) to ‘republican democracy’. Later came ‘social democracy’ and ‘liberal democracy’ and ‘Christian democracy’, even ‘bourgeois democracy’, ‘workers’ democracy’ and ‘socialist democracy’. These new terms corresponded to the many kinds of struggles by groups for equal access to governmental power that resulted, sometimes by design and sometimes by simple accident or unintended consequence, in institutions and ideals and ways of life that had no precedent. Written constitutions based on a formal separation of powers, periodic elections and parties and different electoral systems were new. So too was the invention of ‘civil societies’ founded on new social habits and customs – experiences as varied as dining in a public restaurant, or controlling one’s temper by using polite language - and new associations that citizens used to keep an arm’s length from government by using non-violent weapons like liberty of the printing press, publicly circulated petitions, and covenants and constitutional conventions called to draw up new constitutions.This period unleashed what the French writer and politician Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) famously called a ‘great democratic revolution’ in favour of political and social equality. Spreading from the Atlantic region, this revolution often suffered setbacks and reversals, especially in Europe, where it was mainly to collapse in the early decades of the twentieth century. The democratic revolution was fuelled by rowdy struggles and breathtaking acts, like the public execution in England of King Charles I. Such events called into question the anti-democraticprejudices of those – the rich and powerful - who supposed that inequalities among people were ‘natural’. New groups, like slaves, women and workers, won the franchise. At least on paper, representation was eventually democratised, stretched to include all of the population. But such stretching happened with great difficulty and against great odds. Even then it was permanently on trial; in more than a few cases, the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included, the definition of representation was actually narrowed by withdrawing the right to vote from certain groups, particularly black and poor people.Not until the very end of this second phase - during the early decades of the twentieth century - did the right to vote for representatives come to be seen as a universal entitlement. That happened first for adult men and later – usually much later – for all adult women. But even then, as the experiences of totalitarianism and military dictatorship show, the opponents of democratic representation fought hard and with considerable success against its perceived inefficiencies, its fatal flaws and supposed evils. They demonstrated that democracy in any form was not inevitable – that it had no built-in historical guarantees.Complex DemocracyWhat is happening to actually existing representative democracies? Do they have a secure future? Are they suffering decline, or transformation into something that resembles ‘post-democracy’? Does democracy remain a viable ideal?Such questions today command widespread interest because representative democracies are subject to new trends and contradictory pressures. In the emerging era of ‘complex democracy’, which dates roughly from the mid-twentieth century, democracy has become a global force. The case of India, where in 1950 the world’s first-ever large-scale democracy was created among materially impoverished peoples of multiple faiths, many different languages and low rates of literacy, is a key symbol of this change. Data shows that in the year 1900, when monarchies and empires predominated, there were no states that could be judged as representative democracies by the standard of universal suffrage for competitive multi-party elections. By 1950, with the military defeat of Nazism and the beginnings of de-colonization and the post-war reconstruction of Europe and Japan, there were 22 democraciesaccounting for 31 per cent of the world’s population. By the end of the twentieth century, waves of democracy had lapped the shores of Latin America, post-communist Europe and parts of Africa and Asia. At least on paper, out of 192 countries, 119 resembled representative democracies (58.2% of the globe’s population), with 85 of these countries (38% of the world’s inhabitants) enjoying forms of political democracy respectful of basic human rights, freedom of the press and the rule of law.In the era of complex democracy, not only are the language and ideals and institutions of democracy, for the first time in history, becoming familiar to people living within most regions of the earth, regardless of their nationality, religion or civilisation. Not only is there new talk of ‘global democracy’ and democracy as a ‘universal value’ (Amartya Sen). For the first time, racial prejudice has also begun to be extracted from the ideals of democracy, such that many democrats now find themselves embarrassed or angered by talk of ‘backward’ or ‘uncivilised’ or ‘naturally inferior’ peoples. There are signs as well that the theory and practice of democracy are mutating, that its significance is changing because its institutions are being stretched into areas of life in which democracy in any form was previously excluded, or played little or no role. Once seen as given by the grace of a deity, democracy is viewed pragmatically as a handy weapon for use against concentrations of unaccountable power. It comes to have a new meaning : the public accountability and public control of decision makers, whether they operate in the field of state or interstate institutions or within so-called non-governmental or civil society organisations, such as businesses, trade unions, sports associations and charities.In the age of complex democracy, assembly-based and representative mechanisms are mixed and combined with new ways of publicly monitoring and controlling the exercise of power. Representative forms of government do not simply wither, or disappear. Representative democracy within the framework of territorial states often survives, and in some countries it even thrives, sometimes (as in Mongolia, Taiwan and South Africa) for the first time ever. Representative government has also sometimes been enriched, as in the civic involvement and clean-up schemes (machizukuri) in Japanese cities such as Yokohama and Kawasaki during the past two decades. But for a variety of reasons related to public pressure and the need to reduce corruption and the abuse of power, representative democracy is coming to be supplemented (and hence complicated) by a variety of democratic procedures that are applied to organisations other than states. New combinations of assembly-basedand representative and other democratic procedures begin to spread underneath and beyond these states. Forums, summits, parliaments for minorities, judicial review and citizens’ juries are some examples. Others include public enquiries, congresses, blogging and other new forms of media scrutiny, as well as open methods of co-ordination, of the kind practised in the European Union.Experiments with extending democracy within the institutions of civil society, into areas of life ‘beneath’ the institutions of territorial states, are much in evidence, so that organisations like the International Olympic Committee, whose membership is otherwise self-selecting, are governed by executive bodies that are subject to election by secret ballot, by a majority of votes cast, for limited terms of office. With the help of new communication media, including satellite television and the internet (‘e-democracy’), the public monitoring of international organisations of government is also growing. Bodies such as the World Trade Organisation, the United Nations, and the European Commission find themselves under permanent or intermittent scrutiny by outside bodies, their own legal procedures, and by public protests.These trends towards complex democracy are to a varying degree subject everywhere to counter-trends. The third age of democracy is plagued by growing social inequality and troubled by the visible decline of political party membership and, especially among young people and the poor, fluctuating turnout at elections and growing disrespect for ‘politicians’ and official ‘politics’, even boycotts and satirical campaigns against all parties and candidates. Whether and how democracies can adjust to the new world of campaign mega-advertising, political ‘spin’ and corporate global media is proving equally challenging. Just as perplexing is the issue – felt strongly in countries as different as India and Taiwan and Canada – of whether and how democracies can come to terms with their ‘multi-cultural’ societies. The coming of an age of ‘silver democracy’, in which growing numbers of citizens live to ripe old ages in conditions of growing material and emotional insecurity, is likely to be just as daunting. Then there are the deep-seated trends for which there is no historical precedent, and no easy solutions, like the rise of the United States as the world’s first democratic empire; the spread of uncivil wars; rising fears about the biosphere; and the proliferation of new forms of violence and new weapons systems with killing power many times greater than that of all democracies combined.Pressured by such trends, does democracy have a future? The nineteenth-century American poet and writer, Walt Whitman (1819-1892), famouslynoted that the history of democracy could not be written because democracy as he and others knew it was not yet properly built. From the standpoint of the early twenty-first century, and the possible emergence of a more complex understanding and practice of democracy, the same point can be put differently: we do not know what will become of democracy because its fate has not yet been determined.Keane, John, BA Hons., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.A.Founder of the Centre for the Study of Democracy, London, and Professor of Politics at The University of Westminster and at the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (WZB). Author, The Media and Democracy; Tom Paine: A Political Life; Civil Society and Democracy; Global Civil Society?。