2Characterization of the constituents
现代材料分析方法(英文)
Characterization techniques:(A) XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy):Hydrothermally deposited epitaxial thin films are characterized by XPS to retrieve useful information like composition, chemical structure and local arrangement of atoms that make up few layers of surface of film and also the interfacial layer between the film and substrate.X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was developed in the mid –1960s by Kai Siegnahm and his research group at the University of Uppsala, Sweden.Surface analysis by XPS involves irradiating a solid in vacuum with monoenergetic soft x-rays and analyzing the emitted electrons by energy. The spectrum is obtained as a plot of the number of detected electrons per energy interval versus their kinetic energy. The principle on which the XPS technique is based can explained with the help of figure 1 as shown below. [27]Figure 1. An energy level diagram showing the physical basis of XPS technique.The energy carried by an incoming X-ray photon is absorbed by the target atom, raising it into excited state from which it relaxes by the emission of a photoelectron. Mg Kα(1253.6eV) or Al Kα (1486.6 eV) x-rays are generally used as a source of monoenergetic soft x-rays. These photons have limited penetrating power in a solid on the order of 1-10 micrometers. They interact with atoms in the surface region, causing electrons to be emitted by the photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons have measured kinetic energies given by:KE=hγ-BE -φsWhere hγ is the energy of the photon, BE is the binding energy of the atomic orbital from which the electron originates and φs is the spectrometer work function. The binding energy may be regarded as the energy difference between the initial and final states after the photoelectron has left the atom. Because there are a variety of possible final states of the ions from each type of atom, there is corresponding variety of kinetic energies of the emitted electrons. Photoelectrons are emitted from all energy levels of the target atom and hence the electron energy spectrum is characteristic of the emitting atom type and may be thought as its XPS fingerprint. Each element has unique spectrum .The spectrum from a mixture of elements is approximately the sum of peaks of the individual constituents. Because the mean free path of electrons in the solids is very small, the detected electrons originate from only the top few atomic layers making XPS a unique surface sensitive technique for chemical analysis. Quantitative data can be obtained from peak heights or peak areas and identification of chemical states often can be made from exact measurement of peak positions and separations as well from certain spectral features.The line lengths indicate the relative probabilities of the various ionization processes. The p,d and f levels split upon ionization leading to vacancies in the p1/2,p3/2,d3/2,d5/2,f5/2 and f7/2.The spin orbit splitting ratio is 1:2 for p levels ,2:3 for d levels and 3:4 for f levels .Because each element has a unique set of binding energies, XPS can be used to identify and determine the concentration of the elements in the surface. Variations in the elemental binding energies (the chemical shifts) arise from the differences in the chemical potential and polarizibilty of compounds. These chemical shifts can be analyzed to identify the chemical state of the materials being analyzed.The electrons leaving sample are detected by an electron spectrometer according to their kinetic energy. The analyzer is usually operated as an energy window, referred to as pass energy. To maintain a constant energy resolution, the pass energy is fixed. Incoming electrons are adjusted the pass energy before entering the energy analyzer. Scanning for different energies is accomplished by applying a variable electrostatic field before the analyzer. This retardation voltage may be varied from zero upto and beyond the photon energy. Electrons are detected as discrete events, and the number of electrons for the given detection time. And energy is stored and displayed.In general, the interpretation of the XPS spectrum is most readily accomplished first by identifying the lines that almost always present (specifically those of C and O), then by identifying major lines and associated weaker lines.(B) Auger electron spectroscopy:Auger electron spectroscopy is a very useful technique in elemental characterization of thin films. In the current project this technique has been utilized not only for elemental compositional analysis but also for understanding nucleation and growth mechanism. Auger electron effect is named after the French physicist Pierre Auger who described the process involved in 1925.Auger is process is bit more complicated than the XPS process.The Auger process occurs in three stages. First one being atomic ionization. Second being electron emission (Auger emission) and third being analysis of emitted auger electrons .The source of radiation used is electrons that strike in the range of 2 to 10 kev. The interatomic process resulting in the production of an Auger electron is shown in figure 2 below.Figure 2 showing the interatomic process resulting in production of the Auger electrons. One electron falls a higher level to fill an initial core hole in the k-shell and the energy liberated in this process is given to second electron ,fraction of this energy is retained by auger electron as kinetic energy.X-ray nomenclature is used for the energy levels involved and the auger electron is described as originating from for example ,an ABC auger transition where A is the level of the original core hole,B is the level from which core hole was filled and C is the level from which auger electron was emitted. In above figure 2 shown above the auger transition is described as L3M1M2, 3.The calculation of energies of the lines in the Auger electron spectrum is complicated by the fact that emission occurs from an atom in an excited state and consequently the energies of the levels involved are difficult to define precisely.Each element in a sample being studied gives rise to characteristic spectrum of peaks at various kinetic energies. Area generally scanned is 1 mm2.To understand the variation in the concentration with the distance from the surface depth profiling can also be carried out. For depth profiling the surface has to be etched away by using argon beam.The principle advantage that AES hold over XPS is that the source of excitation in case of AES is electrons which allows it to take a spectra from micro-regions as small as 100 nm diameters or less instead of averaging over the whole of the surface of the sample as is done generally in XPS.(C) Atomic force Microscope:Atomic Force Microscope (AFM ) is being used to solve processing and materials problems in a wide range of technologies affecting the electronics, telecommunications, biological, chemical, automotive, aerospace, and energy industries. The materials being investigating include thin and thick film coatings, ceramics, composites, glasses, synthetic and biological membranes, metals, polymers, and semiconductors.In the current work AFM was used to understand the nucleation and growth mechanism of the epitaxial thin films and to understand the surface morphology of totally grown films in terms of surface coverage and surface roughness.In the fall of 1985 Gerd Binnig and Christoph Gerber used the cantilever to examine insulating surfaces. A small hook at the end of the cantilever was pressed against the surface while the sample was scanned beneath the tip. The force between tip and sample was measured by tracking the deflection of the cantilever. This was done by monitoring the tunneling current to a second tip positioned above the cantilever. They were able to delineate lateral features as small as 300 Å. This is the way force microscope was developed. Albrecht, a fresh graduate student, who fabricated the first silicon microcantilever and measured the atomic structure of boron nitride. The tip-cantilever assembly typically is microfabricated from Si or Si3N4. The force between the tip and the sample surface is very small, usually less than 10-9 N.According to the interaction of the tip and the sample surface, the AFM is classified as repulsive or Contact mode and attractive or Noncontact mode. In contact mode the topography is measured by sliding the probe tip across the sample surface. In noncontact mode, topography is measured by sensing Van de Waals forces between the surface and probe tip. Held above the surface. The tapping mode which has now become more popular measures topography by tapping the surface with an oscillating probe tip which eliminates shear forces which can damage soft samples and reduce image resolution. 1. Laser2. Mirror3. Photo detector4. Amplifier5. Register6. Sample7. Probe8. CantileverFigure 3 showing a schematic diagram of the principle of AFM.Compared with Optical Interferometric Microscope (optical profiles), the AFM provides unambiguous measurement of step heights, independent of reflectivity differences between materials. Compared with Scanning Electron Microscope, AFM provides extraordinary topographic contrast direct height measurements and unobscured views of surface features (no coating is necessary). One of the advantages of the technique being that it can be applied to insulating samples as well. Compared with Transmission Electron Microscopes, three dimensional AFM images are obtained without expensive sample preparation and yield far more complete information than the two dimensional profiles available from cross-sectioned samples.(D) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy:Infrared spectroscopy is widely used chemical analysis tool which in addition to providing information on chemical structures also can give quantitative information such as concentration of molecules in a sample.The development in FTIR started with use of Michelson interferometer an optical device invented in 1880 by Albert Abraham Michelson. After many years of difficultiesin working out with time consuming calculations required for conversion intereferogram into spectrum, the first FTIR was manufactured by the Digilab in Cambridge Massachusetts in 1960s .These FTIR machines stared using computers for calculating fourier transforms faster.The set up consists of a source, a sample and a detector and it is possible to send all the source energy through an interferometer and onto the sample. In every scan, all source radiation gets to the sample. The interferometer is a fundamentally different piece of equipment than a monochromater. The light passes through a beamsplitter, which sends the light in two directions at right angles. One beam goes to a stationary mirror then back to the beamsplitter. The other goes to a moving mirror. The motion of the mirror makes the total path length variable versus that taken by the stationary-mirror beam. When the two meet up again at the beamsplitter, they recombine, but the difference in path lengths creates constructive and destructive interference: an interferogram:The recombined beam passes through the sample. The sample absorbs all the different wavelengths characteristic of its spectrum, and this subtracts specific wavelengths from the interferogram. The detector reports variation in energy versus time for all wavelengths simultaneously. A laser beam is superimposed to provide a reference for the instrument operation.Energy versus time was an odd way to record a spectrum, until the point it was recognized that there is reciprocal relationship between time and frequency. A Fourier transform allows to convert an intensity-vs.-time spectrum into an intensity-vs.-frequency spectrum.The advantages of FTIR are that all of the source energy gets to the sample, improving the inherent signal-to-noise ratio. Resolution is limited by the design of the interferometer. The longer the path of the moving mirror, the higher the resolution.One minor drawback is that the FT instrument is inherently a single-beam instrument and the result is that IR-active atmospheric components (CO2, H2O) appear in the spectrum. Usually, a "Background" spectrum is run, and then automatically subtracted from every spectrum.(E) Scanning Electron Microscopy:Scanning electron microscopy is one the most versatile characterization techniques that can give detailed information interms of topography, morphology, composition and crystallography. This has made it widely useful in thin film characterization.The scanning electron microscope is similar to its optical counterparts except that it uses focused beam of electrons instead of light to image the specimen to gain information about the structure and composition.A stream electron is accelerated towards positive electrical potential. This stream is confined and focused using metal apertures and magnetic lenses into a thin, focused, monochromatic beam. This beam is focused onto the sample using a magnetic lens. Interactions occur inside the irradiated sample, affecting the electron beam. These interactions and effects are detected and transformed into an image. The electron detector collects the electrons and then image is created. Scanning with SEM is accomplished bytwo pairs of electromagnetic coils located within the objective lens, one pair deflects the beam in x-direction across the sample and the other pair deflects it in the y direction. Scanning is controlled by applying an electric signal to one pair of scan coils such that the electron beam strikes the sample to one side of theFigure 4 Schematic view of a SEM instrument.center axis of the lens system. By varying the electrical signal to this pair of coils as a function of time, the electron beam is moved in a straight line across the sample and then returned to its original position. Thus by rapidly moving the beam the entire sample surface can be irradiated with the electron beam. The output signal consists of backscattered and secondary electrons which generally serve as basis of scanning electron microscope and whereas the x-ray emission serves as the basis of the energy dispersive spectroscopy as shown in figure 4.Figure 5.Schematic presentation of the interaction of the electron with the sample.Energy dispersive spectroscopy is analytical method which is used in determination of elemental composition of the specimen.EDS uses the electrons generated characteristic x-radiation to determine elemental composition. The SEM/EDS combination is a powerful tool in inorganic microanalysis, providing the chemical composition of volumes as small as 3 m3.(F) Transmission Electron microscopy:Transmission electron microscopy was used to analyze the interface between the BaTiO3 on SrTiO3 single crystals.For TEM specimen must be specially prepared to thicknesses which allow electrons to transmit through the sample, much like light is transmitted through materials in conventional optical microscopy. Because the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of light, the optimal resolution attainable for TEM images is many orders of magnitude better than that from a light microscope. Thus, TEMs can reveal the finest details of internal structure - in some cases as small as individual atoms. Magnifications of 350,000 times can be routinely obtained for many materials, whilst in special circumstances; atoms can be imaged at magnifications greater than 15 million timesThe energy of the electrons in the TEM determine the relative degree of penetration of electrons in a specific sample, or alternatively, influence the thickness of material from which useful information may be obtained.Cross-sectional specimens for TEM observation of the interface between the film and the substrate were prepared by conventional techniques employing mechanical polishing, dimpling and ion beam milling.TEM column is shown in figure 6 consists of gun chamber on the top to the camera at the bottom everything is placed under vacuum.Figure 6. Main components of TEM system. [28]At the top of the TEM column is the filament assembly, which is connected to thehigh voltage supply by insulated cable. In standard TEM, normal accelerating voltagesranges from 20,000 to 100,000V.Intermediate-voltage and high voltage TEMs may use accelerating voltages of 200,000 V to 1000000 V.The higher the accelerating voltage, the greater the theoretical resolution. Below the filament tip and above it the anode is a beam volume called crossover. In this area of the filament chamber, the electron beam volume iscondensed to its highest density. There are more electrons per unit area at the cross over than at any other place in the microscope. Crossover is the effective electron source for image formation. In a TEM, the diameter of the electron beam at crossover is approximately 50 μm.The anode or positively charged plate, is below the filament assembly.Electron beam then travels to the condenser –lens system.TEMs has two condensers lenses. Condenser system lens system controls electron illumination on the specimen and on the viewing screen for such functions as viewing, focusing and photography. Condenserlenses are fitted with apertures which are usually small platinum disks or molybdenum strips with holes of various sizes ranging from 100 to 400 μm and it protects specimen from too many stray electrons which can contribute to excessive heat and limit X-ray production farther down the columnObjective lens is the first magnifying lens and the specimen is inserted into the objective lens, which must be designed so that the specimen can be moved in both X and Y directions and have tilting and rotating capabilities. As the electron beam interacts with the specimen, a number of signals useful in the formation of the TEM image occur: absorption, diffraction, elastic scattering and inelastic scattering.(H) X-ray Diffraction (XRD):X-ray diffraction is the most commonly known technique which I used to determination of the phase formed in films and also to assess texture and crystallinity.X-rays were discovered in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen - in some languages x-rays are called Röntgen-rays - and x-ray diffraction was discovered in 1912.The X-rays used in diffraction experiments all have a wavelength of 0.5-2.5 Å. The intensity of a beam of x-rays is the rate of transport of energy flow through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation. To produce x-rays, a source of electrons, a high accelerating voltage and a target are needed. To get the voltage, the metal target is grounded and a cathode is at 30-50 kV. To get the electrons a metal filament is resistively heated (the tube is called a filament tube). The filament current is 3-5 amps. The cathode and the filament is one and the same thing and surrounding the target and the filament is an air evacuated envelope.The electrons from the filament are accelerated towards the target. They bombard the target in a rectangular shaped area called the focal spot. From there the x-rays are emitted in all directions. The walls of the tube are impenetrable for the x-rays except where beryllium windows are inserted. Beryllium has a very low absorption coefficient for the x-rays.The amount of x-rays produced depends on the number of electrons emitted and their energy when they reach the target. The number of electrons in turn depends on the filament temperature, and thus the filament current. The current of electrons from the filament to the target is measurable and usually 25-55 mA. This current can be chosen freely as a feedback loop will feed the filament with the current needed. The energy ofthe electrons depend on the accelerating voltage. Thus the total intensity emitted by thex-ray tube depends on both the operating voltage and the tube current.In general, diffraction is possible when the length of the wave is of the same order of magnitude as the distance between the regularly spaced scattering objectsTwo scattered rays are in phase, if their path difference is equal to a whole number n of wavelengths. Scattered rays emerging from a plane surface as a result of a beam incident on that surface, have a path difference equal to a whole number of wavelengths, if n l = 2 d' sinq (The Bragg Law),where d' is the distance between the diffracting planes in the crystal and q is the angle between the incident beam and the surface. n is the order of reflection and n can be any integral number as long as sin q < 1. n is also equal to the number of wavelengths in the path difference of two rays scattered from adjacent planes (e.g. If n = 2 then a ray scattered from one plane will have a path that is two wavelengths shorter than a ray scattered from a deeper lying neighbor plane).The basis for phase analysis is that the crystal of a certain phase will have interatomic distances peculiar to that phase and these different distances will cause a series of reflections as the detector are shifted through 2theta.Two phases can have similar or almost similar structures and hence interatomic distances. This makes identifying phases in an unknown sample very difficult, but knowing what elements are present in the sample will narrow the possibilities down quite a bit. Also crystallite size using XRD .X-ray pole figure measurements are used to characterize the film with respect to any preferred orientation with which growth has taken place. Rocking curve is another application to characterize the film with respect to its quality ofcrystallinity comparing to the single crystals or polycrystalline materials.。
温特的《无政府状态是国家造就的》
这是社会建构主义的代表者亚历山大。
温特（明尼苏达大学教授）的成名之作，发表在《国际组织》上。
在这篇文章中温特对主流国际关系理论关无政府状态的论述，尤其是主流国际关系理论将无政府状态作为国际政治的第一推动，做了不同的理解。
温特认为，无政府状态不是别人，正是国家自己在互动的过程中建构的。
同时，国家所建构的这种无政府状态不只有一种逻辑。
它包括霍布斯文化，洛克文化，康德文化三种。
我们现在所处的国际社会实际上处于洛克文化的状态，在朝着康德文化的方向发展。
温特的著作：《国际政治的社会理论》，秦亚青译，上海人民出版社。
Anarchy Is What States Make of ItALEXANDER WENDTClassical realists such as Thomas Hobbes, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Hans J. Mor- genthau attributed egoism and power politics primarily to human nature, whereas structural realists or neorealists emphasize anarchy. The difference stems in part from different interpretations of anarchy's causal powers. Kenneth Waltz's work is important for both. In Man, the State, and War, he defines anarchy as a condition of possibility for or "permissive" cause of war, arguing that "wars occur because there is nothing to prevent them."1 It is the human nature or domestic politics of predator states, however, that provide the initial impetus or "efficient" cause of conflict which forces other states to respond in kind...But... In Waltz's Theory of international Politics... the logic of anarchy seems by itself to constitute self-help and power politics as necessary features of world politics.2 . . .Waltz defines political structure in three dimensions: ordering principles (in this case, anarchy), principles of differentiation (which here drop out), and the distribution of capabilities.3 By itself, this definition predicts little about state behavior. It does not predict whether two states will be friends or foes, will recognize each other's sovereignty, will have dynastic ties, will be revisionist or status quo powers, and so on. These factors, which are fundamentally intersubjective, affect states' security interests and thus the character of their interaction under anarchy.…Put more generally, without assumptions about the structure of identities and interests in the system, Waltz's definition of structure cannot predict the content or dynamics of anarchy. Self-help is one such intersubjective structure and, as such, does the decisive explanatory work in the theory. The question is whether self-help is a logical or contingent feature of anarchy. In this section, I develop the concept of a "structure of identity and interest" and show that no particular one follows logically from anarchy.A fundamental principle of constructivist social theory is that people act toward objects, including other actors, on the basis of the meanings that the objects have for them. States act differently toward enemies than they do toward friends because enemies are threatening and friends are not. Anarchy and the distribution of power are insufficient to tell us which is which. U.S. military power has a different significance for Canada than for Cuba, despite their similar "structural"Excerpted/abridged from "Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Polities," by Alexander Wendt from International Organization, V ol. 46, No. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 395-410.Copyright ~ 1992 by the World Peace Foundation and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Portions of the text and some footnotes have been omitted.positions, just as British missiles have a different significance for the United States than do Soviet missiles. The distribution of power may always affect states" calculations, but how it does so depends on the intersubjective understandings and expectations, on the "distribution of knowledge," that constitute their conceptions of self and other.4 If society "forgets" what a university is, the powers and practices of professor and student cease to exist; ff the United States and Soviet Union decide that they are no longer enemies, "the Cold War is over." It is collective meanings that constitute the structures which organize our actions.Actors acquire identities--relatively stable, role-specific understandings and expectations about self--by participating in such collective meanings. Identities are inherently relational: "Identity, with its appropriate attachments of psychological reality, is always identity within a specific, socially constructed world," Peter Berger argues.5 Each person has many identities linked to institutional roles, such as brother, son, teacher, and citizen. Similarly, a state may have multiple identities as "sovereign," "leader of the free world," "imperial power," and so on. The commitment to and the salience of particular identities vary, but each identity is an inherently social definition of the actor grounded in the theories which actors collectively hold about themselves and one another and which constitute the structure of the social world.Identities are the basis of interests. Actors do not have a "portfolio" of interests that they carry around independent of social context; instead, they define their interests on the process of defining situations Sometimes situations are unprecedented in our experience, and in these cases we have to construct their meaning, and thus our interests, by analogy or invent them de novo. More often they have routine qualities in which we assign meanings on the basis of institution-allydefined roles. When we say that professors have an "interest" in teaching, research, or going on leave, we are saying that to function in the role identity of "professor," they have to define certain situations as calling for certain actions. This does not mean that they will necessarily do so (expectations and competence do not equal performance), but if they do not, they will not get tenure. The absence or failure of roles makes defining situations and interests more difficult, and identity confusion may result. This seems to be happening today in the United States and the former Soviet Union: Without the cold war's mutual attributions of threat and hostility to define their identities, these states seem unsure of what their "interests" should be.An institution is a relatively stable set or "structure" of identifies and interests. Such structures are often codified in formal rules and norms, but these have motivational force only in virtue of actors" socialization to and participation in collective knowledge. Institutions are fundamentally cognitive entities that do not exist apart from actors" ideas about how the world works. This does not mean that institutions are not real or objective, that they are "nothing but" beliefs. As collective knowledge, they are experienced as having an existence "over and above the individuals who happen to embody them at the moment."6 In this way, institutions come to confront individuals as more or less coercive social facts, but they are still a function of what actors collectively "know." Identities and such collective cognitions do not exist apart from each other; they are "mutually constitutive." On this view,institutionalization is a process of internalizing new identities and interests, not something occurring outside them and affecting only behavior; socialization is a cognitive process, not just a behavioral one. Conceived in this way, institutions may be cooperative or conflictual, a point sometimes lost in scholarship on international regimes, which tends to equate institutions with cooperation. There are important differences between conflictual and cooperative institutions to be sure, but all relatively stable self-other relations--even those of "enemies"--are defined intersubjectively.Self-help is an institution, one of various structures of identity and interest that may exist under anarchy. Processes of identity formation under anarchy are concerned first and foremost with preservation or "security" of the self. Concepts of security therefore differ in the extent to which and the manner in which the self is identified cognitively with the other, and, I want to suggest, it is upon this cognitive variation that the meaning of anarchy and the distribution of power depends. Let me illustrate with a standard continuum of security systems.At one end is the "competitive" security system, in which states identify negatively with each other's security so that ego's gain is seen as alter's loss. Negativeidentification under anarchy constitutes systems of "realist" power politics: risk-averse actors that infer intentions from capabilities and worry about relative gainsand losses. At the limit--in the Hobbesian war of all against all--collective actionis nearly impossible in such a system because each actor must constantly fear beingstabbed in the back.In the middle is the "individualistic" security system, in which states are indifferent to the relationship between their own and others" security. This constitutes "neoliberal" systems: States are still self-regarding about their security but are concerned primarily with absolute gains rather than relative gains. One's position in the distribution of power is less important, and collective action is more possible(though still subject to free riding because states continue to be "egoists").Competitive and individualistic systems are both "self-help" forms of anarchy in the sense that states do not positively identify the security of self with that of others but instead treat security as the individual responsibility of each. Given the lack of a positive cognitive identification on the basis of which to build security regimes, power politics within such systems will necessarily consist of efforts to manipulate others to satisfy self-regarding interests.This contrasts with the "cooperative" security system, in which states identify positively with one another so that the security of each is perceived as the responsibility of all. This is not self-help in any interesting sense, since the "self" in terms of which interests are defined is the community; national interests are international interests. In practice, of course, the extent to which states identify with the community varies from the limited form found in "concerts" to the full-blown form seen in "collective security" arrangements. Depending on how well developed the collective self is, it will produce security practices that are in varying degrees altruistic or prosocial. This makes collective action less dependent on the presence of active threats and less prone to free riding. Moreover, it restructures efforts to advance one's objectives, or "power politics," in terms of shared norms rather than relative power.On this view, the tendency in international relations scholarship to view power andinstitutions as two opposing explanations of foreign policy is therefore misleading, since anarchy and the distribution of power only have meaning for state action in virtue of the understandings and expectations that constitute institutional identities and interests. Self-help is one such institution, constituting one kind of anarchy but not the only kind. Waltz's three-part definition of structure therefore seems underspecified. In order to go from structure to action, we need to add a fourth: the intersubjectively constituted structure of identities and interests in the system.This has an important implication for the way in which we conceive of states in the state of nature before their first encounter with each other, Because states do not have conceptions of self and other, and thus security interests, apart from or prior to interaction, we assume too much about the state of nature if we concur with Waltz that, in virtue of anarchy, "international political systems, like economic markets, are formed by the coaction of self-regarding units."7 We also assume too much if we argue that, in virtue of anarchy, states in the state of nature necessarily face a "stag hunt" or "security dilemma." s These claims presuppose a history of interaction in which actors have acquired "selfish" identities and interests; before interaction (and still in abstraction from first- and second-image factors) they would have no experience upon which to base such definitions of self and other. To assume otherwise is to attribute to states in the state of nature qualities that they can only possess in society. Self-help is an institution, not a constitutive feature of anarchy.What, then, is a constitutive feature of the state of nature before interaction? Two things are left if we strip away those properties of the self which presuppose interaction with others. The first is the material substrate of agency, including its intrinsic capabilities. For human beings, this is the body; for states, it is an organizational apparatus of governance. In effect, I am suggesting for rhetorical purposes that the raw material out of which members of the state system are constituted is created by domestic society before states enter the constitutive process of international society, although this process implies neither stable territoriality nor sovereignty, which are internationally negotiated terms of individuality (as discussed further below). The second is a desire to preserve this material substrate, to survive. This does not entail "self-regardingness," however, since actors do not have a self prior to interaction with another; how they view the meaning and requirements of this survival therefore depends on the processes by which conceptions of self evolve.This may all seem very arcane, but there is an important issue at stake: Are the foreign policy identities and interests of states exogenous or endogenous to the state system? The former is the answer of an individualistic or undersocialized systemic theory for which rationalism is appropriate; the latter is the answer of a fully socialized systemic theory. Waltz seems to offer the latter and proposes two mechanisms, competition and socialization, by which structure conditions state action.9 The content of his argument about this conditioning, however, presupposes a self-help system that is not itself a constitutive feature of anarchy. As James Morrow points out, Waltz's two mechanisms condition behavior, not identity and interest (10)If self-help is not a constitutive feature of anarchy, it must emerge causally from processes in which anarchy plays only a permissive role. This reflects a second principle of constructivism: that the meanings in terms of which action is organized arise out of interaction…Consider two actors---ego and alter--encountering each other for the first time.11 Each wants to survive and has certain material capabilities, but neither actor has biological or domestic imperatives for power, glory, or conquest.., and there is no history of security or insecurity between the two. What should they do? Realists would probably argue that each should act on the basis of worst-case assumptions about the other's intentions, justifying such an attitude as: prudent in view of the possibility of death from making a mistake. Such a possibility always exists, even in civil society; however, society would be impossible ff people made decisions purely on the basis of worst-case possibilities. Instead, most decisions are and should be made on the basis of probabilities, and these are produced by inter-action, by what actors do.In the beginning is ego's gesture, which may consist, for example, of an advance, a retreat, a brandishing of arms, a laying down of arms, or an attack. For ego, this gesture represents the basis on which it is prepared to respond to alter. This basis is unknown to alter, however, and so it must make an inference or "attribution" about ego's intentions and, in particular, given that this is anarchy, about whether ego is a threat. The content of this inference will largely depend on two considerations. The first is the gesture's and ego's physical qualities, which are in part contrived by ego and which include the direction of movement, noise, numbers, and immediate consequences of the gesture. The second consideration concerns what alter would intend by such qualities were it to make such a gesture itself. Alter may make an attributional "error" in its inference about ego's intent, but there is also no reason for it to assume a priori-before the gesture--that ego is threatening, since it is only through a process of signaling and interpreting that the costs and probabilities of being wrong can be determined. Social threats are constructed, not natural.Consider an example. Would we assume, a priori, that we were about to be attacked if we are ever contacted by members of an alien civilization? I think not. We would be highly alert, of course, but whether we placed our military forces on alert or launched an attack would depend on how we interpreted the import of their first gesture for our security--if only to avoid making an immediate enemy out of what may be a dangerous adversary. The possibility of error, in other words, does not force us to act on the assumption that the aliens are threatening: Action depends on the probabilities we assign, and these are in key part a function of what the aliens do; prior to their gesture, we have no systemic basis for assigning probabilities. If their first gesture is to appear with a thousand spaceships and destroy New York, we will define the situation as threatening and respond accordingly. But if they appear with one spaceship, saying what seems to be "we come in peace," we will feel "reassured" and will probably respond with a gesture intended to reassure them, even if this gesture is not necessarily interpreted by them as such.This process of signaling, interpreting, and responding completes a "social act"and begins the process of creating intersubjective meanings. It advances the sameway. The first social act creates expectations on both sides about each other'sfuture behavior: potentially mistaken and certainly tentative, but expectations! nonetheless. Based on this tentative knowledge, ego makes a new gesture, again signifying the basis on which it will respond to alter, and again alter responds, adding to the pool of knowledge each has about the other, and so on over time. The mechanism here is reinforcement; interaction rewards actors for holding certain ideas about each other and discourages them from holding others. If repeated long enough, these "reciprocal typifications" will create relatively stable concepts of self and other regarding the issue at stake in the interaction.12Competitive systems of interaction are prone to security "dilemmas," in which the efforts of actors to enhance their security unilaterally threatens the security of the others, perpetuating distrust and alienation. The forms of identity and interest that constitute such dilemmas, however, are themselves ongoing effects of, not exogenous to, the interaction; identities are produced in and through "situated activity."13 We do not begin our relationship with the aliens in a security dilemma; security dilemmas are not given by anarchy or nature.The mirror theory of identity formation is a crude account of how the process of creating identities and interests might work, but it does not tell us why a system of states---such as, arguably, our own--would have ended up with self-regarding and not collective identities. In this section, I examine an efficient cause, predation, which, in conjunction with anarchy as a permissive cause, may generate a self-help system. In so doing, however, I show the key role that the structure of identities and interests plays in mediating anarchy's explanatory role.The predator argument is straightforward and compelling. For whatever reasons-biology, domestic politics, or systemic vietimization-some states may become predisposed toward aggression. The aggressive behavior of these predators or "bad apples" forces other states to engage in competitive power politics, to meet fire with fire, since failure to do so may degrade or destroy them. One predator will best a hundred pacifists because anarchy provides no guarantees. This argument is powerful in part because it is so weak: Rather than making the strong assumptionthat all states are inherently power-seeking (a purely reductionist theory of power politics), it assumes that just one is power-seeking and that the others have to follow suit because anarchy permits the one to exploit them.In making this argument, it is important to reiterate that the possibility of predation does not in itself force states to anticipate it a priori with competitive power politics of their own. The possibility of predation does not mean that "war may at any moment occur"; it may in fact be extremely unlikely. Once a predator emerges, however, it may condition identity and interest formation in the following manner.In an anarchy of two, if ego is predatory, alter must either define its security in self-help terms or pay the price The timing of the emergence of predation relative to the history of identity formation in the community is therefore crucial to anarchy's explanatory role as a permissive cause. Predation will always lead victims to defend themselves, but whether defense will be collective or not depends on the history of interaction within the potential collective as much as on the ambitions of the predator. Will the disappearance of the Soviet threat renew old insecurities among the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization? Perhaps, but not if they have reasons independent of that threat for identifying their security withone another. Identities and interests are relationship-specific, not intrinsic attributes of a "portfolio"; states may be competitive in some relationships and solidary in others……The source of predation also matters. If it stems from unit-level causes that areimmune to systemic impacts (causes such as human nature or domestic polities taken in isolation), then it functions in a manner analogous to a "genetic trait" in the constructed world of the state system. Even if successful, this trait does not select for other predators in an evolutionary sense so much as it teaches other states to respond in kind, but since traits cannot be unlearned, the other states will continue competitive behavior until the predator is either destroyed or trans-formed from within. However, in the more likely event that predation stems at least in part from prior systemic interaction--perhaps as a result of being victimized in the past (one thinks here of Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union)--then it is more a response to a learned identity and, as such, might be transformed by future social interaction in the form of appeasement, reassurances that security needs will be met, systemic effects on domestic polities, and so on. In this ease, in otherwords, there is more hope that process can transform a bad apple into a good one……This raises anew the question of exactly how much and what kind of role human nature and domestic politics play in world polities. The greater and more destructive this role, the more significant predation will be, and the less amenable anarchy will be to formation of collective identities. Classical realists, of course, assumed that human nature was possessed by an inherent lust for power or glory. My argument suggests that assumptions such as this were made for a reason: An unchanging Hobbesian man provides the powerful efficient cause necessary for a relentless pessimism about world polities that anarchic structure alone, or even structure plus intermittent predation, cannot supplyAssuming for now that systemic theories of identity formation in world polities are worth pursuing, let me conclude by suggesting that the realist-rationalist alliance "retries" self-help in the sense of treating it as something separate from the practices by which it is produced and sustained. Peter Berger and Thorpas Luckmann define reification as follows: "[It] is the apprehension of the products of human activity as if they were something else than human products--such as facts of nature, results of cosmic laws, or manifestations of divine will. Reification implies that man is capable of forgetting his own authorship of the human world, and further, that the dialectic between man, the producer, and his products is lost to consciousness. The reified world is ... experienced by man as a strange facticity, an opus alienum over which he has no control rather than as the opus proprium of his own productive activity."14 By denying or bracketing states' collective authorship of their identities and interests, in other words, the realist- rationalist alliance denies or brackets the fact that competitive power polities help create a very "problem of order" they are supposed to solve---that realism is a self-fulfilling prophecy. Far from being exogenously given, the intersubjective knowledge that constitutes competitive identities and interests is constructed every day by processes of "social will formation."15 It is what states have made of themselves.1. Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959),p. 232.2. Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1979).3. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, pp. 79-101.4. The phrase "distribution of knowledge" is Barry Barnes's, as discussed in his work The Nature of Power (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988); see also Peter Berger and ThomasLuckrnann, The Social Construction of Reality (New York: Anchor Books, 1966).5. Berger, "Identity as a Problem in the Sociology of Knowledge," European Journal ofSociology, 7, 1 (1966), 111.6. Berger and Luckmann, p. 58.7. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 91.8. See Waltz, Man, the State, and War; and Robert Jervis, "Cooperation Under the Secu rity Dilemma,” World Politics 30 (January 1978), 167-214.9. waltz, Theory of lnternational Politics, pp. 74-77.10. See James Morrow, "Social Choice and System Structure in World Politics," World Politics 41 (October 1988), 89.11. This situation is not entirely metaphorical in world polities, since throughout history states have "discovered" each other, generating an instant anarchy as it were. A systematic empirical study of first contacts would be interesting.12. On "reciprocal typifications," see Berger and Luckmann, pp. 54--58.13. See C. Norman Alexander and Mary Glenn Wiley, "Situated Activity and Identity For mation," in Morris Rosenberg and Ralph Turner, eds., Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 269-89.14. See Berger and Luekmann, p. 89.15. See Richard Ashley, "Social Will and International Anarchy," in Hayward Alker andRichard Ashley, eds., After Realism, work in progress, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, and Arizona State University, Tempe, 1992.文章评论共0条回复Powered by PHPWind政治与公共管理学院。
苯乙烯_甲基丙烯酸十二氟庚酯的共聚反应
第21卷第3期2009年9月江 苏 工 业 学 院 学 报J OU RNAL OF J IAN GSU POL YTECHN IC UN IV ERSIT Y Vol 121No 13Sep 12009文章编号:1673-9620(2009)03-0006-03苯乙烯/甲基丙烯酸十二氟庚酯的共聚反应3张震乾,吴海银(江苏工业学院材料科学与工程学院,江苏常州213164)摘要:在85℃条件下,用过氧化苯甲酰为引发剂,在溶液中进行了苯乙烯(St )和甲基丙烯酸十二氟庚酯(G04)共聚合反应的研究,合成出不同组成的无规共聚物(PSF )。
采用1H NMR 对PSF 的组分进行分析,通过Fineman -Ross 方程,在低转化率下(小于10%)测出St (M 1)和G04(M 2)的竞聚率,得到r 1=0117,r 2=0184。
不同组成的PSF 的玻璃化转变温度(t g )都比无规PS 的t g 低,且随着G04含量的增大,PSF 的t g 逐渐降低,当n (St )∶n (G04)=01291∶1时,PSF 的t g 为6014℃。
关键词:竞聚率;玻璃化温度;含氟共聚物;苯乙烯;甲基丙烯酸十二氟庚酯中图分类号:TQ 3161342 文献标识码:AStudy of the Copolymerization of Styrene and DodecafluoroheptylMethacrylateZHAN G Zhen -qian ,WU Hai -yin(School of Materials Science and Engineering ,Jiangsu Polytechnic University ,Changzhou 213164,China )Abstract :Styrene (St )and dodecafluoroheptyl met hacrylate (G04)were copolymerized in solution at 85℃,using benzoyl peroxide (B PO )as initiator.The random copolymer (PSF )of different constit uent was obtained.1H NMR was used to analyze t he constit uent s of PSF ,and Fineman -Ross equation wasused for calculating monomer reactivity ratio s.From relevant feed monomer compo sition and copolymer composition ,mo nomer reactivity ratios r 1=0117(St ),r 2=0184(G04)were obtained.The glass transi 2tion temperat ure (t g )of PSF decreased compared wit h t hat of atactic polystyrene.Wit h an increase of t he content of G04,t g of PSF decreases gradually ,and when n (St )∶n (G04)=01291∶1,t he t g of PSF is 6014℃。
中国古代诗歌中隐喻的翻译研究
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英汉基本颜色文化内涵对比82 “省力原则”在口译过程中的应用83 A Comparison of the English Color Terms84 尤金•奥尼尔《榆树下的欲望》中伊本的悲剧命运分析85 解读《喜福会》中吴夙愿与吴精美母女之间被误解的爱86 英汉形状类量词的隐喻认知分析87 外语学习焦虑与口语成绩的相关性研究88 论《白象似的群山》中海明威独特的写作风格89 《善良的乡下人》的喜剧性分析90 基于精细加工理论的英语词汇学习研究91 A Comparison of the English Color Terms92 浅析商务谈判中的恭维语应用93 解读《最蓝的眼睛》中的姐妹情谊94 《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》中玛姬的性格95 The Reasons Why Robert Cohn is Despised by All in The Sun Also Rises96 从跨文化角度浅析化妆品商标翻译97 游戏在初中英语教学中的作用98 The Comparison of Symbolic Meaning of Animals in Chinese Culture and Western Culture in the Aspect of Literary works99 高中英语写作前口语活动设计与实施建议100 从“老人与海”译本比较研究看理解在翻译中的重要性101 从功能对等角度分析英文电影片名汉译102 Double Vision in Characterization in The Great Gatsby103 思嘉丽是淑女还是魔鬼？104 爱默生超验主义对世纪美国人生观的影响——以《论自助》为例105 A Contrastive Study on the Religious Constituents of Chinese and Western Christians106 沮丧与感情的冲突107 从美学角度浅析许渊冲《汉英对照唐诗三首》——“意音形”三美论108 《苔丝》中的圣经和神话典故109 从“爱的习惯”看多丽丝•莱辛笔下的两性关系110 译者主体性对翻译风格的影响分析111 从叔本华的哲学思想角度简析《德伯家的苔丝》中苔丝的悲剧112 An Analysis of the Cultural Identity in Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck C lub113 企业资料的翻译原则114 论奥斯卡•王尔德的矛盾性——从传记角度解读《奥斯卡•王尔德童话集》115 从《道林•格雷的画像》看王尔德的唯美主义116 试论电子商务英语的特点和翻译117 初中生英语自主学习现状调查与分析118 翻译目的论视域下的广告语翻译策略研究119 Translation Strategies of Two-part Allegorical Sayings120 华裔美国文学中的幽灵叙事探析121 从《了不起的盖茨比》看美国梦幻灭的必然性122 语法翻译法视角下的中学生英语家教辅导123 动物习语中文化意象的比较与翻译124 从警察与赞美诗中分析欧亨利的写作风格125 中西跨文化交际中的礼貌问题之比较分析126 浅析《远大前程》中主人公皮普性格发展的形成因素127 文化商务交际中的个人主义与集体主义128 An Analysis of Gender in Oh,Pioneers!129 清教主义对美国文化的影响130 论人性自私在《呼啸山庄》中的体现131 《野性的呼唤》中的生态观132 奴隶制下的压迫与爱——浅析托尼•莫里森的《宠儿》133 对《儿子与情人》中的自然环境描写的研究134 使用影视片对中学生进行英语听说教学135 从简爱和安娜卡列尼娜的不同命运看女性意识的觉醒136 浅析《嘉莉妹妹》中的新女性形象137 影响英语专业学生阅读理解因素的分析及对策探讨138 广告英语中语言的性别差异139 女孩与玫瑰—《秘密花园》中生态女性主义解读140 在英语教学中发展学生的自主学习能力141 从原型批评的角度透视《野草在歌唱》的人物及意象142 《红楼梦》饮食词语英译策略探析143 浅谈当代大学生炫耀性消费文化144 从《绝望主妇》看美国人的婚姻观145 论石黑一雄《别让我走》中新与旧的世界146 从劳伦斯及其作品《儿子与情人》看恋母情结147 试析《啊，拓荒者》中的生态伦理观148 研究交替传译中的笔记特征以及它对翻译准确度的影响149 浅析《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征主义150 《荆棘鸟》的女性主义解读151 从电影《吸血鬼日记》分析现代西方人们新的价值取向152 论有效开展小学英语对话教学的策略153 从心理语言学的角度探讨消极情绪的语言表达154 论《百舌鸟之死》中的百舌鸟象征155 《红字》中海斯特性格分析156 浅析《愤怒的葡萄》中主要人物的性格特征157 英汉数字的文化差异158 林语堂翻译思想探究——以《浮生六记》英译本为例159 从禁忌语看中西方文化异同160 认知语境与人名隐喻的翻译研究—基于《红楼梦》英译文的个案研究161 中西方灾难新闻差异性研究-文化与传媒162 论奥巴马就职演讲词的排比修辞163 英语学习中的跨文化语用失误及其对策164 从跨文化的视角分析美国动画“辛普森一家”中的习语现象165 广告翻译中的模因传播166 影响中学生英语学习的心理因素分析167 《雾都孤儿》中的善与恶168 目的论在英文电影片名翻译中的应用169 从人类文化语言学的角度分析英语语言中的性别歧视现象170 浅析田纳西•威廉斯剧作《欲望号街车》的同性恋倾向171 英文电影对英语学习的影响172 《嘉莉妹妹》中嘉莉的女性主义形象分析173 论《格列佛游记》的社会意义174 汉英谚语的语意对比175 《诗经》与《圣经•雅歌》中爱情诗的比较研究176 “上”和“下”的意象图式及概念映射177 Cultural Differences in the Non-Verbal Communication178 试析爱丽丝沃克作品中的女性主义观点——以《紫色》为例179 目的论视角下的《边城》的英译研究180 《大地》中的儒家思想181 宗教对英汉语言的影响182 伏尼契小说《牛虻》中主人公性格分析183 Cultural Conflicts in Daisy Miller—An Analysis on Henry James’ International Theme 184 A Comparison between Tess and Hester’s Tragic Destiny185 《麦琪的礼物》中环境语的分析186 Comparison and Translation Between Chinese and English Euphemisms187 《游泳者》中的艺术特色188 萨拉的性格魅力189 从婚礼仪式浅谈中西方文化的冲突和交融190 论圣经诗篇的修辞特点191 浅析《最蓝的眼睛》中佩科拉的悲剧192 英汉视觉动词概念隐喻的对比研究193 Influences of Chinese Classical Poetry on Ezra Pound194 论词典在高中英语词汇学习中的有效利用195 功能对等视角下汉语广告的英译策略196 从顺应理论的角度对广告翻译的分析197 浅析中学英语教学中教师如何“纠错”198 海明威的矛盾性格在其作品中的体现199 从语用学角度分析《老友记》中的幽默200 如果不复仇——论呼啸山庄中的爱与恨。
二氢槲皮素毒性研究现状
医学食疗与健康 2022年12月下第20卷第36期·综述及个案报道·二氢槲皮素毒性研究现状高峰1 张燕芳2 张晶莹1 孟令仪1 孙兰1 张培军1 周博宇1△（1.吉林省疾病预防控制中心/吉林省公共卫生研究院,吉林 长春 130062）（2.吉林大学公共卫生学院，吉林 长春 130021）【摘要】二氢槲皮素（dihydroquercetin），又称花旗松素（taxifolin），是一种重要的二氢黄酮醇类化合物[1]，具有抗肿瘤[2]、抗氧化[3-5]、抗病毒[6]、治疗心血管疾病[7]、降血糖[8]、抗炎抗过敏等多重功效[9-10]。
二氢槲皮素在食品、药品、化妆品以及保健品等行业得到了广泛的应用，因此，人们对其食用的安全性越来越重视。
基于此，本文主要针对二氢槲皮素的毒性研究进展进行综述，为其进一步的开发利用提供借鉴。
【关键词】二氢槲皮素；毒性研究；食品添加剂【中图分类号】R284.2 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】2096-5249（2022）36-0193-03Review on Toxicity of DihydroquercetinGAO Feng1, ZHANG Yan-fang2, ZHANG Jing-ying1, MENG Ling-yi1, SUN Lan1, ZHANG Pei-jun1, ZHOU Bo-yu1△（1.Jilin Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention/Jilin Provincial Institute of Public Health, Changchun Jilin 130062, China）（2.School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun Jilin 130021, China）【Abstract】Dihydroquercetin, also known as taxifolin, is an important dihydroflavonol compound.At present, dihydroquercetin has been widely used in food, medicine, cosmetics and other industries.It has anti-tumor, anti-oxidation, anti-virus, treatment of cardiovascular disease, hypoglycemia，anti-inflammatory and anti allergic effects. At the same time, people also attach great importance to the safety of its consumption.Based on this, this paper mainly reviews the toxicity of dihydroquercetin to provide reference for its further development and utilization.【Keywords】Dihydroquercetin; Toxicity study; Food additives二氢槲皮素（5, 7, 3, 4-四羟基二氢黄酮醇），从落叶松根部提取，广泛应用于食品添加剂、保健食品和药品等相关行业，具有很大的潜力[11]。
The Renaissance英国文学文艺复兴时期总结
The RenaissanceThis is a greatest and most advanced revolution in the human history. This is the age the giants are needed and produced.------F. Engles<1> Brief introduction▪Renaissance in European history, refers to the period between 14th century to 17th century. It started in Italy and ended in England and Spain.▪“Renaissance” means “revival”, the revival of interest in Ancient Greek and Roman culture and getting rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introducing new ideas that express the interests of the rising bourgeoisie.▪Renaissance sprang first in Italy (Florence and Venice) with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture, and gradually spread all over Europe;▪Renaissance originally indicated a revival of classical arts and science (ancient Greek and Roman culture) after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism.During the period of Renaissance:1. the Roman Catholic Church was shaken,2. old sciences revived and new sciences emerged,3. national languages and cultures took shape,4. art and literature flourishedBrief introduction▪There arose an interest in the manuscripts surviving from ancient Greece and Rome. Classical learning and philosophy were enthusiastically studied.▪The intellectual wisdom of ancient Greece and Rome encouraged a rebirth of human spirit，a realization of human potential for development and creation．▪Never before in human history were men and women so eager to create and discover something new．In Italy a group of artists，scientists，politicians，and writers created the most brilliant page of culture and science in Renaissance Europe．Examples:①Copernicus (哥白尼) asserted that the earth was not the center of the universe；②The passionate Petrarch produced sonnets that influenced Shakespeare and many others；③Boccaccio(卜伽邱) wrote tales of eternal charm: The Decameron；④Marco Polo (马可波罗) made journeys into the remote kingdom of China；⑤Michelangelo（米开朗琪罗），Leonardo da Vinci (达芬奇)，Raphael (拉斐尔)，and Titian (提香) createdpaintings and sculptures that are invaluable treasures of the world．<2>Essence and features▪Essence: It is the reflection of the rise of bourgeoisie in the sphere of cultural life.（另版本）：Renaissance, in essence, is a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to:to get rid of conservatism in Feudalist Europe;to introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie,to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.Briefly it is the reflection of the rise of bourgeoisie inthe sphere of cultural life.▪Features: there are two striking features①A thirsting curiosity for the classical literature.②The keen interest in the activities of humanity.<3>Renaissance and HumanismRenaissance: the term originally indicated a revival of classical arts and science after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. Indeed, a great number of the works of classical authors were translated into English during the 16th century.Humanism：The progressive thinkers of the humanists held their chief interest not in ecclesiastical knowledge, but in man, his environment and doings and bravely fought for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas.Humanism is the key-note of the Renaissance. It reflected the new outlook of the rising bourgeois class;<4>HumanismHumanism is the essence of the Renaissance. It sprang from the endeavor to restore a reverence for the Greek and Roman civilization based on the conception that man is the measure of all things.Contrary to the subordination of individuals to the feudal rules and the sacrifice of earthly life for a future life in the medieval society, Renaissance humanists found in the classics a justification to exalt human nature and came to see that human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development for perfection.By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders.<5>Features of humanism in RenaissanceEmphasizing the power, value and dignity of the human being and holding that human beings are glorious creatures The core of Renaissance thought is the greatness of man/giants. This is best summarized in the lines of Shakespeare’s HamletWhat a piece of work is man; how noble in reason; how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable; in action how like and angel; in apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world, the paragon of animals.人是一件多么了不起的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行为上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么想一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！▪1. Emphasizing secular happiness and individualism against the medieval ideas of asceticism;▪2.shifting man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philoso phy, from beauty and greatness of God to the beauty of human body in all its joys and pains.▪3. Applying Aristotle’s theory, Humanist literature mainly use realistic style and take literature as the mirror or miniature of the society.<6>Influence and English RenaissanceInfluences:1.These Italians, and many others, helped to make Italy the center of the Renaissance movement in Europe.2.The movement changed the medieval Western Europe into a modern one．3.The intellectual wisdom of ancient Greece and Rome encouraged a rebirth of human spirit，a realization of human potential for development and creationEnglish Renaissance:Oxford Reformers: the Oxford reformers, scholars and humanists introduced classical literature to England. Education was revitalized and literature became more popular.This was England’s Golden Age in literature. There appeared many English literary giants such as Shakespeare, Spenser, Johnson, Sidney, Marlowe, Bacon and Donne.English RenaissanceContents●I.TheSixteenthCentury England ●II. Renaissance in England ●III. The main artistic styles●IV. William Shakespeare●V. Francis BaconI. The Sixteenth Century England1. Enclosure Movement2. The establishment of absolute monarchy3. Religious reformation4. International situation5. Cultural preparati●The background of the humanism in Europe●The introduction of printing led to an enlarged reading public and a commercial market for literature;●The great economic and political changes led to the rise of democracy;●The spirit of nationalism;●The growing of "new science” etc.Characteristics of the Elizabethan Age1. An age of comparative religious tolerance;2. An age of comparative social contentment;3. An age of dreams, of adventures, of unbounded enthusiasm;4. An age of intellectual liberty, of growing intelligence and comfort among all classes and of unbounded patriotism.II. Renaissance in England▪The time: mainly from the reign of Henry VIII, Edward, Mary and then to Queen Elizabeth and Jacobean Eraa. Beginning: the last years of the 15-th century---first half of the 16-th centuryb. Flourishing: the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)c. Declining: the period of James I (1603-1625) early 17-th centuryThe flowering of English literatureThe second half of the 16th century, “a nest of singing birds”The early period:imitation and assimilation, translated works, poetry and poetic drama were the most outstanding literary forms. ▪Sonnet: an exact form of poetry in 14 lines of iambic pentameter intricately rhymed.▪Blank verse: iambic pentameter unrhymedThe latter period:Drama— the real mainstream of the English Renaissanceyears 1587-93. they were all of humble birth and struggled for a livelihood by writing. Through hard work, they revised old plays and wrote new ones. They made rapid progress in dramatic techniques because they has close contact with the actors and audiences. They were looked down upon by the gentlemen and suspected by the government. It was their industrious works that furnished the Elizabethan stage.Christopher MarloweWilliam ShakespeareIII. The main artistic stylesThe artistic styles as lyric poetry, narrative poetry, drama are maturized; new styles which characterized the modern literature such as sonnets, short stories and novels were produced.translation:Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Homer’s Iliad, Montaigne’s Essays▪travel books:More’s Utopia▪poetry: Edmund Spenser▪drama: “University Wits”, Marlowe, Shakespeare▪essay: Francis BaconForerunner of utopian socialism▪An imaginative travel narrative written in the form of conversation between More and Hythloday, a returned voyager describing an ideal state governed by reason.▪The subject is the search for the best possible form of government: Utopia---a community of property---a pure, pre-Marx form of communism.The Sheph erd’s Calendar 《牧人日历》: 12 pastoral poems and eclogues, one for each month, put into the mouths of speakers distinguishing themselves as shepherds, really representing Spenser and his friends.▪Amoretti《爱情小诗》:a series of 88 sonnets in honor of his lover Elizabeth. All except one was written in the Spenserian sonnet.▪Epithlamion 《婚后曲》: marriage hymns to celebrate his marriage with Elizabeth.The Faerie Queene《仙后》:▪The blending of religious and historical allegory with chivalric romance: a long poem planned 12 books. 12 knights for the qualities of the chivalric virtues--- the six completed books are holiness, temperance, chastity, friendship, justice and courtesy.Fairy Queen—Queen Elizabeth, the knights as a whole --- England, the evil figures—enemies.Themes of the poem :●nationalism( celebration of Queen Elizabeth)●humanism (strong opposition to Roman Catholicism),●Puritanism (moral teaching)Spenserian stanza:it is a nine-line stanza with the first 8 lines iambic pentameter and the ninth, iambic hexameter 六步格的诗rhyming abab,bcbc,c which is the typical verse in The Faerie Queene.For its rare beauty, this verse form was much used by many later poets, esp. imitated by the romantic poets of the 19th century.Spenser’s position in English Literature:the publica tion of “The Shepherd’s Calendar” marks the budding of Renaissance flower in the northern island of England.The language he used was modern English which has distinguished itself from the Middle English of Chaucer's day. Spenserian stanza: a model of poetic art among the Renaissance English poets.“the poet’s poet”, the first master to make the Modern English the natural music of his poetic effusion and held his position as a model of poetic art. His influence can be traced in the works of Milton, Shelley and Keats.Life: short but riotous⏹Major works:➢Tamburlaine the Great:《帖木耳》•A drama in a blank verse•About the rise and fall of Tamburlaine the Mongol conqueror on the 14th century central Asia.•A tragedy about a man who thinks he can but actually can not control his own fate.•By depicting a great hero with high ambition and sheer brutal force, the author voiced the supreme desire of the man of the Renaissance for infinite power and authority.•➢The Jew of Malta:《马耳他的犹太人》•A study of the lust for wealth, which centers around Barabas the Jew, an old money lender, whose only philosophy is the art of gaining advantage.•Suggestive of Shylock in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice.•A tragic result: typically greedy of riches and gold, which is another feature shared by those in Renaissance England. •➢The History of Doctor Faustus 《浮士德博士》•Refer to compare with Goethe’s Faust•The Faust myth in 16th century Germany: the myth of men seeking great earthly power from demons at the cost of their immortal soul.•The conventional view: Dr. Faustus is a morality play that vindicates humility, faith and obedience to the law of God. •The new view: Dr. Faustus celebrates the human passion for knowledge, power and happiness, and also reveals man’s frustration in realizing the high aspiration in a hostile moral order.⏹Social significance and literary achievement1.showing the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie. Its eager curiosity for knowledge, power and gold.The praise of individuality freed from the restraints of medieval dogmas and the conviction of the boundless possibility of human efforts in conquering the universe.The heroes are mainly individualists. Their individualistic ambition often brings ruin to the world and to themselves.…soul of the Age!The applause! Delight! The wonder of our stage! Triumph, my Britain, thou hast one to show To whom all scenes of Europe homage owe. He was not of an age, but for all time!William Shakespeare1. Brief Introduction2. Shakespeare’s dramaFour periods of his literary career Categories of his drama 3. the artistic features of his plays4. Shakespeare’s place and contribution5. Shakespeare’s sonnetsWhat to be at least known about ShakespeareLife: birthplace, birth date, death date, important time in his life and career●His major works: 37 plays(10histories, 10 comedies, 10 tragedies), 2 long narrative poems, 154 sonnets.Plays to be read: great comedies & 4 great tragedies●Writing features in each of four periodsI. Brief IntroductionA dramatist “not of an age, but of all time” by Ben Jonhson, not of Engla nd, but of the world.●Not only a master of English language but also a genius of character portrayal and plot construction●A “poet of reality” for his idea that literature should reflect nature and reality.●37 plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long poems.II. Shak espeare’s dramaFour Periods of Shakespeare’s Literary careerFour major phrases represent respectively his early, mature, flourishing and late periods.1. Period of early experiment and apprenticeship (1590-1594)Background:A. it was in the middle of the highly thriving Elizabethan Age.B. The thoughts of humanism and the ideas of man’s emancipation, freedom of love was rapidly spread.C. Shakespeare was a young man full of astonishing versatility and wonderful talent and the great interest in the political questions of his time.Features:A. the writer made experiments in a number of dramatic forms: the historical plays, comedy, the revenge tragedy and the romantic tragedy.B. this period is distinctively marked by youthfulness and exuberance of imagination, by extravagance of witty language or speech, and by the final and frequent use of blank verse. In his hand, blank verse developed into a happy vehicle to express all kinds of thoughts and emotions (thus shaking off the rigidity of rimed and mechanic lines) .2. Period of maturity (1595-1600)Features:A. a period of “great comedies” and mature historical plays and sonnets.B. a sweet and joyful time when the writer portrays successfully a magnificent panorama of the manifold pursuit of people in real life.C. a great shift in characterization. A notable gallery of heroines in the comedies and vivid characters in historical plays is presented: Portia, Posalynd, Voila, Beatrice, Sir John Falstaff.3. Period of gloom and depression (1601-1607)Background:A. the aggravation of the social situation: the rising of peasants, the corruption, the tension between bourgeoisie and the feudal lands.B. the change of mood in the playwright: gloomy and indignantFeatures:A. a period of “great tragedies” and “dark comedies”B. the writer gave a scathing exposition of the somber pictures and scenes of murder, lust, treachery, ingratitude and crime.C. a higher level of crafts is reached: more intricate plotting, intense inner conflict, meticulous depiction of human mind.4. Period of calm and reconciliation (1608-1612)Background:A. the fall and collapse of absolute monarchB. the retirement of the playwright back into the tranquil countrysideFeatures:A. some serenity and optimism, instead of the beginning lightness and the middle somber violence reigned.B. romantic dramas and comedies were the main form.C. moral teaching and supernatural forces were relied on to restore the rightful honor and position. These plays all show a falling off from his previous works.Categories of his dramacomedies histories tragedies romances？？Comedy is a light form of drama aiming primarily to amuse and ending happily. It often deals with people in their human state, restrained and ridiculous by their limitations, faults, bodily functions.Four Great ComdiesThe Merchant of VeniceA Midsummer Night’s DreamAs you Like itTwelfth NightComedies of the First PeriodThe keynote of his comedies:●to portray people just freed from the feudal fetters, sing of youth, love and ideas of happiness.●The heroes and heroines fight against destiny and mould their fate according to their own free will. Thus becomethe sons and daughters of Renaissance.●The victory of humanist ideal is inevitable. The general spirit of these plays is optimistic.The Merchant of Venice•The double plot: one is about the Bassanio’s winning of a bride by undergoing a test; the other is about the demanding of a pound of human flesh by Shylock.•The traditional theme is to praise the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio, to idealize Portia as a heroine of great beauty, wit and loyalty and to expose the insatiable greed and brutality of the Jew.•The new one is to regard the play as a satire of the Christian hypocrisy and their false standards of friendship and love, their cunning ways of pursuing worldliness and unreasoning prejudice against Jews.Portia: a rich heiress of Belmont in Shakespeare's comedy The Merchant of Venice.●1. Portia is a woman of Renaissance—beautiful, prudent, cultured, courteous and capable of rising to an emergency. She is one of Shakespear’s ideal women.●2. the young heroes in Shakespeare's comedies are always independent in character and take their own path of life.History plays aim to present some historical age or character, and may be either a comedy or a tragedy.●His histories include two tetralogies (四部曲)and two other plays. Characterizes two centuries of English history from Richard III to Henry VIII (1377-1547)●There is only one ideal king---Henry V who represents the aspiration for national unity under a powerful and efficient monarchy.The image of Henry V:Henry V is the symbol of Shakespear’s ideal kingship. He represents the upsurging patriotism of the time. In depicting Henry V as a prince and as a man, Shakespeare looks deep into the personality of his hero and shows a profound understanding of the politics and social life of the time.Theme: Shakespeare’s historical plays describe the decaying of the old feudal society an d the rising of the new forces. His historical plays sum up the necessity for national unity under a mighty and just sovereign. The idea is anti-feudal inIt is concerned with the harshness and injustice of life. They are often serious plays with sad endings.●Often the hero’s tragedy is due to a weakness in his or her character which brings self-destruction. A weakness such as the excessive pride of Faustus, the overweening ambition of Macbeth, or the uncontrolled jealousy of Othello.●In S hakespeare’s plays, he saw sharp contradictions between his lofty humanistic ideals and the evil social forces. Background for Shakespeare’s tragediesHe began to observe life with penetration, to expose mercilessly the contradiction of the Elizabethan society. The economical and social crisis which began at the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth continued right up to the English Revolution.The bourgeoisie intended to break up the yoke of absolute monarchy and struggled for free development.It was in this atmosphere of general unrest that he created his great tragedies.Four Great Tragedies All analyzing the human wickedness.●Hamlet: the hero’s weakness makes him vulnerable in fighting against the outward evil.●Othello shows how an outward evil make s use of the hero’s weakness and causes his fall.●King Lear demonstrates how man’s mistake sets free the evils of treachery, hypocrisy, flattery, selfishness and distrust.●Macbeth reveals how the outward evil stirs up the wickedness in man and destroys him.Hamlet“Hamlet” is considered the summit of Shakespeare's art.Hamlet is a man of genius, highly accomplished and educated, a man of profound perception and sparkling wit. He is a scholar, soldier and statesman all combined. His image reflects the versatility of the man of Renaissance.Hamlet’s melancholy is not the negative, over-subtle and fruitless kind, it is the result of his penetrating mind. It expresses, in away, the crisis of humanism at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century.III. the artistic features of his plays1. Characterization: By using comparison and contrasts, he depicts a group of individuals with strong and distinct personalities.The melancholy of Hamlet, the wickedness of Claudius and Iago, the honesty of Othello, ambition of Macbeth and the beauty and wit of Portia.2. Psycho-analytical study: He reveals the intricate inner workings of the character’s minds through the full use of soliloquies(独白).3. Structure:⏹His plays usu. have more than one plot. Through contrast and parallel, the major and minor plots are woven intoan organic whole.⏹the device of a play within the play also plays an important part.4. Language: Shakespeare is a master of the English language, with a large vocabulary of 16000 English words. More important are the figurative speeches such as analogy and metaphor.5. style: realistic style. The reader may be impressed by the typical speech modes —the question in Hamlet, the ambiguities in Macbeth, the exclamations and very simple but also very basic questions in King Lear.IV. Shakespeare’s place and contributionOne of the founder of realism in world literature. Living in the historical period of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, he paints a panorama of the decline of the old feudal nobility and the rise of new bourgeoisie.Amazing prolificacy. In 22years, nearly 40 plays, no two of which evoke the same feeling or image among the audience, a master of every forms of drama.Skilled in many poetic forms. The songs, sonnets, couplets, esp. at home with blank verse, which became a vehicle of utterance to all the possible sentiments of his characters.A great master of English language. He has an amazing wealth of vocabulary and idiom. He is known to have used 16,000 different words. His coinage of new words and distortion of the meaning of the old ones also create striking effects on the reader.He was universally regarded are the summit of English Renaissance. His influence on later writers is immeasurable. Almost all English writers after him have been influenced by him either in artistic point view, in literary form or in language.SonnetDefinition:▪A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter with a carefully patterned rhyme scheme.Origin:▪A form of lyrical poetry was originated in Italy. “sonnet” was derived from Provencal (普罗旺斯语) “Sonet”. It was once a short popular poetry used for singing in the medieval age.▪Italian poet Petrarch was the major representatives of the poets who used this poetic form. He wrote altogether 375 sonnets, dedicated to his lover. That is the Petrarchan sonnet.▪Sonnet was introduced into England by Thomas Wyatt . It flourished in the 1590s and reach its peak of popularity with the surge of Renaissance in England.Two types of sonnetThe Italian, or Petrarchan sonnet :Petrarchan Sonnet▪The Italian form, in some ways the simpler of the two, Its fourteen lines break into an octave （八行诗）(or octet), which usually rhymes abba,abba, and a sestet （六行诗节）, which may rhyme cdecde or cdcdcd, or any of the multiple variations possible using only two or three rhyme-sounds.▪It usually projects and develops a subject in the octave, then executes a turn at the beginning of the sestet, which means that the sestet must in some way release the tension built up in the octave.▪Example: see Wyatt's "Farewell Love and all thy laws for ever."Farewell, LoveSir Thomas Wyatt (1503~1542)Farwell, Love, and all thy laws forever,Thy baited hooks shall tangle me no more;Senec and Plato call me from thy lore,To perfect wealth my wit for to endeavor,In blind error then I did persever,Thy sharp repulse, that prickth aye so sore,Hath taought me to set in trifles no storeAnd’ scape forth since liberty is leverTherefore farewell, go trouble younger hearts, And in me claim no more authorityWith idle youth go use thy property,And therein spend thy many brittle darts,For hitherto though I have lost all my time,Me lusteth no longer rotten boughs to climb.别了，爱，以及你所有的法则，你上饵的钩子不再能把我缠绞，塞内克与柏拉图叫我离开你那套，并尽我才智把完美的财富获得。
英美文学选读英国部分第一章文艺复兴时期
英美文学选读中文翻译及重点习题答案英国文学(AMERICAN LITERATURE)第一章文艺复兴时期(The Renaissance Period)二、背景知识(Background knowledge)1、历史文化背景(Historical and cultural background)(1)文艺复兴是从中世纪向近代过渡时期发生在欧洲许多国家的一场思想文化运动。
它是在一些历史因素的合力作用下而引发的，如对希腊罗马古典文化的重新发现，宗教改革运动，地理和自然科学领域的探索，以及资本主义经济的扩张等。
(2)人文主义是文艺复兴的主要特征。
它颂扬人性，强调以“人”为本，宣传个性解放，反对神秘主义和中古神权，反对野蛮和兽性。
(3)16世纪的宗教改革导致了新教的创立。
英格兰同罗马教皇的决裂最初源于国王亨利八世决定与其第一位妻子离婚但遭到教皇否决。
宗教教义的改革则发生在后来的爱德华六世和女王伊丽莎白一世统治期间。
(4)工商业持续发展，中产阶级逐渐壮大，非神职人员获得受教育的机会，王权巩固，宫廷成为文化生活的中心，以及海外扩张和科学探索日益拓展人们的视野，所有这些都为文学提供了新的推动力和发展方向。
威廉·卡克斯顿首次将印刷术介绍到英国，使那里的出版社迅速增加，随之而来的是印刷书籍的繁荣。
2、英国文艺复兴时期文学的特点(Features of English Renaissance literature)(1) 诗歌(Poetry)开创文艺复兴时期一代新的华丽诗风的两个最重要的人物是菲利普·悉尼爵士和埃德蒙·斯宾塞。
在他们的抒情和叙事作品中，展现出一种词藻华丽、精雕细琢的文风。
到16世纪末，出现了两类新的诗歌风格。
第一类以约翰·邓恩和其他玄学派诗人为代表；第二类风格的典范是本·琼森和他所代表的流派。
英国文艺复兴时期的最后一位大诗人是清教作家约翰·密尔顿，他的诗歌具有惊人的震撼力和优雅的韵致，同时传达出深邃的思想。
高级英语译文保守派和革新派Unit_5_conservatives_and_liberals
Unit 5 conservatives and liberals保守派和革新派这个国家存在着两个政党，保守党和革新党。
这两个政党长期存在，并且，自从这个世界存在财产后，两个政党就有了争端。
这种争端是人民历史发展的主题。
保守党建立了这个世界最古老的值得尊敬的等级制度和君主制。
两党之间的战争包括贵族和平民，宗主国和殖民地，旧秩序和新秩序，穷人和富人。
这些争端存在于所有国家的每个时刻。
战争的范围不仅是在战场，在国家议会和基督教议会，而且每时每刻都以反对性质的优势牵动着每个人的内心。
旧世界被推翻的同时建立起新世界。
今天新世界发展得很好，但是他仍然要不断的以新的的名字和时代性个性更新自我，。
当然，如此势不两立的敌对势力必须对人类的体制有相似深度的理解。
这就是过去和将来，记忆和希望，理解和原因的对立。
最基本的敌对势力存在于自然两级中的琐事中。
有一个古老预言的片段似乎一定程度上能用来解释现今的神话，它很值得关注，因为它与这个主题相关。
这个也许是保守党和激进党政见最早描述的代表，它传承下来给我们。
他曾经是那样。
它是离心力和向心力的对抗。
革新党是突起的力量，保守党是最后发展的停滞。
保守党坚持那是上帝创造的东西。
革新党增加到上帝留下了一些东西，他也将加入其他的东西。
保守党总是有一些无意义的争论，同时也存在一些优点。
因为坚持所以确定，她的手指紧握事实，它永不会睁开双眼看更好的事态，保守党保卫他建立的代表现今事态的城堡，无论好坏。
当然，保守党总是保有最坏的争议，他总是道歉，恳请必需品，恳请这个世界做恶化的改变；她用庞大的所有暴力和社会罪恶来武装自己，否定好的可能性，否定观点，否定和怀疑先知，与此同时，革新党总是对的，成功的，进攻性的并确定最终的成功。
保守党坚持人类无可否认的极限，保守党拥有环境，革新党拥有权利。
一个要建立社会结构中的灵活成员，另一个要延迟事物的发展。
保守主义是温文尔雅的，交际的；革新主义是独立的专横的。
William_jennings_bryan全文
The second time(1900) :approved anti-imperialism(反帝国主义) McKinley won the electoral college with a count of 292 votes compared to Bryan's 155.
The third time (1913):He lost the electoral college 321 to 162, his worst defeat yet.
Fundamentalism :a religious movement of conservative Protestants in the U.S.A. in the early 1920s;
Its purpose : to maintain the traditional Christian view of the Bible and to assert the literal interpretation of the Biblical narrative
Three times of Presidential election
In1896,at the age of 36, Bryan became (and still remains) the youngest presidential nominee of a major party in American history.
politician—democrat， the 41st United States Secretary of State
one of the best known orators
a Presbyterian(长老教会员)t(禁酒主义者)
从A Red Red Rose的两种译本看海德格尔的“先结构”
从A Red Red Rose 的两种译本看海德格尔的“先结构”郭健李丽（山西师范大学外国语学院山西·临汾041000）中图分类号：B516.54文献标识码：A文章编号：1672-7894（2016）06-0178-02作者简介：郭健（1990—），山西祁县人，现就读于山西师范大学外国语学院，研究生，研究方向为外国语言学；作者导师：李丽，山西师范大学外国语学院副教授。
外语翻译摘要西方现代阐释主义代表之一海德格尔认为，我们头脑里意识的“先结构”，使理解和解释总带着解释者自己的历史时代的色彩。
就翻译而言，翻译的过程就是阐释，而对于外国文学名著的翻译，每个时期的文学大家的译本都有自己的风格特色。
本文通过对英国著名爱情诗A Red Red Rose 两种译本的结构、词汇的比较分析，发现“先结构”意识在翻译过程中，突出了译者所处历史背景对译本的影响，表明了译者在翻译过程中的主体地位。
关键词“先结构”意识历史色彩译者A Red Red Rose On Heidegger 's "Pre -structure"from the Perspective of the Two Translations of A Red Red Rose //Guo Jian,Li Li Abstract Heidegger,one of the representatives of modern inter-pretation theory,holds that the "pre-structure"in the inter-preter's mind endows his or her understanding and explanation with the color of his or her own historical period.The process of translation is interpretation,so literature scholars of different pe-riods have their own styles and characteristics when translating the same foreign literature classic.Through a comparative analy-sis on the structure and vocabulary of the two translations of the famous British love poem,A Red Red Rose,this paper came to the conclusion that the consciousness of "pre-structure"high-lights the influence of the translator's historical background on translation in the process of translation,indicating that the trans-lator plays a principal role in the process of translation.Key words consciousness of "pre-structure";historical color;translators;A Red Red Rose1引言海德格尔从哲学角度重新评价了“阐释的循环”，他说，“我们对任何东西的理解，都不是用空白的头脑去被动地接受，而是以头脑里预先准备好的思想内容为基础，用活动的意识去积极参与。
梁赞诺夫与_马克思恩格斯全集_历史考证版的渊源_赵玉兰
“ 维也纳计划” 不仅从科学层面强调出版一套完整的马克思全集的必要性 , 而且也没有忽视 广大人民群众尤其是工人阶级学习马克思主义理论的要求 。 它指出 , 要出版面向大众的马克思 的一系列著作 。 这套著作集应该 “ 表现为客观的 、 相互从属的各部著作的系统文集” 。 “ 维也纳 计划” 也对这套面向大众的马克思著作进行了详细说明 :首先 , “ 人们会渴望 《资本论》 第一卷 的普及本 。 在这一版本中 , 所有的外文标记与引文都要进行翻译 。 而在注释中 , 马克思的论断 , 例如有关工人保护的论断将得到深入的阐述 。 这一版本应该附有索引 、 传记性的导言以及学习 《资本论》 第一卷的说明” 。 其次 , “ 在我们看来 , 马克思所有详细阐述 — — — 尤其是 《 资本论》 中 关于经济史的阐述 — — —的汇编 [ ! ] , 作为工人进入马克思思想世界的导引是特别重要的 。 这将 使工人清楚地认识到马克思之为经济史家所具有的重大意义 , 他们将获得一本通俗易懂 、 极富 魅力 、 激发他们进一步去研究马克思的热情的著作 , 这部著作将完全由马克思的论述构成 , 并 且只能在出版者的材料搜集与划分活动中产生” 。 第三 , “ 我们设想了一套由马克思的短篇文章 所构成的文集 , 其中也可以并入 《资本论》 的个别章节或段落 。 这些卷册的内容包括 :a) 关于 唯物史观 , b) 关于阶级斗争和 19 世纪革命 , c) 关于经济理论 , d) 政论文 , e) 马克思关于经
近些年来 , 随着 《马克思恩格斯全集》 历史考证版新版 ( M EGA2) 在学界影响力的日益增 强 , 对马克思的著作以及手稿的文本考证 、 版本考证乃至编辑出版史的研究也日益升温 。 与此 同时 , 越来越多的人开始把目光聚焦于 M EGA 这种版本形式自身的形成及发展 。 于是 , 通过对 MEGA2 、 进而对 MEGA1 的研究 , 梁赞诺夫 , 这位苏联马克思学的奠基人 、 “ 20 世纪最重要的 马克思恩格斯研究家” 在被尘封多年之后 , ① 再次回到人们的视野之中 , 而他对马克思恩格斯的 著作 、 手稿 、 书信所作的搜集 、 编辑 、 出版 、 研究等大量工作也日益浮出水面 。
The chemistry and applications of metal organic framworks
DOI: 10.1126/science.1230444, (2013);341 Science et al.Hiroyasu Furukawa The Chemistry and Applications of Metal-Organic FrameworksThis copy is for your personal, non-commercial use only.clicking here.colleagues, clients, or customers by , you can order high-quality copies for your If you wish to distribute this article to othershere.following the guidelines can be obtained by Permission to republish or repurpose articles or portions of articles): May 10, 2014 (this information is current as of The following resources related to this article are available online at/content/341/6149/1230444.full.html version of this article at:including high-resolution figures, can be found in the online Updated information and services, /content/suppl/2013/08/29/341.6149.1230444.DC1.html can be found at:Supporting Online Material /content/341/6149/1230444.full.html#ref-list-1, 13 of which can be accessed free:cites 358 articles This article /content/341/6149/1230444.full.html#related-urls 2 articles hosted by HighWire Press; see:cited by This article has been/cgi/collection/chemistry Chemistrysubject collections:This article appears in the following registered trademark of AAAS.is a Science 2013 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science; all rights reserved. The title Copyright American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005. (print ISSN 0036-8075; online ISSN 1095-9203) is published weekly, except the last week in December, by the Science o n M a y 10, 2014w w w .s c i e n c e m a g .o r g D o w n l o a d e d f r o m/10.1126/science.1230444Cite this article as H. FurukawaScienceDOI: 10.1126/science.1230444 liations is available in the full article online.*Corresponding author. E-mail: yaghi@30 AUGUST 2013 VOL 341 SCIENCE Published by AAASThe Chemistry and Applications of Metal-Organic FrameworksHiroyasu Furukawa,1,2Kyle E.Cordova,1,2Michael O’Keeffe,3,4Omar M.Yaghi1,2,4* Crystalline metal-organic frameworks(MOFs)are formed by reticular synthesis,which creates strong bonds between inorganic and organic units.Careful selection of MOF constituents can yield crystals of ultrahigh porosity and high thermal and chemical stability.These characteristics allow the interior of MOFs to be chemically altered for use in gas separation,gas storage,and catalysis,among other applications.The precision commonly exercised in their chemical modification and the ability to expand their metrics without changing the underlying topology have not been achieved with other solids.MOFs whose chemical composition and shape of building units can be multiply varied within a particular structure already exist and may lead to materials that offer a synergistic combination of properties.T he past decade has seen explosive growth in the preparation,characterization,andstudy of materials known as metal-organic frameworks(MOFs).These materials are con-structed by joining metal-containing units[sec-ondary building units(SBUs)]with organic linkers, using strong bonds(reticular synthesis)to create open crystalline frameworks with permanent po-rosity(1).The flexibility with which the metal SBUs and organic linkers can be varied has led to thousands of compounds being prepared and studied each year(Figs.1and2).MOFs have ex-ceptional porosity and a wide range of potential uses including gas storage,separations,and ca-talysis(2).In particular,applications in energy technologies such as fuel cells,supercapacitors, and catalytic conversions have made them ob-jects of extensive study,industrial-scale produc-tion,and application(2–4).Among the many developments made in this field,four were particularly important in advanc-ing the chemistry of MOFs:(i)The geometric principle of construction was realized by the link-ing of SBUs with rigid shapes such as squares and octahedra,rather than the simpler node-and-spacer construction of earlier coordination net-works in which single atoms were linked by ditopic coordinating linkers(1).The SBU approach not only led to the identification of a small number of preferred(“default”)topologies that could be targeted in designed syntheses,but also was cen-tral to the achievement of permanent porosity in MOFs(1).(ii)As a natural outcome of the use of SBUs,a large body of work was subsequently reported on the use of the isoreticular principle (varying the size and nature of a structure without changing its underlying topology)in the design of MOFs with ultrahigh porosity and unusuallylarge pore openings(5).(iii)Postsynthetic mod-ification(PSM)of MOFs—incorporating organicunits and metal-organic complexes through re-actions with linkers—has emerged as a powerfultool for changing the reactivity of the pores(e.g.,creating catalytic sites)(6).(iv)Multivariate MOFs(MTV-MOFs),in which multiple organic function-alities are incorporated within a single framework,have provided many opportunities for designingcomplexity within the pores of MOFs in a con-trolled manner(7).Below,we focus on these aspects of MOFchemistry because they are rarely achieved in oth-er materials and because they lead to the previous-ly elusive synthesis of solids by design.Unlikeother extended solids,MOFs maintain their under-lying structure and crystalline order upon expan-sion of organic linkers and inorganic SBUs,aswell as after chemical functionalization,whichgreatly widens the scope of this chemistry.Wereview key developments in these areas and dis-cuss the impact of this chemistry on applicationssuch as gas adsorption and storage,catalysis,andproton conduction.We also discuss the conceptof MTV-MOFs in relation to the sequence of func-tionality arrangement that is influenced by theelectronic and/or steric interactions among thefunctionalities.Highly functional synthetic crys-talline materials can result from the use of suchtechniques to create heterogeneity within MOFstructures.Design of Ultrahigh PorosityDuring the past century,extensive work was doneon crystalline extended structures in which metalions are joined by organic linkers containing Lewisbase–binding atoms such as nitriles and bipyridines(8,9).Although these are extended crystal struc-tures and not large discrete molecules such as poly-mers,they were dubbed coordination“polymers”—a term that is still in use today,although we preferthe more descriptive term MOFs,introduced in1995(10)and now widely accepted.Becausethese structures were constructed from long or-ganic linkers,they encompassed void space andtherefore were viewed to have the potential to be1Department of Chemistry,University of California,Berkeley,CA94720,USA.2Materials Sciences Division,Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,Berkeley,CA94720,USA.3Department of Chemistry,Arizona State University,Tempe,AZ87240,USA. 4NanoCentury KAIST Institute and Graduate School of Energy,Environment,Water,and Sustainability(World Class Univer-sity),Daejeon305-701,Republic of Korea.*Corresponding author.E-mail:yaghi@ln(No.ofstructures)YearDoubling time9.3 years5.7 years3.9 years2010200520001995199019851980197512108642No.ofMOFstructures7000600050004000300020001000Year2122222199199199199199198198198198198197197197197Total (CSD)Extended (1D, 2D, 3D)MOFs (3D)Fig.1.Metal-organic framework structures(1D,2D,and3D)reported in the Cambridge Struc-tural Database(CSD)from1971to2011.The trend shows a striking increase during this period for all structure types.In particular,the doubling time for the number of3D MOFs(inset)is the highest among all reported metal-organic structures. SCIENCE VOL34130AUGUST20131230444-1BAZn 4O(CO 2)6M 3O 3(CO 2)3 (M = Zn, Mg, Co, Ni, Mn, Fe, and Cu)Ni 4(C 3H 3N 2)8In(C 5HO 4N 2)4Zr 6O 4(OH)4-(CO 2)12Zr 6O 8(CO 2)8M 3O(CO 2)6 (M = Zn, Cr, In, and Ga)M 2(CO 2)4(M = Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Co, and Ru)Zn(C 3H 3N 2)4Na(OH)2(SO 3)3Cu 2(CNS)4H 2BDCH 4DOTH 2BDC-X (X = Br, OH, NO 2, and NH 2)H 2BDC-(X)2(X = Me, Cl, COOH, OC 3H 5, and OC 7H 7)H 4ADBFumaric acidOxalic acidH 4ATC H 3THBTSH 3ImDCDTOAADPH 3BTPTIPA Gly-AlaH 4DH9PhDC H 4DH11PhDCH 3BTCIr(H 2DPBPyDC)(PPy)2+H 6BTETCADCDPBN BPP34C10DAH 3BTB (X = CH)H 3TATB (X = N)H 3BTE (X = C ≡C)H 3BBC (X = C 6H 4)H 6TPBTM (X = CONH)H 6BTEI (X = C ≡C)H 6BTPI (X = C 6H 4)H 6BHEI (X = C ≡C−C ≡C)H 6BTTI (X = (C 6H 4)2)H 6PTEI (X = C 6H 4−C ≡C)H 6TTEI (X = C ≡C-C 6H 4-C ≡C)H 6BNETPI (X = C ≡C−C 6H 4−C ≡C−C ≡C)H 6BHEHPI (X = (C 6H 4−C ≡C)2)COOHCOOHCOOHCOOH COOHCOOHOH HOCOOHCOOHXCOOHCOOHX XCOOHHOOCCOOHHOOC OHOO OHNCOOHHOOCNHOOCCOOHN NH HOOCCOOHNNH N HNNHN SO 3H SO 3HHO 3SOHHOOH NH 2H 2NSSN NNN NNNCOOHHOOCCOOHH N H 2NOCOOHOHCOOHHOCOOHOHHOCOOHCOOHHOOCCOOHX XXCOOHHOOCCOOHNN OH OHClClCOOHHOOCCOOHCOOHCOOHHOOCOOOOOCOOHCOOH OOOOONNCOOHCOOHIr NN+COOHHOOCCOOHXXXCOOHCOOHHOOCCOOHHOOCCOOHXXX Al(OH)(CO 2)2 VO(CO 2)2Fig.2.Inorganic secondary building units (A)and organic linkers (B)referred to in the text.Color code:black,C;red,O;green,N;yellow,S;purple,P;light green,Cl;blue polyhedra,metal ions.Hydrogen atoms are omitted for clarity.AIPA,tris(4-(1H -imidazol-1-yl)phenyl)amine;ADP,adipic acid;TTFTB4–,4,4′,4′′,4′′′-([2,2′-bis(1,3-dithiolylidene)]-4,4′,5,5′-tetrayl)tetrabenzoate.30AUGUST 2013VOL 341SCIENCE 1230444-2REVIEWpermanently porous,as is the case for zeolites.The porosity of these compounds was investigated in the1990s by forcing gas molecules into the crev-ices at high pressure(11).However,proof of per-manent porosity requires measurement of reversible gas sorption isotherms at low pressures and tem-peratures.Nonetheless,as we remarked at that time(12),it was then commonplace to refer to materials as“porous”and“open framework”even though such proof was lacking.The first proof of permanent porosity of MOFs was obtained by mea-surement of nitrogen and carbon dioxide isotherms on layered zinc terephthalate MOF(12).A major advance in the chemistry of MOFs came in1999when the synthesis,x-ray single-crystal structure determination,and low-temperature, low-pressure gas sorption properties were reported for the first robust and highly porous MOF,MOF-5 (13).This archetype solid comprises Zn4O(CO2)6 octahedral SBUs each linked by six chelating 1,4-benzenedicarboxylate(BDC2–)units to give a cubic framework(Fig.2,figs.S2and S3,and tables S1and S2).The architectural robustness of MOF-5allowed for gas sorption measurements, which revealed61%porosity and a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller(BET)surface area of2320m2/g (2900m2/g Langmuir).These values are substan-tially higher than those commonly found for zeo-lites and activated carbon(14).To prepare MOFs with even higher surface area(ultrahigh porosity)requires an increase in storage space per weight of the material.Longer organic linkers provide larger storage space and a greater number of adsorption sites within a given material.However,the large space within the crys-tal framework makes it prone to form interpen-etrating structures(two or more frameworks grow and mutually intertwine together).The most effec-tive way to prevent interpenetration is by making MOFs whose topology inhibits interpenetration because it would require the second framework to have a different topology(15).Additionally, it is important to keep the pore diameter in the micropore range(below2nm)by judicious se-lection of organic linkers in order to maximize the BETsurface area of the framework,because it is known that BET surface areas obtained from isotherms are similar to the geometric surface areas derived from the crystal structure(16).In2004, MOF-177[Zn4O(BTB)2;BTB=4,4′,4′′-benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tribenzoate]was reported with the high-est surface area at that time(BET surface area= 3780m2/g,porosity=83%;Figs.3A and4)(15), which satisfies the above requirements.In2010, the surface area was doubled by MOF-200and MOF-210[Zn4O(BBC)2and(Zn4O)3(BTE)4(BPDC)3, respectively;BBC3–=4,4′,4′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tribenzoate;BTE= 4,4′,4′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl)) tribenzoate;BPDC=biphenyl-4,4′-dicarboxylate] to produce ultrahigh surface areas(4530m2/g and6240m2/g,respectively)and porosities(90% and89%)(17).An x-ray diffraction study performed on a sin-gle crystal of MOF-5dosed with nitrogen or argon gas identified the adsorption sites within the pores(18).The zinc oxide SBU,the faces,and,sur-prisingly,the edges of the BDC2–linker serve asadsorption sites.This study uncovered the originof the high porosity and has enabled the design ofMOFs with even higher porosities(Fig.4and ta-ble S3).Moreover,it has been reported that ex-panded tritopic linkers based on alkyne rather thanphenylene units should increase the number ofadsorption sites and increase the surface area(19).NU-110[Cu3(BHEHPI);BHEHPI6–=5,5′,5′′-((((benzene-1,3,5-triyltris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))-tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))triisophthalate],whose organiclinker is replete with such edges,displayed a sur-face area of7140m2/g(Table1)(7,17,20–32).For many practical purposes,such as storinggases,calculating the surface area per volumeis more relevant.By this standard,the value forMOF-5,2200m2/cm3,is among the very bestreported for MOFs(for comparison,the value forNU-110is1600m2/cm3).Note that the externalsurface area of a nanocube with edges measuring3nm would be2000m2/cm3.However,nano-crystallites on this scale with“clean”surfaceswould immediately aggregate,ultimately leavingtheir potential high surface area inaccessible.Expansion of Structures by a Factor of2to17A family of16cubic MOFs—IRMOF-1[alsoknown as MOF-5,which is the parent MOF ofthe isoreticular(IR)series]to IRMOF-16—withthe same underlying topology(isoreticular)wasmade with expanded and variously functionalizedorganic linkers(figs.S2and S3)(1,5).This de-velopment heralded the potential for expandingand functionalizing MOFs for applications in gasstorage and separations.The same work demon-strated that a large number of topologically iden-tical but functionally distinctive structures can bemade.Note that the topology of these isoreticularMOFs is typically represented with a three-lettercode,pcu,which refers to its primitive cubic net(33).One of the smallest isoreticular structuresof MOF-5is Zn4O(fumarate)3(34);one of thelargest is IRMOF-16[Zn4O(TPDC)3;TPDC2–=terphenyl-4,4′′-dicarboxylate](5)(fig.S2).In thisexpansion,the unit cell edge is doubled and itsvolume is increased by a factor of8.The degreeof interpenetration,and thus the porosity and den-sity of these materials,can be controlled by chang-ing the concentration of reactants,temperature,orother experimental conditions(5).The concept of the isoreticular expansion isnot simply limited to cubic(pcu)structures,asillustrated by the expansion of MOF-177to giveMOF-180[Zn4O(BTE)2]and MOF-200,whichuse larger triangular organic linkers(qom net;Fig.3A and fig.S4)(15,17).Contrary to the MOF-5type of expanded framework,expanded structuresof MOF-177are noninterpenetrating despite thehigh porosity of these MOFs(89%and90%forMOF-180and MOF-200,respectively).Theseresults highlight the critical role of selectingtopology.Another MOF of interest is known as HKUST-1[Cu3(BTC)2;BTC3–=benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate](35);it is composed of Cu paddlewheel[Cu2(CO2)4]SBUs(Fig.2A)and a tritopic organic linker,BTC3–.Several isoreticular structures have been madeby expansion with TA TB3–[4,4′,4′′-(1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl)tribenzoate],TA TAB3–[4,4′,4′′-((1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl)tris(azanediyl))tribenzoate],TTCA3–[triphenylene-2,6,10-tricarboxylate],HTB3–[4,4′,4′′-(1,3,3a1,4,6,7,9-heptaazaphenalene-2,5,8-triyl)tribenzoate],and BBC3–linkers(tbonet;Fig.3B,fig.S1and S5,and tables S1andS2)(21,36–39).The cell volume for the largestreported member[MOF-399,Cu3(BBC)2]is17.4times that of HKUST-1.MOF-399has thehighest void fraction(94%)and lowest density(0.126g/cm3)of any MOF reported to date(21).Cu paddlewheel units are also combined withvarious lengths of hexatopic linkers to form an-other isoreticular series.The first example of oneof these MOFs is Zn3(TPBTM)[TPBTM6–=5,5′,5′′-((benzene-1,3,5-tricarbonyl)tris(azanediyl))triisophthalate],which has a ntt net(40).Shortlyafter this report,several isoreticular MOF struc-tures were synthesized(Fig.3C and fig.S6)(19,20,24,41–48):Cu3(TPBTM),Cu3(TDPA T),NOTT-112[Cu3(BTPI)],NOTT-116[also knownas PCN-68;Cu3(PTEI)],PCN-61[Cu3(BTEI)],PCN-66[Cu3(NTEI)],PCN-69[also known asNOTT-119;Cu3(BTTI)],PCN-610[also knownas NU-100;Cu3(TTEI)],NU-108[Cu3(BTETCA)],NU-109[Cu3(BNETPI)],NU-110,and NU-111[Cu3(BHEI)]TDPA T6–=5,5′,5′′-((1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl)tris(azanediyl))triisophthalate;BTPI6–=5,5′,5′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))triisophthalate;PTEI6–=5,5′,5′′-((benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))triisophthalate;BTEI6–=5,5′,5′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))triisophthalate;NTEI6–=5,5′,5′′-((nitrilotris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))triisophthalate;BTTI6–=5,5′,5′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(biphenyl-4,4′-diyl))triisophthalate;TTEI6–=5,5′,5′′-(((benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))triisophthalate;BTETCA6–=5′,5′′′′,5′′′′′′′-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))tris(([1,1′:3′,1′′-terphenyl]-4,4′′-dicarboxylate));BNETPI6–=5,5′,5″-(((benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl))tris(benzene-4,1-diyl))tris(buta-1,3-diyne-4,1-diyl))triisophthalate;BHEI6–=5,5′,5″-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(buta-1,3-diyne-4,1-diyl))triisophthalate].Isoreticularmaterials are not necessarily expansions of theoriginal parent MOF,as exemplified by NU-108,because the ntt family has a linker(BTETCA6–)with two branching points and two kinds of links(figs.S1B and S7).A wide variety of metal ions form metal-carboxylate units,and isostructural MOFs can besynthesized by replacing the metal ions in theinorganic SBUs.Indeed,after the appearance ofHKUST-1[Cu3(BTC)2],an isostructural series ofHKUST-1[M3(BTC)2,where M=Zn(II),Fe(II),Mo(II),Cr(II),Ru(II)]was prepared by sever-al groups(fig.S5)(49–53).In the same way as SCIENCE VOL34130AUGUST20131230444-3REVIEWABDCZn 4O(CO 2)6Cu 2(CO 2)4Cu 2(CO 2)4Zn 4O(BTB)2MOF-177 (qom )Cu 3(BTC)2, HKUST -1MOF-199 (tbo )Cu 3(BBC)2,MOF-399 (tbo )Cu 3(TATB)2, PCN-6’ (tbo )Zn 4O(BTE)2MOF-180 (qom )Zn 4O(BBC)2MOF-200 (qom )× 1.820 Å× 2.7Tritopic linker20 Å× 5.5× 17.4Hexatopic linker30 Å× 2.2× 6.0× 6.5× 16.130 ÅTetratopic linkerCu 3(TDPAT) (ntt )Cu 3(NTEI),PCN-66 (ntt )Cu 3(BHEHPI),NU-110 (ntt )Mg 3O 3(CO 2)3Mg 2(DOT), Mg-MOF-74(IRMOF-74-I) (etb )Mg 2(DH11PhDC),IRMOF-74-XI (etb )Mg 2(DH5PhDC),IRMOF-74-V (etb )Tritopic linkerFig. 3.Isoreticular expansion of metal-organic frameworks with qom,tbo,ntt,and etb nets.(A to D )The isoreticular (maintaining same topology)expansion of archetypical metal-organic frameworks resulting from discrete [(A),(B),and (C)]and rod inorganic SBUs (D)combined with tri-,hexa-,and tetratopic organic linkers to obtain MOFs in qom (A),tbo (B),ntt (C),and etb (D)nets,respectively.Each panel shows a scaled comparison of the smallest,medium,and largest crystalline structures of MOFs representative of these nets.The large yellow and green spheres represent the largest sphere that would occupy the cavity.Numbers above each arrow represent the degree of volume expansion from the smallest framework.Color code is same as in Fig.2;hydrogen atoms are omitted for clarity.30AUGUST 2013VOL 341SCIENCE1230444-4REVIEWdiscrete inorganic SBUs,the infinite inorganic rod-type SBUs were also used to synthesize isostructural MOF-74[Zn 2(DOT);DOT =dioxidoterephthalate](54)using divalent metal ions such as Mg,Co,Ni,and Mn (fig.S8)(55).Exceptionally Large Pore AperturesPore openings of MOFs are typically large enough (up to 2nm)to accommodate small molecules,but rarely are they of appropriate size to permit inclusion of large molecules such as proteins.The best way to increase pore apertures is to use infinite rod-shaped SBUs with linkers of arbitrary length providing periodicity in the other two di-mensions,which does not allow for interpene-trating structures.This strategy was implemented by expanding the original phenylene unit of MOF-74[M 2(DOT);M 2+=Zn,Mg]structure (54)to 2,3,4,5,6,7,9,and 11phenylene units [DH2PhDC 4–to DH11PhDC 4–,respectively;Fig.2B,Fig.3D,and figs.S1B and S8](22).Crystal structures revealed that pore apertures for this series of MOF-74struc-tures (termed IRMOF-74-I to IRMOF-74-XI)ranged from 14to 98Å.The presence of the large pore apertures was also confirmed by transmission elec-tron microscopy (TEM)and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)observation as well as argon adsorption measurements of the guest-free mate-rials.As expected,the pore aperture of IRMOF-74-IX is of sufficient size to allow for green fluorescent protein (barrel structure with diameter of 34Åand length of 45Å)to pass into the pores without unfolding.More important,the large pore aperture is of benefit to the surface modification of the pores with various functionalities without sacrificing the porosity (22).An oligoethylene glycol –functionalized IRMOF-74-VII [Mg 2(DH7PhDC-oeg)]allows in-clusion of myoglobin,whereas IRMOF-74-VII with hydrophobic hexyl chains showed a negli-gible amount of inclusion.High Thermal and Chemical StabilityBecause MOFs are composed entirely of strong bonds (e.g.,C-C,C-H,C-O,and M-O),they show high thermal stability ranging from 250°to 500°C (5,56–58).It has been a challenge to make chem-ically stable MOFs because of their susceptibility to link-displacement reactions when treated with solvents over extended periods of time (days).The first example of a MOF with exceptional chemical stability is zeolitic imidazolate framework –8[ZIF-8,Zn(MIm)2;MIm –=2-methylimidazolate],which was reported in 2006(56).ZIF-8is unaltered after immersion in boiling methanol,benzene,and water for up to 7days,and in concentrated sodium hydroxide at 100°C for 24hours.201220102008200620041999010002000300040005000600070008000Typical conventionalporous materialsMOFsZ e o l i t e s (0.30)S i l i c a s (1.15)C a r b o n s (0.60)MIL-101(2.15)MIL-101 (2.00)MOF-177 (1.59)NOTT-119 (2.35)MOF-210 (3.60)NU-100 (2.82)NU-110(4.40)UMCM-2(2.32)DUT-49(2.91)MOF-5(1.04)MOF-5 (1.20)MOF-5(1.56)MOF-177 (2.00)IRMOF-20 (1.53)MOF-5 (1.48)U M C M -1 (2.24)P C N -6 (1.41)M I L -100 (1.10)M O F -200 (3.59)B i o -M O F -100 (4.30)N O T T -112 (1.59)D U T -23(C o ) (2.03)Fig.4.Progress in the synthesis of ultrahigh-porosity MOFs.BET surface areas of MOFs and typical conventional materials were estimated from gas adsorption measurements.The values in parentheses represent the pore volume (cm 3/g)of these materials.Table 1.Typical properties and applications of metal-organic frameworks.Metal-organic frameworks exhibiting the lowest and highest values for the indicated property,and those reported first for selected applications,are shown.Property or applicationCompound Achieved value or year of reportReference Lowest reported value DensityMOF-3990.126g/cm 3(21)Highest reported value Pore apertureIRMOF-74-XI 98Å(22)Number of organic linkers MTV-MOF-58(7)Degrees of interpenetration Ag 6(OH)2(H 2O)4(TIPA)554(23)BET surface area NU-1107140m 2/g (20)Pore volumeNU-110 4.40cm 3/g (20)Excess hydrogen uptake (77K,56bar)NU-1009.0wt%(24)Excess methane uptake (290K,35bar)PCN-14212mg/g (25)Excess carbon dioxide uptake (298K,50bar)MOF-2002347mg/g (17)Proton conductivity (98%relative humidity,25°C)(NH 4)2(ADP)[Zn 2(oxalate)3]·3H 2O8×10−3S/cm (26)Charge mobilityZn 2(TTFTB)0.2cm 2/V·s (27)Lithium storage capacity (after 60cycles)Zn 3(HCOO)6560mAh/g(28)Earliest reportCatalysis by a MOFCd(BPy)2(NO 3)21994(29)Gas adsorption isotherm and permanent porosity MOF-21998(12)Asymmetric catalysis with a homochiral MOF POST-12000(31)Production of open metal site MOF-112000(30)PSM on the organic linkerPOST-12000(31)Use of a MOF for magnetic resonance imagingMOF-732008(32) SCIENCE VOL 34130AUGUST 20131230444-5REVIEWMOFs based on the Zr(IV)cuboctahedral SBU (Fig.2A)also show high chemical stability;UiO-66[Zr 6O 4(OH)4(BDC)6]and its NO 2-and Br-functionalized derivatives demonstrated high acid (HCl,pH =1)and base resistance (NaOH,pH =14)(57,58).The stability also remains when tetratopic organic linkers are used;both MOF-525[Zr 6O 4(OH)4(TpCPP-H 2)3;TpCPP =tetra-para -carboxyphenylporphyrin]and 545[Zr 6O 8(TpCPP-H 2)2]are chemically stable in methanol,water,and acidic conditions for 12hours (59).Furthermore,a pyrazolate-bridged MOF [Ni 3(BTP)2;BTP 3–=4,4′,4″-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl)tris(pyrazol-1-ide)]is stable for 2weeks in a wide range of aqueous solutions (pH =2to 14)at 100°C (60).The high chemical stability observed in these MOFs is expected to enhance their per-formance in the capture of carbon dioxide from humid flue gas and extend MOFs ’applications to water-containing processes.Postsynthetic Modification (PSM):Crystals as MoleculesThe first very simple,but far from trivial,example of PSM was with the Cu paddlewheel carboxylate MOF-11[Cu 2(A TC);A TC 4–=adamantane-1,3,5,7-tetracarboxylate](30).As-prepared Cu atoms are bonded to four carboxylate O atoms,and the co-ordination shell is completed typically with coor-dinated water (Fig.2A).Subsequent removal of the water from the immobilized Cu atom leaves a coordinatively unsaturated site (“open metal site ”).Many other MOFs with such sites have now been generated and have proved to be exceptionally favorable for selective gas uptake and catalysis (61–63).The first demonstration of PSM on the or-ganic link of a MOF was reported in 2000for a homochiral MOF,POST-1[Zn 3(m 3-O)(D-PTT)6;D-PTT –=(4S ,5S )-2,2-dimethyl-5-(pyridin-4-ylcarbamoyl)-1,3-dioxolane-4-carboxylate](31).It involved N -alkylation of dangling pyridyl func-tionalities with iodomethane and 1-iodohexane to produce N -alkylated pyridinium ions exposed to the pore cavity.More recently,PSM was applied to the dan-gling amine group of IRMOF-3[Zn 4O(BDC-NH 2)3]crystals (6).The MOF was submerged in a dichloromethane solution containing acetic anhy-dride to give the amide derivative in >80%yield.Since then,a large library of organic reactions have been used to covalently functionalize MOF backbones (table S4)(64,65).UMCM-1-NH 2[(Zn 4O)3(BDC-NH 2)3(BTB)4]was also acylated with benzoic anhydride to produce the corresponding amide functionality within the pores (66).The structures of both IRMOF-3and UMCM-1-NH 2after modification showed increased hydrogen uptake relative to the parent MOFs,even though there was a reduction in overall surface area (66).PSM has also been used to dangle catalytically active centers within the pores.In an example reported in 2005,a Cd-based MOF built from 6,6′-dichloro-4,4′-di(pyridin-4-yl)-[1,1′-binaphthalene]-2,2′-diol (DCDPBN),[CdCl 2(DCDPBN)],used orthogonal dihydroxy functionalities to coordinate titanium isopropoxide [Ti(O i Pr)4],thus yielding a highly active,enantio-selective asymmetric Lewis acid catalyst (67).UMCM-1-NH 2was also functionalized in such a manner to incorporate salicylate chelating groups,which were subsequently metallated with Fe(III)and used as a catalyst for Mukaiyama aldol reac-tions over multiple catalytic cycles without loss of activity or crystallinity (68).Indeed,the remarkable retention of MOF crystallinity and porosity after undergoing the transformation reactions clearly dem-onstrates the use of MOF crystals as molecules (69).Catalytic Transformations Within the Pores The high surface areas,tunable pore metrics,and high density of active sites within the very open structures of MOFs offer many advantages to their use in catalysis (table S5).MOFs can be used to support homogeneous catalysts,stabi-lize short-lived catalysts,perform size selectiv-ity,and encapsulate catalysts within their pores (70).The first example of catalysis in an ex-tended framework,reported in 1994,involved the cyanosilylation of aldehydes in a Cd-based frame-work [Cd(BPy)2(NO 3)2;BPy =4,4′-bipyridine]as a result of axial ligand removal (29).This study also highlighted the benefits of MOFs as size-selective catalysts by excluding large sub-strates from the pores.In 2006,it was shown that removal of solvent from HKUST-1exposes open metal sites that may act as Lewis acid catalysts (71).MIL-101[Cr 3X(H 2O)2O(BDC)3;X =F,OH]and Mn-BTT {Mn 3[(Mn 4Cl)3(BTT)8]2;BTT 3–=5,5′,5″-(benzene-1,3,5-triyl)tris(tetrazol-2-ide)}have also been iden-tified as Lewis acid catalysts in which the metal oxide unit functions as the catalytic site upon lig-and removal (62,72).In addition,alkane oxida-tion,alkene oxidation,and oxidative coupling reactions have also been reported;they all rely on the metal sites within the SBUs for catalytic ac-tivity (73–75).The study of methane oxidation in vanadium-based MOF-48{VO[BDC-(Me)2];Me =methyl}is promising because the catalytic turnover and yield for this oxidation far exceed those of the analogous homogeneous catalysts (73).One early example of the use of a MOF as a het-erogeneous catalyst is PIZA-3[Mn 2(TpCPP)2Mn 3],which contains a metalloporphyrin as part of the framework (76).PIZA-3is capable of hydrox-ylating alkanes and catalyzes the epoxidation of olefins.Schiff-base and binaphthyl metal complexes have also been incorporated into MOFs to achieve olefin epoxidation and diethyl zinc (ZnEt 2)addi-tions to aromatic aldehydes,respectively (67,77).The incorporation of porphyrin units within the pores of MOFs can be accomplished during the synthesis (a “ship-in-a-bottle ”approach that cap-tures the units as the pores form),as illustrated for the zeolite-like MOF rho -ZMOF [In(HImDC)2·X;HImDC 2–=imidazoledicarboxylate,X –=coun-teranion](78).The pores of this framework accom-modate high porphyrin loadings,and the pore aperture is small enough to prevent porphyrin fromleaching out of the MOF.The porphyrin metal sites were subsequently metallated and used for the oxidation of cyclohexane.The same approach has been applied to several other systems in which polyoxometalates are encapsulated within MIL-101(Cr)and HKUST-1for applications in the oxidation of alkenes and the hydrolysis of esters in excess water (79,80).Integration of nanoparticles for catalysis by PSM has been carried out to enhance particle stability or to produce uniform size distributions.Palladium nanoparticles were incorporated with-in MIL-101(Cr)for cross-coupling reactions (81,82).Most recently,a bifunctional catalytic MOF {Zr 6O 4(OH)4[Ir(DPBPyDC)(PPy)2·X]6;DPBPyDC 2–=4,4′-([2,2′-bipyridine]-5,5′-diyl)dibenzoate,PPy =2-phenylpyridine}capable of water-splitting reactions was reported (83).This MOF uses the organic linker and an encapsulated nanoparticle to transfer an electron to a proton in solution,leading to hydrogen evolution.Gas Adsorption for Alternative Fuels and Separations for Clean AirMuch attention is being paid to increasing the storage of fuel gases such as hydrogen and meth-ane under practical conditions.The first study of hydrogen adsorption was reported in 2003for MOF-5(84).This study confirmed the potential of MOFs for application to hydrogen adsorption,which has led to the reporting of hydrogen ad-sorption data for hundreds of MOFs (85).In gen-eral,the functionality of organic linkers has little influence on hydrogen adsorption (86),whereas increasing the pore volume and surface area of MOFs markedly enhances the gravimetric hydro-gen uptake at 77K and high pressure,as exem-plified by the low-density materials:NU-100and MOF-210exhibit hydrogen adsorption as high as 7.9to 9.0weight percent (wt%)at 56bar for both MOFs and 15wt%at 80bar for MOF-210(17,24).However,increasing the surface area is not always an effective tool for increasing the volumetric hydrogen adsorption,which can be accomplished by increasing the adsorption enthalpy of hy-drogen (Q st )(87).In this context,open metal sites have been suggested and used to enhance the hydrogen uptake capacity and to improve Q st (61,85).Two MOFs with this characteristic,Zn 3(BDC)3[Cu(Pyen)][Pyen 2–=5,5′-((1E ,1′E )-(ethane-1,2-diyl-bis(azanylylidene))bis(methanylylidene))bis(3-methylpyridin-4-ol)]and Ni-MOF-74,have the highest reported initial Q st values:15.1kJ/mol and 12.9kJ/mol,respectively (58,88).Metal impreg-nation has also been suggested by computation as a method for increasing the Q st values (89).Experiments along these lines show that dop-ing MOFs with alkali metal cations yields only modest enhancements in the total hydrogen up-take and Q st values (90,91).Although some chal-lenges remain in meeting the U.S.Department of Energy (DOE)system targets (5.5wt%and 40g/liter at –40°to 60°C below 100bar)for hy-drogen adsorption (85),Mercedes-Benz has al-ready deployed MOF hydrogen fuel tanks in a30AUGUST 2013VOL 341SCIENCE1230444-6REVIEW。
曲师大语言学考试术语解释
Term1. garden path(花园小径) sentences :garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间会倾向于将The man pushed through the door理解为NP+V+PP 的一个句子结构。
只有当听到动词fell 时，才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。
这种现象被很形象地称之为“花园路径现象”，就像在花园中走错了道，折回头再寻路径。
一般认为，这类歧义现象会对语言的处理过程造成较大的困难。
2. ostensive communication明示交际 :Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer. From the speaker’s side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear one’s intention to express something. This is called ostensive act. A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential(明示-推理).3. the cohort theory (集群理论)6:hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.3.Arbitrariness任意性The form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.4.Morpheme:the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.（就发音与意义之间的关系来看，语素是语言的最小单位，不能在进一步分成更小的单位，否则就会破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
中医方证代谢组学
中医方证代谢组学作者：张爱华孙晖闫广利王萍韩莹王喜军来源：《中国中药杂志》2015年第04期[摘要]证候和方剂是中医学的2个关键科学问题，直接关系到中医疾病的诊断和临床治疗的有效性。
方剂是中医临床用药的主要形式和手段，其配伍的科学性和临床的有效性是中医药科学价值的具体体现。
然而，中医证候的模糊性及方剂的复杂性极大地限制了方剂的效应评价及中药药效物质基础的确认。
如何解决证候的诊断标准，以及相关的方剂药效物质基础的确认是国际关注的热点问题，迫切需要建立符合其自身特点的研究方法和技术体系。
中医方证代谢组学（chinmedomics）是将中药血清药物化学和代谢组学有机结合，在解决证候生物标记物的基础上，建立方剂药效生物评价体系，进而发现与临床疗效直接相关的药效物质基础，阐明作用机制的方法学体系。
中医方证代谢组学将“中医证候生物标记物-方剂体内直接作用物质-药效生物标记物”研究有机结合，建立血清中外源性中药成分与内源性标记物群2组变量相关（plotting of correlation between marker metabolites and serum constituents，PCMS）分析方法，评价方剂整体效应及方证相应关系，揭示方剂的药效物质基础及其配伍规律的应用研究策略;该策略的实施将促进方剂向化学成分明确化、作用机制清晰化的方向发展，为方剂关键科学问题研究带来方法学创新，有助推动中医方-证相关研究，揭示生命本质并为人类健康做出有益贡献。
[关键词]中医方证代谢组学;中药血清药物化学;代谢组学;方剂;药效物质基础;证候;生物标记物Chinmedomics： a new strategy for research oftraditional Chinese medicineZHANG Ai-hua， SUN Hui， YAN Guang-li， WANG Ping， HAN Ying， WANG Xi-jun*（National Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry，Laboratory of Metabolomicsand Chinmedomics， Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine， Harbin 150040，China）[Abstract]Syndrome and formulae （or prescription） are two key issues in traditional Chinese medicine （TCM） and the premise research for material basis of TCM. However， vagueness of syndromes and complexity of formulae greatly limited the evaluation to syndromes and effective substance basis of prescription. Therefore， how to solve the evaluation of syndromes， confirming the efficacy material basis in prescription are the current hot issues of international concern. To solve these problems， establishing chinmedomics by integrated serum pharmacochemistry of TCM withmetabolomics technology， that is a unique method of TCM research， made outstanding contributions in solving international concerns such as the effectiveness and security aspects of TCM. On the basis of the biological characterization of syndrome， the metabolic profiling of animal models of TCM syndrome， and related metabolic fingerprints as well as metabolic biomarkers were established to evaluate the overall effects of TCM formulae and corresponding relationship of syndrome-formulae. The active constituents were screened using the plotting of correlation between （endogenous） marker metabolites and （exogenous） serum constituents （PCMS）， and is ongoing verification by further biological experiments. Correlation analysis between the ingredients in the body after oral formulae and endogenous markers in vivo can be used to clarify the active ingredients and synergistic properties. This method was successfully applied for rapid discovery of potentially bioactive components and metabolites from TCM， and through a series of studies on the chinmedomics， it proved that the established method could help to explore the effective substance for further research of TCM. As a new research approach， Chinmedomics is the best method to fit the holistic concept of TCM， and it can not only interpret the essence of syndrome but also elucidate the scientific connotation of Chinese medical formulae.[Key words]chinmedomics; serum pharmacochemistry of TCM; metabolomics; syndrome; formulae; biomarkersdoi：10.4268/cjcmm20150401中医药学是一个伟大的宝库，是中华民族数千年来与疾病作斗争的实践经验总结，具有完整的理论体系并以整体观和辨证论治为主要特征。
constituent语言学名词解释
一、定义constituent在语言学中是一个重要的概念，指的是一个完整的句子或短语结构中的基本成分。
这些基本成分可以是词或短语，它们按照一定的规则组合在一起，形成语法上的完整单位。
constituent在句子或短语中扮演着重要的角色，对语法结构的理解和分析起着至关重要的作用。
二、constituents的特点1. 自派生性constituent是通过一定的句法规则由更小的成分组合而成的。
这种自派生性使得constituent在句子或短语中的位置和作用能够被准确地确定。
2. 同构性constituent可以是单个词或词组，也可以是更复杂的结构，但它们都具有同构性，即在语法结构中具有相似的地位和功能。
三、constituents的分类1. 句子成分在句子中，常见的constituents包括主语、谓语、宾语、宾补、状语等。
这些成分在句子结构中起着不同的作用，构成了句子的基本语法框架。
2. 短语成分短语是由词汇组成的，而constituent则是由更小的成分组成的。
短语成分包括名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等，它们在句子中起着修饰或补充信息的作用。
3. 句法树的constituents在句法分析中，我们常常使用句法树来表示句子的结构，而树中的节点就对应着句子中的constituent。
通过句法树的构建和分析，我们可以更清晰地理解句子中各个成分之间的关系。
四、constituents的分析方法1. 句法分析句法分析是对句子结构进行细致地分析，找出其中的各种constituent，并确定它们之间的层级和作用关系。
句法分析可以通过语法树、短语结构规则等方式进行。
2. 语篇分析除了句法结构的分析，语篇分析也可以揭示constituent在语言使用中的作用。
通过对语言使用情境和语言功能的分析，我们可以更全面地理解constituent的意义和功能。
五、constituents的重要性1. 语法规则的理解通过对constituent的分析，我们可以更深入地理解和掌握语法规则，从而提高语言的应用能力和表达准确性。
constituent语言学定义(二)
constituent语言学定义(二)constiuent语言学定义•定义一：constituent语言学是一种研究语言结构中构成成分的学科，通过分析语言的句子结构，将句子拆解为各个构成成分，并探讨它们之间的关系和作用。
•定义二：constituent语言学是一种从形式上描述语法规则的方法，通过标记和分析句子的各个组成部分，来揭示语法规则和语义之间的关系。
•定义三：constituent语言学是一种研究语言成分结构和句法规则的分析方法，通过层级结构和树状图等形式，描述句子的构建过程和句法关系。
理由•理由一：constituent语言学有助于我们理解语言结构和语法规则，能够帮助我们更深入地分析和解释句子的意义和结构。
•理由二：constituent语言学可以帮助我们更好地学习和掌握语言，通过分析句子的成分和结构，可以更加准确地理解和使用语言。
•理由三：constituent语言学对其他语言学分支研究具有重要影响，尤其是句法和语义学方面的研究，为语言学的发展和进步做出了重要贡献。
相关书籍简介1.《The Syntax Workbook: A Companion to Carnie’s Syntax》–作者：Andrew Carnie–简介：该书是一本针对constituent语言学的实践指南，适用于研究和学习句法分析的学生和教师。
书中提供了大量的练习和案例，帮助读者巩固和应用constituent语言学的知识。
2.《Syntactic Structures》–作者：Noam Chomsky–简介：这本经典的著作是Noam Chomsky的代表作之一，也是constituent语言学的奠基之作。
书中探讨了句法结构和语言生成的理论，并提出了著名的生成文法理论，对后续的句法分析研究产生了深远影响。
3.《Constituent Structure》–作者：Ivan A. Sag, Thomas Wasow, Emily M. Bender–简介：这本书是对constituent语言学的全面介绍，涵盖了从基本概念到高级应用的内容。
形而上学英文版
MetaphysicsFirst published Mon Sep 10, 2007It is not easy to say what metaphysics is. Ancient and Medieval philosophers might have said that metaphysics was, like chemistry or astrology, to be defined by its subject matter: metaphysics was the “science” that studied “being as such” or “the first causes of things” or “things that do not change.” It is no longer possible to define metaphysics that way, and for two reasons. First, a philosopher who denied the existence of those things that had once been seen as constituting the subject-matter of metaphysics—first causes or unchanging things—would now be considered to be making thereby a metaphysical assertion. Secondly, there are many philosophical problems that are now considered to be metaphysical problems (or at least partly metaphysical problems) that are in no way related to first causes or unchanging things; the problem of free will, for example, or the problem of the mental and the physical.This entry examines a large selection of the problems that have been classified as metaphysical. It does not examine them “for their own sake,” however, but as illustrations of metaphysical problems. (The discussions of these problems in this entry, therefore, are not meant to be in competition with the entries specifically devoted to them.) It considers—and finds no satisfactory answer to—the question, “In virtue of what common feature are these problems classified as metaphysical problems?” It also considers various attempts to show that metaphysics—however defined—is an impossible enterprise.1. The word …metaphysics‟ and the concept of metaphysics.2. The problems of metaphysics: the “old” metaphysics2.1 The categories of being2.2 Substance3. The problems of metaphysics: the “new” metaphysics3.1 Modality3.2 Problems of space and time3.3 Problems about the mental and the physical3.4 The problem of free will3.5 Problems of material constitution4. The Nature of Metaphysics5. Is Metaphysics Possible?BibliographyOther Internet ResourcesRelated Entries--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. The word …metaphysics‟ and the concept of metaphysics.The word …metaphysics‟ is notoriously hard to define. Twentieth-century coinages like …meta-language‟ and …metaphilosophy‟ encourage the impression that metaphysics is a study that somehow “goes beyond” physics, a study devoted to matters that transcend the mundane concerns of Newton and Einstein and Heisenberg. This impression is mistaken. The word …metaphysics‟ isderived from a collective title of the fourteen books by Aristotle that we currently think of as making up “Aristotle's Metaphysics.” Aristotle himself did not know the word. (He had four names for the branch of philosophy that is the subject-matt er of Metaphysics: …first philosophy‟, …first science‟, …wisdom‟, and …theology‟.) At least one hundred years after Aristotle's death, an editor of his works (in all probability, Andronicus of Rhodes) entitled those fourteen books “Ta meta ta phusika”—“the after the physicals” or “the ones after the physical ones”—, the “physical ones” being the books contained in what we now call Aristotle's Physics. The title was probably meant to warn students of Aristotle's philosophy that they should attempt Metaphysics only after they had mastered “the physical ones,” the books about nature or the natural world—that is to say, about change, for change is the defining feature of the natural world.This is the probable meaning of the title because Metaphysics is about things that do not change. In one place, Aristotle identifies the subject-matter of first philosophy as “being as such,” and, in another, as “first causes.” It is a nice—and vexed—question what the connection between these two definitions is. Perhaps this is the answer: The unchanging first causes have nothing but being in common with the mutable things they cause—like us and the objects of our experience, they are, and there the resemblance ceases. (For a detailed and informative recent guide to Aristotle's Metaphysics, see Politis (2004).)The Greek plural noun-phrase …ta meta ta phusika‟ became in Medieval Latin the singular noun …metaphysica‟—much as the Greek plural …ta biblia‟ (…the books‟) became the Latin singular …biblia‟ (…the bible‟). The word was used both as a title for Aristotle's book (now thought of as a single entity) and as the name of the “science” that was its subject-matter. The word for …metaphysics‟ in every modern European language (…la métaphysique‟, …die Metaphysik‟, …la metafisica‟…) is an adaptation of the Latin word to the orthographic and phonetic requirements of that language. This is true even of the non-Indo-European languages (like Finnish and Hungarian) that are spoken in Europe. Works written in some non-European languages, however, use words constructed from native materials both to translate the European word …metaphysics‟ and to refer to writings in their own philosophical traditions whose subject-matter is similar to the subject-matter of Western metaphysics. For example, the Chinese phrase that is the customary translation of …metaphysics‟ is an allusion to a statement in the I Ching: “that which is above matter is the Tao”; the phrase can be literally translated as …[that which is above matter]-ology‟, the final word of the phrase being a “discipline marker” that performs much the same function as the English suffix …-ology‟. The word that is the usual Arabic translation of …metaphysics‟ means …the science of divine things‟. Unlike the Chinese phrase and the Arabic word, however, the European words derived from …metaphysica‟ carry no internal indications of their meaning. (The word has, as we have seen, an etymology, but as is so often the case, etymology is no guide to meaning.) It is uncontroversial that these words all mean exactly what …metaphysics‟ means in English—or, less parochially, that all the European words derived from …metaphysica‟ mean exactly the same thing. But what is it that they all mean?Can the origin of the word help us to answer this question? Can we say that the word …metaphysics‟ is a name for that “science” (that episteme, that scientia, that study, that discipline) whose subject-matter is the subject-matter of Aristotle's Metaphysics? If we do say this, we shallbe committed to some thesis in the neighborhood of the following theses: “The subject-matter of metaphysics is …being as such‟”; “The subject-matter of metaphysics is the first causes of things”; “The subject-matter of metaphysics is that which does not change.” Any of these three theses might have been regarded as a defensible statement of the subject-matter of what was currently called “metaphysics” till the seventeenth century, when, rather suddenly, many topics and problems that Aristotle and the Medievals would have classified as belonging to physics (the relation of mind and body, for example, or the freedom of the will, or personal identity across time) began to be “reassigned” to metaphysics. One might almost say that in the seventeenth century “metaphysics” began to be a catch-all category, a repository of philosophical problems that could not be otherwise classified: “not epistemology, not logic, not ethics … ”. (It was at about that time that the word “ontology” was invented—to be a name for the science of being as such, an office that the word …metaphysics‟ could no longer fill.) The academic rationalists of the post-Leibnizian school were aware that the word …metaphysics‟ had come to be used in a more inclusive sense than it had once been. Christian Wolff attempted to justify this more inclusive sense of the word by this device: while the subject-matter of metaphysics is being, being can be investigated either in general or in relation to objects in particular categories. He distinguished between “general metaphysics,” (or ontology) the study of being as such, and the various branches of “special metaphysics,” which study the being of objects of various special sorts, such as souls and material bodies. (He does not assign “first causes” to general metaphysics, however: the study of first causes belongs to natural theology, a branch of special metaphysics.) It is doubtful whether this maneuver is anything more than a verbal ploy. In what sense, for example, is the practitioner of rational psychology (the branch of special metaphysics devoted to the soul) engaged in a study of “being”? Has a soul a different sort of being from that of other objects?—so that in studying the soul one learns not only about its nature (that is, its properties: rationality, immateriality, immortality, its ca pacity or lack thereof to affect the body …), but about its “mode of being,” and hence learns something about being? It is certainly not true that all, or even very many, rational psychologists said anything, qua rational psychologists, that could plausibly be construed as a contribution to our understanding of being.Perhaps this development, this wider application of the word …metaphysics‟, was due to the fact that the word …physics‟ was coming to be a name for a new, quantitative science, the science th at bears that name today, and was becoming increasingly inapplicable to the investigation of many traditional philosophical problems about changing things (and of some newly discovered problems about changing things). Whatever the reason for the change may have been, it would be flying in the face of current usage (and indeed of the usage of the last three or four hundred years) to stipulate that the subject-matter of metaphysics was to be the subject-matter of Aristotle's Metaphysics (or that it was to be “that which is above matter” or “divine things”). It would, moreover, fly in the face of the fact that, in the current sense of the word, there are and have been paradigmatic metaphysicians who deny that there are first causes—this denial is certainly a metaphysical thesis in the current sense—, others who insist that everything changes (Heraclitus and any modern philosopher who is both a materialist and a nominalist), and others still (Parmenides and Zeno) who deny that there is a special class of objects that do not change.2. The problems of metaphysics: the “old” metaphysicsIf metaphysics now considers a wider range of problems than those studied in Aristotle's Metaphysics, those problems continue to belong to its subject-matter. “Being as such” (and existence as such, if existence is something other than being), for example, is one of the matters that belong to metaphysics on any conception of metaphysics. Thus, the following statements are all paradigmatically metaphysical: …Being is; not-being is not‟ [Parmenides]; …Essence precedes existence‟ [Avicenna, paraphrased]; …Existence in reality is greater than existence in the understanding alone‟ [St Anselm, paraphrased]; …Existence is a perfection‟ [Descartes, paraphrased]; …Being is a logical, not a real predicate‟ [Kant, paraphrased]; …Being is the most barren and abstract of all categories‟ [Hegel, paraphrased]; …Affirmation of existence is in fact nothing but denial of the number zero‟ [Frege]; …Universals do not exist but rather subsist or have being‟ [Russell, paraphrased]; …To be is to be the value of a bound variable‟ [Quine]. (Does Berkeley's …Esse est percipi‟ belong in this list? Not obviously, and this for reasons connected with our earlier worries about Wolff's contention that “special metaphysics” addresses the topic “being.” It is a plausible position that Berkeley's Latin slogan is not really about the being of chairs and mountains but about their natures: it means that such things, perceptible things, are essentially perceived by someone. It may be contrasted with Russell's statement about universals, which—it seems clearly to be Russell's intention to assert this—is a statement not only to the effect that universals have very different properties or natures from those of the things that “exist,” but enjoy a different mode of being. It would seem, too, that Sartre's famous epitome of existentialism, …Existence precedes essence‟, although it is an allusion to a classical theory about existence, is not itself a statement about existence but rather about the nature of human freedom.)It seems reasonable, moreover, to say that investigations into non-being belong to the topic “being as such” and thus belong to metaphysics. (This did not seem reasonable to Meinong, who wished to confine the subject-matter of metaphysics to “the actual” and who therefore did not regard his Theory of Objects as a metaphysical theory. According to the conception of metaphysics adopted in this article, however, his thesis [paraphrased] …Predication is independent of being‟ is a paradigmatically metaphysical thesis.)The two topics “the first causes of things” and “things that do not change” must also be assigned to metaphysics in the post-Medieval sense as well as in the Aristotelian/Medieval sense. The first three of Aquinas's Five Ways are thus metaphysical arguments on any conception of metaphysics. But we must not take this to imply that the thesis that there are no first causes and the thesis that there are no things that do not change are not metaphysical theses. For, in the current conception of metaphysics, the denial of a metaphysical thesis is a metaphysical thesis. No post-Medieval philosopher would say anything like this: “I study the first causes of things, and am therefore a metaphysician. My colleague Dr McZed denies that there are any first causes and is therefore not a metaphysician; she is rather, an anti-metaphysician. In her view, metaphysics is a science with a non-existent subject-matter, like astrology.” This feature of the modern conception of meta physics is nicely illustrated by a statement of Sartre's (Sartre (1949), p. 139): “I do not think myself any less a metaphysician in denying the existence of God than Leibniz was in affirming it.” (It is instructive to compare this statement with Aristotle's thesis that first philosophy is unlike the other sciences in that it must prove the existence of its subject-matter. Cf. Loux (2006b).) And an anti-metaphysician in the modern sense is not a philosopher who denies that there are objects ofthe sorts that an earlier philosopher might have said formed the subject-matter of metaphysics (first causes, things that do not change, universals, substances, …), but rather a philosopher who denies the legitimacy of the question whether there are objects of those sorts.In addition to these three topics—the nature of being; the first causes of things; things that do not change—(the latter two being understood as including attempts to show that there are no first causes or things that do not change), the topics that fall under the “old” or “Aristotelian/Medieval” conception of metaphysics, we must recognize attention to a large range of “new” or “post-Medieval” topics as no less the proper business of metaphysics than these three. (Many of these topics were well known to Aristotle and the Medievals, but they would not have classified them as belonging to protophilosophia or metaphysica.) Before we turn to these topics, however, we must consider a topic that occupies an intermediate position between them and the topic “the nature of being”. (It will be observed that many of the objects that figure in various philosophical theories that pertain to this intermediate topic are supposed to be changeless—but not first causes, since, as Aristotle noted, they are causally inactive.) We may call this topic:2.1 The categories of beingWe human beings sort things into various classes. And we generally suppose that the classes into which we sort things are rarely if ever without some kind of “internal unity.” In this respect they differ from sets in the strict sense of the word. (And no doubt in others. It would seem, for example, that we think of the classes we sort things into—biological species, say—as comprising different members at different times.) The classes into which we sort things are in most cases “natural” classes, classes whose membership is in some important sense “uniform,” —“kinds.” We shall here attempt no account or definition of “natural class.” Examples must suffice. There are certainly sets whose members do not make up natural classes: a set that contains all dogs but one, and a set that contains all dogs and exactly one cat do not correspond to natural classes in anyone's view. And it is very tempting to suppose that there is a sense of “natural” in which dogs make up a natural class, to suppose that in dividing the world into dogs and non-dogs, we “cut reality at the joints.” It is, however, a respectable philosophical thesis that the idea of a natural class cannot survive philosophical scrutiny. If that respe ctable thesis is true, the topic “the categories of being” is a pseudo-topic. Let us simply assume that the respectable thesis is false and that things fall into various natural classes—hereinafter, simply classes.Some of the classes into which we sort things are more comprehensive than others: all dogs are animals, but not all animals are dogs; all animals are living organisms, but not all living organisms are animals … . Now the very expression “sort things into classes” suggests that there is a most comprehensive class: the class of things, the class of things that can be sorted into classes. But is this so?—and if it is so, are there classes that are “just less comprehensive” than this universal class? If there are, can we identify them?—and are there a vast (perhaps even an infinite) number of them, or some largish, messy number like forty-nine, or some small, neat number like seven or four? Let us call any such “just less comprehensive” classes the categories of being or the ontological categories. (The former term, if not the latter, presupposes a particular position on one question about the nature of being: that everything is, that the universal class is the class of beings, the class of things that are. It thus presupposes that Meinong was wrong to say that “there arethings of which it is true that there are no such things.”)The topic “the categories of being” is intermediate between the topic “the nature of being” and the topics that fall under the post-Medieval conception of metaphysics for a reason that can be illustrated by considering the problem of universals. (The problem of universals is the first of several philosophical problems we shall consider in some detail. It should be noted that our purpose is not to discuss these problems “for their own sake.” We are rather concerned with the classification of these problems as metaphysical problems—with what makes them metaphysical problems and not philosophical problems of some other sort.)Universals, if they indeed exist, are, in the first in stance, things like “whiteness” or “ductility” (properties or qualities or attributes), things supposedly universally “present in” the members of classes of things—and things like “being to the north of”(relations) that are supposedly universally present in the members of classes of sequences of things. “In the first instance”: it may be that other things than qualities and relations are universals, although qualities and relations are the items most commonly put forward as examples of universals. It may be that the novel War and Peace is a universal, a thing that is in some mode present in each of the many tangible copies of the novel. It may be that the word …horse‟ is a universal, a thing that is present in each of the many audible utterances of the word. And it may be that natural classes or kinds are themselves universals—it may be that there is such a thing as “the horse” or the species Equus caballus, distinct from its defining attribute “being a horse” or “equinity,” and in some sense “present in” ea ch horse. (Perhaps some difference between the attribute “being a horse” and the attribute “being either a horse or a kitten” explains why the former is the defining attribute of a kind and the latter is not. Perhaps the former attribute exists and the latter does not; perhaps the former has the second-order attribute “naturalness” and the latter does not; perhaps the former is more easily apprehended by the intellect than the latter.)The thesis that universals exist—or at any rate “subsist” or “have being”—is variously called …realism‟ or …Platonic realism‟ or …platonism‟. (All three terms are objectionable. Aristotle, as we shall see, believed in the reality of universals, but it would be at best an oxymoron to call him a platonist or a Platonic realist. And …realism‟ tout court has served as a name for a variety of philosophical theses.) The thesis that universals do not exist—do not so much as subsist; have no being of any sort—is generally called …nominalism‟. (This term, too is objectionable. At one t ime, those who denied the existence of universals were fond of saying things like: “There is no such thing as …the horse‟: there is only the name [nomen, gen. nominis] …horse‟, a mere flatus vocis [puff of sound].” Present-day “nominalists,” however, are a ware, if earlier nominalists were not, that if the phrase …the name “horse” ‟ designated an object, the object it designated would itself be a universal or something very like one. It would not be a mere puff of sound but would rather be what was common to the many puffs of sound that were its “tokens.”)The old debate between the nominalists and the realists—let us settle on this term—continues to the present day. In the works of some recent authors, this debate is conducted in terms that are similar to those that figured in Medieval and early modern debates about the reality of universals. (See, for example, Armstrong (1989), and most of the essays contained in Part I of Loux (2001).)But a new twist was added to the old debate in W. V. Quine's mid-twentieth-century writings on “ontological [ontic] commitment.” (Quine (1948) and Ch. VII of Quine (1960).) Quine made a very simple observation that has had far-reaching consequences for the old debate. The observation was this. If our best scientific theories are recast in the “canonical notation of (first-order) quantification” (in sufficient depth that all the inferences that users of these theories will want to make are valid in first-order logic), then many of these theories, if not all of them, will have as a logical consequence the existential generalization on a predicate F such that F is satisfied only by objects whose existence is incompatible with nominalism. It would seem, therefore, that our best scientific theories “carry ontological commitment” to objects whose existence is denied by nominalism. (These objects may not be universals in the classical sense. They may, for example, be sets.) The meaning of this abstract statement may be illustrated by an example. Consider the simple theory, …There are h omogeneous objects, and the mass of a homogeneous object in grams is the product of its density in grams per cubic centimeter and its volume in cubic centimeters‟. A typical “recasting” of this theory in the canonical notation of quantification is:?x Hx & ?x (Hx →Mx = Dx ×Vx),(…Hx‟: …x is homogeneous‟; …Mx‟: …the mass of x in grams‟; …Dx‟: …the density of x in grams per cubic centimeter‟; …Vx‟: …the volume of x in cubic centimeters‟.) A first-order logical consequence of this “theory” is?x ?y ?z (x = y × z)That is: there exists at least one thing that is a product (at least one thing that, for some x and some y is the product of x and y). And a “product” must be a number, for the operation “product of” applies only to numbers. Our little theory, at least if it is “recast” in the way shown above, is therefore, in a very obvious sense, “committed” to the existence of numbers. It would seem, therefore, that a nominalist cannot consistently affirm that theory. (In this example, the role played by …the predicate F’in the abstract statement of Quine's “observation” is played by the predicate …is a product‟.)Most realists suppose that universals constitute one of the categories of being. This supposition could certainly be disputed without absurdity. Perhaps ther e is a “natural” class of things to which all universals belong but which contains other things as well (and is not the class of all things). Perhaps, for example, numbers and propositions are not universals, and perhaps numbers and propositions and univer sals are all members of a class of “abstract objects,” a class that some things do not belong to. Or perhaps there is such a thing as “the whiteness of the Taj Mahal” and perhaps this object and the universal “whiteness”—but not the Taj Mahal itself—both belong to the class of “properties.” Let us call such a class—a proper subclass of an ontological category, a natural class that is neither the class of all things nor one of the ontological categories—an ontological sub-category. It may indeed be that universals make up a sub-category of being and are members of the category of being “abstract object.” But few if any philosophers would suppose that universals were members of forty-nine sub-categories—much less of a vast number or an infinity of sub-categories. Most philosophers who believe in the reality of universals would want to say that universals, if they do not constitute an ontological category, at least constitute oneof the “higher” sub-categories. If dogs form a natural class, this class is—by the terms of our definition—an ontological sub-category. And this class will no doubt be a subclass of many sub-categories: the genus canis, the class (in the biological sense) mammalia, …, and so through a chain of sub-categories that eventually reaches some very general sub-category like “substance” or “material object.” Thus, although dogs may compose an ontological sub-category, this sub-category—unlike the category “universal”—is one of the “lower” ones. These reflections suggest that the topic “the categories of being” should be understood to comprehend both the categories of being sensu stricto and their “immediate” sub-categories. (Let us adopt this suggestion. In the sequel, we shall use the phrase …the topic “the categories of being”‟ as shorthand for the admittedly vague phrase …the topic “the categories of being and their higher sub-categories”‟.)Does the topic “the categories of being” belong to metaphysics in the “old” sense? A case can be made for saying that it does, since the problem of universals falls under that topic and a case can be made for saying that the problem of universals belongs to metaphysics in the old sense. That case rests on the fact that Plato's theory of forms (universals, attributes) is a recurrent theme in Aristotle's Metaphysics. In Metaphysics, two of Plato's central theses about the forms come in for vigorous criticism: (i) that things that would, if they existed, be “inactive” (the forms) could be the primary beings, the “most real” things, and (ii) that the attributes of things exist “separately” from the things whose attributes they are. We shall be concerned only with (ii). In the terminology of the Schools, that criticism can be put this way: Plato wrongly believed that universals existed ante res (prior to objects); the correct view is that universals exist in rebus (in objects). It is because this aspect of the problem of universals—whether universals exist ante res or in rebus—is discussed at length in Metaphysics, that a strong case can be made for saying that the problem of universals falls under the old conception of metaphysics. (And the question whether universals, given that they exist at all, exist ante res or in rebus is as controversial in the twenty-first century as it was in the thirteenth century and the fourth century B.C.) If we do decide that the problem of universals belongs to metaphysics on the old conception, then, since we have “liberalized” the old conception by applying to it the “modern” rule that the denial of a metaphysical position is to be regarded as a metaphysical position, we shall have to say that the question whether universals exist at all is a metaphysical question under the old conception—and that nominalism is therefore a metaphysical thesis.There is, however, a case to made against classifying the problem of universals as a problem of metaphysics in the (liberalized) old sense, for there is more to the problem of universals than the question whether universals exist and the question whether, if they do exist, their existence is ante res or in rebus. Many of them are questions that Aristotle did not consider in Metaphysics. (He discussed some of them in the Organon—particularly Categories—and others he did not discuss at all.) In addition to questions about universals “in themselves,” the problem of universals comprehends questions about the relation between universals (if such there be) and the things that are not universals, the things usually called particulars. One might therefore plausibly contend that only one part of the problem of universals (the part that pertains to the existence and nature of universals) belongs to metaphysics in the old sense.。
人文英语阅读教程2单元：BC语言点
Unit 2 Moments in HistorySection BNotes and information related to the text1. During the era known by this name, Europe emerged from the economic stagnation of the Middle Ages and experienced a time of financial growth。
（Para.2）the Middle Ages：period in western European history that followed the disintegration of the west roman empire in the 4th and 5th centuries and lasted into 15th century, the period of the renaissance. The ideas and institutions of western civilization derive largely from the turbulent events of the early Middle Ages and the rebirth of culture in the later years。
2. In the feudal structure of the Middle Ages，the nobles who lived in the country provided the king with protection in exchange for land （Para。
3）Meaning：in the feudal structure of the ma, the nobles who lived in the country protected the king，and the king gave them land as a reward。
解构主义翻译观——简介及质疑
第8卷 第3期河北理工大学学报(社会科学版)Vol 18 No 132008年8月Journa l of Hebe i Polytechn i c Un i versity (Social Science Editi on )Aug .2008文章编号:167322804(2008)0320136203解构主义翻译观———简介及质疑代自然,单亦祯,张利芳(河北理工大学外国语学院,河北唐山063009)关键词:解构主义;结构主义;质疑摘 要:发轫于西方的解构主义已渗入我国翻译理论界,它冲击着以结构主义为指导的传统翻译理论。
解构主义翻译理论的创造性及开放性思维,拓展了翻译研究的视野,使翻译研究出现了多元化趋势。
但是,解构主义翻译观倡导的意义不确定论与实践是脱节的:在其试图挑战结构主义的权威时,却在二元对立观上陷入了对结构主义的曲解旋涡中;并且,解构主义在实践中存在被滥用的危险。
为使广大翻译工作者对解构主义翻译观有更全面深入的了解,从以上三方面对解构主义翻译观提出质疑,认为解构主义翻译观有其缺陷,并个能作为独立的翻译标准而存在,对其应用必须有一个度的限制。
中图分类号:H 31519 文献标志码:A 一 解构主义翻译观简介解构主义理论是在对索绪尔(Saussure )结构主义语言学的批判中建立起来的。
结构主义思想的核心是“逻格斯中心主义”(Logocentris m ),认为任何事物都是一个关系结构的整体,都有结构模式,结构决定事物的本质,而研究事物的本质在于研究事物的深层结构。
从20世纪60年代中期起,在西方文艺批评理论界产生了对结构主义的反叛从消解性为主要特征,系统地解构了结构主义关于结构和意义等重要概念,故名曰“解构主义”(deconstructi on ),又称后结构主义。
解构主义认识论不受同定的中心与模式的束缚,力图突破现有的理论框架,并将其从细微处逐一分解,最终证明世界的多元性、无中心性。
(王宁,1993:167转引自段小茜2006:47)其主要代表人物是德里达(Jacques Derrida )、福柯(M ichelFoucault )罗兰・巴(Ro 2land Barthes )等。
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Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 52 (2010) 155–159Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Pharmaceutical and BiomedicalAnalysisj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /j p baShort communicationCharacterization of the constituents in rat biological fluids after oral administration of Fufang Danshen tablets by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometryYonghai Lv a ,Xi Zhang a ,Xu Liang a ,Xinru Liu a ,Weixing Dai a ,Shikai Yan b ,Weidong Zhang a ,b ,∗a School of Pharmacy,Second Military Medical University,Shanghai 200433,PR China bSchool of Pharmacy,Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Shanghai 200030,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 16November 2009Received in revised form 8December 2009Accepted 11December 2009Available online 21 December 2009Keywords:Fufang Danshen tablets Active ingredients Metabolites Plasma UrineUPLC–Q-TOF/MSa b s t r a c tAn ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method was established to detect as many constituents in rat biological fluids as possible after oral administration of Fufang Danshen tablets (FDTs).A C18column (1.8m particle size)was adopted to separate the samples,and mass spectra were acquired in both negative and positive modes.First,the fingerprints of FDTs were established,resulting in 43components being detected within 25min.Among these compounds,37were tentatively identified by comparing the retention times and mass spectral data with those of reference standards and the reference literature;the other 6components were tentatively assigned solely based on the MS data.In vivo ,14components and 8metabolites of FDT were observed in plasma,and 12components of FDT were detected in urine.Tanshinaldehyde,danshexinkun B,a glycine conjugate of danshensu and a methylated conjugate of danshexinkun B were newly detected in rat biological fluids.This study developed a high-speed and sensitive method that was successfully utilized for screening the active ingredients of a Chinese medical formula and provided helpful chemical information for further pharmacology and active mechanism research on Chinese medicine.© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionFufang Danshen tablets (FDTs),an herbal preparation consist-ing of Radix salviae miltiorrhiza (450g),Radix notoginseng (141g),and Borneolum syntheticum (8g),are widely used in China [1].FDT carries many biological activities,including dilation of coronary arteries,improving coronary circulation and decreasing myocar-dial oxygen consumption,and it has been used to treat coronary heart disease,cardiac angina and atherosclerosis in the clinic [2,3].However,the active ingredients and metabolites of FDT are not well understood.Recently,there was one published paper [4]reporting the chem-ical and metabolic components of a Fufang Danshen prescription.The “common prescription”,a mixture of Radix salviae miltiorrhiza and Radix notoginseng (1:1),however,did not accurately reflect the proportion found in FDTs used in the clinic.The proportion of these compounds in the FDTs is about 3:1,and FDT is not a simple mix-ture of the three crude drugs,but prepared through a complicated process [1].Furthermore,using this “common prescription”,only 9∗Corresponding author at:Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry,School of Pharmacy,Second Military Medical University,No.325Guohe Road,Shanghai 200433,PR China.Tel.:+862181871244;fax:+862181871244.E-mail address:WDZhangY@ (W.Zhang).components were observed in rat plasma,and all 23metabolites of saponins were found in rat feces,except protopanaxatriol,which was found in plasma.In addition,the method employed required long analysis times of approximately 80min.In order to get as many active ingredients and metabolites as possible from a FDT in less time,it was necessary for us to set up an effective and reliable analytical method.Fortunately,a high-speed and sensitive technique with shorter analysis times and greater accuracy of the m /z value,ultra-performance liq-uid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC–Q-TOF/MS),has attracted ever-increasing attention [5]and has been successfully applied to identify active ingredients and metabolites in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)[6].In this study,the UPLC–Q-TOF/MS system using a C18column (1.8m particle size)was adopted to characterize the constituents of FDT in vitro and in vivo .2.Experimental2.1.Chemicals and materialsHPLC grade acetonitrile and formic acid were purchased from Merck (Merck,Darmstadt,Germany).Ultrapure water was purified by a Milli-Q50SP Reagent Water System (Millipore,Bedford,MA,USA).FDT was purchased from Leiyunshang Phar-0731-7085/$–see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2009.12.013156Y.Lv et al./Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis52 (2010) 155–159Fig.1.TIC chromatograms of FDT extracts in negative and positive modes.43peaks represent 43components of FDT.maceutical Co.,Ltd.(Shanghai,China).Crude drugs of Radix salviae miltiorrhiza and Radix notoginseng were purchased from Hengfengtai Ginseng Co.,Ltd.(Hong Kong,China).The reference standards of danshensu,protocatechuic aldehyde,caffeic acid,notoginsenoside R1,ginsenoside Re,Rg1,Rf,Rb1,F1,F2,dihy-drotanshinone I,tanshinone I,cryptotanshinone,tanshinone IIA,protopanaxatriol and protopanaxadiol were purchased from the National Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biologi-cal Products (Beijing,China).Salvianolic acid B was isolated in our laboratory (purity >99.0%).2.2.Sample preparation2.2.1.Preparation of samples for analysis in vitro0.5g of FDT powder was accurately weighed into a 5mL vol-umetric flask and subjected to ultrasonic treatment at room temperature with 70%methanol for 30min.The methanol extrac-tion was centrifuged at ca.10,000×g for 10min at 4◦C.The supernatant was collected and filtered through a 0.20m mem-brane prior to UPLC–Q-TOF/MS analysis.Radix salviae miltiorrhiza and Radix notoginseng were extracted with the same method described above,which was used to confirm identification of com-pounds in FDT extracts.2.2.2.Preparation of samples for analysis in vivo12male Sprague–Dawley rats (200±15g)were purchased from the Slac Laboratory Animal Co.,Ltd.(Shanghai,China).The animals were acclimatized to the facilities for 5days and then fasted with free access to water for a 12-h period prior to the experiment.FDT was ground into a fine powder and dissolved in a 0.5%car-boxymethyl cellulose sodium salt (CMC-Na)aqueous solution.The prepared suspension was orally administered to 6rats at a dose of 300mg/kg,and 0.5%CMC-Na aqueous solution was orally adminis-tered to 6additional rats as a control.4h after drug administration,the animals were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of 1%pentobarbital sodium (0.15mL/100g body weight).Blood was col-lected from the hepatic portal vein and then centrifuged at ca.10,000×g for 5min at 4◦C to separate plasma.Urine was collected for 4h after drug administration as well.The plasma and urine were processed for UPLC–Q-TOF/MS analysis by the previously described method [4].All procedures were in accordance with the National Institute of Health’s guidelines regarding the principles of animal care (2004).2.3.Instrumentation and conditionsAnalysis was performed on an Agilent-1200LC system coupled with an Agilent-6520accurate-mass Q-TOF mass spectrometry equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI)source (Agilent Technologies,Palo Alto,CA,USA).The separation of all sam-ples was performed on an Eclipse plus C18column (1.8m,3.0mm ×100mm,Aglient)at a column temperature of 35◦C.The flow rate was 0.3mL/min and the mobile phase consisted of 0.1%(v/v)formic acid (A)and acetonitrile (B).The following gradi-ent program was used:0–1min,10–15%B;1–3min,15–28%B;3–9min,28–30%B;9–11min,30–66%B;11–15min,66–66%B;15–25min,66–80%B.The sample injection volume was 3L,and the mass detection was operated in both positive and negative ion modes with parameters set as follows:drying gas (N 2)flow rate,10L/min;gas temperature,330◦C;pressure of nebulizer,10psig;Fig.2.TIC chromatograms of dosed rat plasma in negative and positive modes.Peak numbers (7,9,10,13,19,21,22,23,24,27,30,33,35and 38)refer to Fig.1.M1–8represent 8metabolites of FDT.Y.Lv et al./Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 52 (2010) 155–159157T a b l e 1U P L C –Q -T O F /M S d a t a o f 9n e w l y d e t e c t e d c o n s t i t u e n t s i n F D T e x t r a c t s .P e a k n u m b e r r e f e r s t o F i g .1.P e a kR T (m i n )M S (m /z )M S /M SF o r m u l aE x a c t m a s s (c a l c .)D i f f (p p m )C o m p o u n dO r i g i n a N e g a t i v eP o s i t i v eN e g a t i v eP o s i t i v e2011.651123.5881945.5503,783.5021,621.3768,459.3532C 53H 90O 221123.59062.54G i n s e n o s i d e R cP G2913.52329.1391311.1165C 19H 20O 5329.1384−2.44–bS M 3013.76311.1290283.1062C 19H 18O 4311.1278−3.85T a n s h i n a l d e h y d e S M 3113.99327.1242309.1165C 19H 18O 5327.1227−4.61–S M 3214.47297.1499282.1291,254.1187C 19H 20O 3297.1485−4.48I s o c r y p t o t a n s h i n o n e S M 3415.87315.1604287.1492C 19H 22O 4315.1591−4.08–S M 3616.24339.1239309.1069,91.0867C 20H 18O 5339.1227−3.55M e t h y l t a n s h i n o n a t e S M 3716.63295.1339280.1229,252.1031C 19H 18O 3295.1329−3.43I s o t a n s h i n o n e I I S M 4121.21281.1541263.1437,248.1304C 19H 20O 2281.1536−1.61–S MaS M :s a l v i a m i l t i o r r h i z a a n d P G :p a n a x p s e u d o -g i n s e n g .bN o t k n o w n ,b u t t h e i r o p t i m a l f o r m u l a a n d c a l c .e x a c t m a s s w e r e g i v e n b y t h e s o f t w a r e .HV voltage,3500V and a scan range of m /z 50–1500.The MS/MS analysis was acquired in targeted MS/MS mode with a fixed colli-sion energy of 20V.3.Results and discussions3.1.UPLC–Q-TOF/MS analysis of FDT extractsIn our study,43components of FDT were separated and detected using a UPLC–Q-TOF/MS system (Fig.1and Table 1).The chro-matograms showed that phenolic acids and saponins gave better signals in negative mode than in positive mode,while diterpenoid quinones showed better signals in positive mode.Peaks 1,2,3,7,9,10,13,18,19,24,28,33,38,39and 42were respectively attributed to danshensu,protocatechuic aldehyde,caffeic acid,notoginsenoside R1,ginsenoside Re,Rg1,salvianolic acid B,ginsenoside Rf,Rb1,F1,F2,dihydrotanshi-none I,tanshinone I,cryptotanshinone and tanshinone IIA,by comparison with the retention times and mass spectral data of the reference standards.Utilizing Agilent MassHunter Qual-itative Analysis software and searching the Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (SDBS)[7],or comparing with the literature data [8–16],22peaks were identified.They were notoginsenoside R3(peak 4),notoginsenoside R6(peak 5),sal-vianolic acid D (peak 6),salvianolic acid E (peak 8),rosmarinic acid (peak 11),salvianolic acid H (peak 12),salvianolic acid A (peak 15),salvianolic acid C (peak 16),ethyllithospermate (peak 17),ginsenoside Rc (peak 20),notoginsenoside R2(peak 21),ginsenoside Rg2(peak 22),ginsenoside Rd (peak 23),notogin-senoside K (peak 25),ginsenoside Rh1(peak 26),tanshinaldehyde (peak 30),isocryptotanshinone (peak 32),danshexinkun B (peak 35),methyltanshinonate (peak 36),isotanshinone II (peak 37),methylenetanshiquinone (peak 40)and miltirone (peak 43).The identification of peaks 14,27,29,31,34and 41is still in progress.3.2.UPLC–Q-TOF/MS analysis of plasma and urine samples3.2.1.Identification of prototype components in dosed rat plasma and urineBy comparing the chromatograms of dosed rat plasma with con-trol plasma in both negative and positive modes,22peaks were observed in dosed rat plasma that did not appear in control plasma.Among the 22peaks,14peaks (peaks 7,9,10,13,19,21,22,23,24,27,30,33,35and 38)were indicated as prototype components of FDT by comparison with the chromatograms of FDT extracts (Fig.2).In negative mode,eight target peaks at m /z 977.5324,991.5439(2peaks at different retention times),845.4891,1107.5986,815.4772,829.5002and 683.4354were identified as notogin-senoside R1,ginsenoside Re,Rd,Rg1,Rb1,notoginsenoside R2,ginsenoside Rg2,and F1,respectively,by comparison with the extracted ion chromatograms of target peaks in TIC chromatograms of FDT extracts.In addition,another component (m /z 717.1452)in dosed rat plasma exhibited the same fragmentation pattern as sal-vianolic acid B.In the positive mode,5peaks,at m /z 313.1486,311.1301,279.1043,281.1189and 277.0849,were respectively identified as an unknown diterpenoid quinone (peak 27),tanshi-naldehyde,dihydrotanshinone I,danshexinkun B and tanshinone I.Similarly,12peaks in dosed rat urine were identified as notoginsenoside R1,ginsenoside Re,Rg1,Rb1,Rg2,Rd,F1,F2,tanshinaldehyde,danshexinkun B,tanshinone I,and methylene-tanshiquinone.3.2.2.Identification of metabolites in dosed rat plasmaAs 14peaks in dosed rat plasma were identified as prototypes,the other 8of the 22peaks (M1–8)were tentatively predicted to be158Y.Lv et al./Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 52 (2010) 155–159T a b l e 2U P L C –Q -T O F /M S d a t a o f 8m e t a b o l i t e s o f F D T .P e a k n u m b e r r e f e r s t o F i g .2.N o .R T (m i n )M S (m /z )M S /M S F o r m u l aE x a c t m a s s (c a l c .)D i f f (p p m )M e t a b o l i t eN e g a t i v eP o s i t i v e N e g a t i v e P o s i t i v eM 13.02254.0659210.0719,195.0603,153.0458,109.0276C 11H 13N O 6254.0670−4.33G l y c i n e c o n j u g a t e o f d a n s h e n s u M 23.93329.0527175.0421,153.0317,109.0297C 13H 14O 10329.0514−3.91G l u c u r o n i c a c i d c o n j u g a t e o f p r o t o c a t e c h u i c a c i d M 34.64153.0189109.0303C 7H 6O 4153.01932.61P r o t o c a t e c h u i c a c i d M 410.62313.1455295.1347,277.1297C 19H 20O 4313.1440−4.9818-M e t h y l h y d r o x y c r y p t o t a n s h i n o n eM 511.49311.1291282.1203C 19H 18O 4311.1278−4.01–aM 616.98475.3801457.3761C 30H 52O 4475.3793−1.41P r o t o p a n a x a t r i o l M 717.45459.3857441.3803C 30H 52O 3459.3844−2.51P r o t o p a n a x a d i o l M 818.52295.1337280.1207,252.1158C 19H 18O 3295.1329−3.12M e t h y l a t e d c o n j u g a t e o f d a n s h e x i n k u n BaN o t k n o w n ,b u t t h e i r o p t i m a l f o r m u l a a n d c a l c .e x a c t m a s s w e r e g i v e n b y t h e s o f t w a r e .metabolites of FDT (Fig.2),all of which were tentatively identified,except M5(Table 2).The metabolite M1(m /z 254.0659,eluted at 3.02min in neg-ative mode)exhibited a series of product ions at m /z 210.0719,195.0603,153.0458and 109.0276in the MS/MS spectrum,which indicated that M1was a glycine conjugate,as the cleavage of –COOH,–CH 2–COOH and –CO–NH–CH 2–COOH moieties to lose 44,59and 101Da,respectively,is characteristic [17].Eventually,this metabolite was identified as the glycine conjugate of danshensu.M2,a peak at m /z 329.0527and eluted at 3.93min in nega-tive mode,showed product ions at m /z 175.0421,153.0317,and 109.0297in the MS/MS spectrum.Interestingly,another proto-nated ion (M3)at m /z 153.0189eluted at 4.64min in the negative MS spectrum and gave a product ion at m /z 109.0303as well.Both peaks showed the same product ion at m /z 109,which was identified as that of the protocatechuic aldehyde.M3was,there-fore,tentatively considered as protocatechuic acid,since the loss of 16Da could be assigned as a hydroxy substituent,while M2was considered as the glucuronic acid conjugate of protocatechuic acid,because 175Da is the product ion of glucuronide [17].M4(m /z 313.1455eluted at 10.62min in positive mode),show-ing product ions at m /z 295.1347and 277.1297in the MS/MS spectrum,was tentatively identified as 18-methyl hydroxycryp-totanshinone by comparison with the literature data [18].M5,a peak at m /z 311.1291,eluted at 11.49min in positive mode and was hypothesized to be an oxidative product of tanshinone IIA.The identification of M5is still in progress.M6(m /z 475.3801eluted at 16.98min)and M7(m /z 459.3857eluted at 17.45min)were detected in negative mode and identi-fied as protopanaxatriol and protopanaxadiol by comparison with reference standards.M8,a peak at m /z 295.1337which eluted at 18.52min in pos-itive mode,exhibited product ions at m /z 280.1207and 252.1158Fig.3.Structures of newly detected components and metabolites of FDT:(a)newly detected components of FDT in vitro and (b)newly detected components and metabolites of FDT in vivo .Y.Lv et al./Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis52 (2010) 155–159159in the MS/MS spectrum.It was tentatively assigned as the methy-lated conjugate of danshexinkun B by analyzing MS and MS/MS spectra.4.ConclusionIn vitro,43components of FDT were detected within a25-min UPLC–Q-TOF/MS experiment.In all,9compounds,including ginsenoside Rc,tanshinaldehyde,isocryptotanshinone,methyl-tanshinonate,isotanshinone II,and four unknown diterpenoid quinones(peaks29,31,34and41),were newly separated and detected(Fig.3a).In vivo,14components and8metabolites of FDT were observed in plasma,while12components of FDT were found in urine.Of these,tanshinaldehyde,danshexinkun B,a glycine conjugate of danshensu(M1)and a methylated conjugate of dan-shexinkun B(M8)were newly detected in rat biologicalfluids (Fig.3b).Although M5and6components of FDT were not identified, it was demonstrated that the high-speed and sensitive UPLC–Q-TOF/MS analytical system was a useful tool to investigate active ingredients and metabolites of TCM.AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by Changjiang Scholars and Innova-tive Research Team in University(PCSIRT),“973”program of China (2007CB507400)and in part by the Scientific Foundation of Shang-hai,China(05DZ19733,06DZ19717,06DZ19005).References[1]Editorial 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