Verbs and Adverbs - Understanding Grammar 2012
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案
WORD格式胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题第一章：语言学导论I.Choose the best answer. (20%)nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “ Waterboils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people presentare likely to say “碎碎（岁岁）平安” as means of controlling the forces whichthey believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcomethe barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers ofa language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to thefunctions of language?— A nice day, isn ’ t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user knowledge’of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.It couldn ’ t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. Psycholinguistics C. SociolinguisticsB. Anthropological linguistics D. Applied linguistics10.__________ deals with language application to other fields,particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.nguage change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13.Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communicationsystems.nguage is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15.We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the detailsof any language system can be genetically transmitted.16.Only human beings are able to communicate.17. . De Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20.All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III.Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usuallytermed __________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. Thisfunction is __________.24.Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performingheavy work has been called the __________ theory.25.Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26.Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries todiscover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________over writing.28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure ’ s langue and Chomsky ’ s ________ IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Design feature32.Displacementpetence34.Synchronic linguisticsV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of humanlanguage? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?（南开大学， 2004 ）36. Why is it difficult to define language?（北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific?（青岛海洋大学，1999）第二章：语音I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the centerare known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________. A.minimal pairs B. allomorphs C. phones D. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds? A.Acoustic phonetics B. Articulatory phonetics C. Auditory phonetics D.None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11.Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12.The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of aspeech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and donot contrast, namely,the substitution of one for the other does not produce adifferent word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16.All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17.When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18.According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax orlong vs. short.19.Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20.The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where toplace a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowelsounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing__________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without__________.26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simplybecause of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating__________.27.In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by movingfrom one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influenceof their neighbors.29.__________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Sound assimilation32.Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34.Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开 04）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学， 1999 ）(1)voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2)low front vowel(3)lateral liquid(4)velar nasal(5)voiced interdental fricative第三章：词汇I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. functionwords D. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectional C. boundB. freeD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4.In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and__________. A. derivational affix B. inflectional affix C. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7.The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________. A.blending B. clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10.All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12.Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectionalaffixes are removed.14.In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23.Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26.__________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a processof shortening.27.__________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28.Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a__________.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学， 2003 ）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II（武汉大学， 2004 ）I II(1)acronym a. foe(2)free morpheme b. subconscious(3)derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4)inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5)prefix e. calculation第四章：句法I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5.A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “ the city RomeA. the cityB. RomeC.city ” is __________.D. the city Rome9.The phrase “ on the shelflongs”tobe__________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10.The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves. is a __________sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexWORD格式II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is nolimit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able toproduce and comprehend.13.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.14.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognizedand discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.18.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a completelist of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22.A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a numberof words to form a complete statement, question or command.23.A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25.A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other.26.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an __________clause.27.Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new wordsare constantly added.28.__________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29.__________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operatein one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between andWORD格式among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appearonly in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?（武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “ more beautiful flowers ”by means IC analysis. （北京二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of thesentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.第五章：意义I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps. ” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3.Which of the following is NOT true?A.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B.Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C.Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D.Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4.“Can I borrow your bike?A. is synonymous with C.entails ” _______ “ You have a bike. ”B. is inconsistent withD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive”and “ dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semanticrules D. semantic featuresII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the varietyitself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element andthe non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with theinherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references indifferent situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic andinherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as thesituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of allits components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but rankeddifferently according to their degree of formality.19.“It is hot. ”-placeisnopredication because it contains no argument.20.In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between alinguistic form and what it refers to.23.__________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called__________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27.__________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called__________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.30.According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language aretaken to be labels of the objects they stand for.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32.Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots（青岛海洋大学，1999 ）36.What are the three kinds of antonymy?（武汉大学， 2004 ）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a)words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）第七章：语言、文化和社会[注：第六章无测试题]I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1._______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD.morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variation C. Social variationB. Language variation D. Register variation4._______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one ’ s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interference C. Language planningB. Language changes D. Language transfer6._________ in a person ’ s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7.A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8.Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9.In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10.A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited bythe “ polite ” society generalfrom use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. 13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term“speechotbevarietyused to”can n refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammarand uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choiceof linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17.A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country forcommunication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18.A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language inits lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionallysyntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or group of speakers.23.From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a__________ variety of a language.nguage standardization is also called language __________.25.Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible intosmaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational,occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person ’ s speech or writing usuallyon range continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the typeof communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or。
新编简明英语语言学教程期末复习资料
End-of-term Quiz and ReviewChapter I1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.2. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.3. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.4. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and stable; it is not the language people actually use.7. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.9. Performance refers to the actual realization of ideal user’s knowledge in linguistic communication.10. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11. Arbitrariness, as one of the features of language, means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.12. Productivity, as one of the features of language, means that language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13. Duality, as one of the features of language, means that language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.14. Displacement, as one of the features of language, means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.15. Cultural transmission, as one of the features of language, means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.16. Emotive (情绪性) is a language function used by the addresser to expresseshis/her attitudeto the topic or situation of communication, e.g. "I hate whatever they are planning for me! "17. Conative (意动性) is a language function used by the addresser to influence the addressee'scourse of action or ways of thinking, e.g. "Why not go and see another doctor?"18. Referential (指称性功能) is a language function used by the addresser to convey a messageor information, e.g. " As far as I know, the earth's resources are being astonishingly wasted. "19. Poetic (文学性) is a language function used by the addresser to use language for the solepurpose of displaying the beauty of language itself, e.g. poetry.20. Phatic (交际性) communion is a language function used by the addresser to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee, e.g. "Hi! How are you this morning?"21. Metalinguistic (元语言的) is a language function used by the addresser to use language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. "Let me tell you what the word 'anorexia means. "Chapter II22. The three branches of phonetics include articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.23. The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity - the throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, and the nasal cavity - the nose.24. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号).26. pit is transcribed as [ph1t] and the [p] sound is said to be aspirated.27. spit is transcribed as [spit] and the [p] sound is unaspirated.28. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they can be classified, etc.29. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.30. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.31. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.32. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme.33. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].34. Allophones complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear always occurs before a vowel while the dark always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.35. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. For example, in English, pill and billare identical except in /p/ and /b/. So these two sounds represent different phonemes, and they are the minimal pairs.36. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.37. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, and green.38. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. This is called deletion rule.39. Stress, tone and intonation are the suprasegmental features that occur above the level of the segments.40. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the content words of a language.41. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.42. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functional" words.43. The number of conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.44. The most important component of a word structure is the morpheme – the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.45. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme.46. A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.47. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. An example is a used before a word beginning with a consonant and an before a word beginning with a vowel.48. Affixes are bound morphemes and they do not belong to a lexical category such as nouns or verbs.49. Derivational morphemes are so called because when they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, new words are derived, or formed.50. Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.51. The XP rule: XP--(specifier) X (complement)52. In the example, “a story about a sentimental girl”, the PP is a complement.53. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.54. Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (shortened as Cs).55. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.56. The construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.57. “XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement) (Mod)” is the expanded XP rule.58. The S rule is made of NP+VP59. Sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an inflection (dubbed "Infl") as their heads.60. Inflection indicates the sentence's tense and agreement.61. Infl is a sentence head that takes an NP (the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as itscomplement.62. A yes-no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an elementfrom one position to another.63. A transformation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position toa position to the left of the subject.64. The position the auxiliary occupies is the same as the position that a complementizer occupies.65. Do insertion is to insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position66. Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.67. Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence, surface structure results from appropriate transformations.68. In Wh Movement, we move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.69. According to naming theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.70. The limitations of naming theory are applicable to nouns only and there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.71. The conceptualist view holds the interpretation of meaning is linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.72. The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.73. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.74. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.75. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.76. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.77. The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.78. Homonymy (同音（形）异义性) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.79. Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.80. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.81. Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.82. A predication consists of argument and predicate.83. Pragmatics is defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.84. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.85. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized86. The meaning of a/an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.87. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.88. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.89. representatives means stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.90. directives means to trying to get the hearer to do something.91. Commissives means committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.92. Expressives means expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.93. Declarations means bringing about immediate changes by saying something.94. The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication.95. The secondary speech act is the means by which the speaker achieves his/her goal.96. According to the maxim of quantity, speakers should not make his/her contribution more informative than is required.97. The maxim of quality requires that speakers do not say what they believe to be false.98. Be relevant is the maxim of relation.99. According to the maxim of manner, speakers should avoid ambiguity and be brief. 100. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.。
Word Clustering for Collocation-Based Word Sense Disambiguation
A. Gelbukh (Ed.): CICLing 2007, LNCS 4394, pp. 267 – 274, 2007.© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007Word Clustering for Collocation-BasedWord Sense Disambiguation*Peng Jin, Xu Sun, Yunfang Wu, and Shiwen YuDepartment of Computer Science and TechnologyInstitute of Computational Linguistics, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China {jandp, sunxu, wuyf, yusw}@Abstract. The main disadvantage of collocation-based word sense disambigua-tion is that the recall is low, with relatively high precision. How to improve therecall without decrease the precision? In this paper, we investigate a word-classapproach to extend the collocation list which is constructed from the manuallysense-tagged corpus. But the word classes are obtained from a larger scale cor-pus which is not sense tagged. The experiment results have shown that the F-measure is improved to 71% compared to 54% of the baseline system where theword-class is not considered, although the precision decreases slightly. Furtherstudy discovers the relationship between the F-measure and the number ofword-class trained from the various sizes of corpus.1 IntroductionWord sense disambiguation (WSD) aims to identify the intended sense of a polyse-mous word given a context. A typical case is the Chinese word “讲” when occurring in “讲真话” (“tell the truth”) and “讲实效” (“pay attention to the actual effect”). Correctly sense-tagging the word in context can prove to be beneficial for many NLP applications such as Information Retrieval [6], [14], and Machine Translation [3], [7].Collocation is a combination of words that has certain tendency to be used to-gether [5] and it is used widely to attack the WSD task. Many researchers used the collocation as an important feature in the supervised learning algorithms: Naïve Bayes[7], [13], Support Vector Machines [8], and Maximum Entropy [2]. And the other researches [15], [16] directly used the collocation to form decision list to deal with the WSD problem.Word classes are often used to alleviate the data sparseness in NLP. Brown [1] performed automatic word clustering to improve the language model. Li [9] con-ducted syntactic disambiguation by using the acquired word-class. Och [12] provided an efficient method for determining bilingual word classes to improve statistical MT. This paper integrates the contribution of word-class to collocation-based WSD. When the word-based collocation which is obtained from sense tagged corpus fails, * Support by National Grant Fundamental Research 973 Program of China Under Grant No. 2004CB318102.268 P. Jin et al.class-based collocation is used to perform the WSD task. The results of experiment have shown that the average F-measure is improved to 70.81% compared to 54.02% of the baseline system where the word classes are not considered, although the preci-sion decreases slightly. Additionally, the relationship between the F-measure and the number of word-class trained from the various sizes of corpus is also investigated.The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 summarizes the related work. Section 3 describes how to extend the collocation list. Section 4 presents our experiments as well as the results. Section 5 analyzes the results of the experiments. Finally section 6 draws the conclusions and summarizes further work.2 Related WorkThe underlying idea is that one sense per collocation which has been verified by Yarowsky [15] on a coarse-grained WSD task. But the problem of data spars will be more serious on the fine-grained WSD task. We attempt to resolve the data sparseness with the help of word-class. Both of them are described as follows.2.1 The Yarowsky AlgorithmYarowsky [15] used the collocation to form a decision list to perform the WSD task. In his experiments, the content words (i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) holding some relationships to the target word were treated as collocation words. The relationships include direct adjacency to left or right and first to the left or right in a sentence. He also considered certain syntactic relationships such as verb/object, sub-ject/verb. Since similar corpus is not available in Chinese, we just apply the four co-occurrence words described above as collocation words. Different types of evidences are sorted by the equation 1 to form the final decision list.)|Pr()|Pr(((21i i n Collocatio Sense n Collocatio Sense Log Abs (1)To deal with the same collocation indicates more than two senses, we adapt to the equation 1. For example, “上 (shang4)” has fifteen different senses as an verb. If the same collocation corresponds to different senses of 上, we use the frequency counts of the most commonly-used sense as the nominator in equation 1, and the frequency counts of the rest senses as the denominator. The different types of evidence are sorted by the value of equation 1. When a new instance is encountered, one steps through the decision list until the evidence at that point in the list matches the cur-rent context under consideration. The sense with the greatest listed probability is returned.The low recall is the main disadvantage of Yarowsky’s algorithm to the fine-grained sense disambiguation. Because of the data sparseness, the collocation word in the novel context has little chance to match exactly with the items in the decision list. To resolve this problem, the word clustering is introduced.Word Clustering for Collocation-Based Word Sense Disambiguation 2692.2 Word ClusteringIn this paper, we use an efficient method for word clustering which Och [12] intro-duced for machine translation. The task of a statistical language model is used to estimate the probability ()N w P 1 of the word sequence N N w w w ...11=. A simple ap-proximation of ()N w P 1 is to model it as a product of bi-gram probabilities:()()∏=−=N i i i N w w p w P 111|. Using the word class rather than the single word, we avoid the use of the most of the rarely seen bi-grams to estimate the probabilities. Rewriting the probability using word classes, we obtain the probability model as follow:()()()()()()i i N i i i Nw C w P w C w C P C w P ||:|111•=∏=− (2)Where the function C maps words to w their classes ()w C . In this model, we have two types of probabilities: the transition probability ()'|C C P for class C given its predecessor class 'C , and the membership probability ()C w P | for word w given classC . To determine the optimal word classes Cˆ for a given number of classes, we per-form a maximum-likelihood estimation:()C w P C N C |max arg ˆ1= (3)To the implementation, an efficient optimization algorithm is the exchange algo-rithm [13].It is necessary to set the number of word classes before the iteration.Two word classes are selected for illustration. First is “花生 (peanut), 大豆 (bean), 棉花 (cotton), 水稻 (rice), 早稻 (early rice), 芒果 (mango), 红枣 (jujube), 柑桔 (or-ange), 银杏 (ginkgo)”. To the target verb “吃” (which have five senses), these nouns can be its objects and indicate the same sense of “吃”. Another word class is “ 灌溉 (irrigate), 育秧 (raise rice seedlings), 施肥 (apply fertilizer), 播种 (sow), 移植 (trans-plant), 栽培 (cultivate), 备耕 (make preparations for plowing and sowing)”. Most of them indicate the sense “plant” of the target noun “小麦 (wheat)” which has two senses categories: “plant” and “seed”. For example, there is a collocation pair “灌溉小麦” in the collocation list which is obtained from the sense tagged corpus, an un-familiar collocation pair “备耕小麦” will be tagged with the intended sense of “小麦” because “灌溉” and “备耕” are clustered in the same word-class.3 Extending the Collocation ListThe algorithm of extending the collocation list which is constructed from the sense tagged corpus is quite straightforward. Given a new collocation pair exists in the novel context consists of the target word, the collocation word and the collocation type. If this specific collocation pair is found in the collocation list, we return the sense at the point in this decision list. While the match fails, we replace this collocation word with one of the words which are clustered in the same word-class to match again. The270 P. Jin et al.process is finished when any match success or all words in the word-class are tried. If all words in this word-class fail to match, we let this target word untagged.For example, “讲政治”(pay attention to the politics), “讲故事”(tell a story) are ordered in the collocation list. But to a new instance “讲笑话”(tell a joke), apparently we can not match the Chinese word “笑话” with any of the collocation word. Search-ing from the top of the collocation list, we check that “笑话” and “故事” are clustered in the same word-class. So the sense “tell” is returned and the process is ended.4 ExperimentWe have designed a set of experiments to compare the Yarowsky algorithm with and without the contribution of word classes. Yarowsky algorithm introduced in section 2.1 is used as our baseline. Both close test and open test are conducted.4.1 Data SetWe have selected 52 polysemous verbs randomly with the four senses on average. Senses of words are defined with the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary, the Gram-matical Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese and other hard-copy dictionaries. For each word sense, a lexical entry includes definition in Chinese, POS, Pinyin, semantic feature, subcategory framework, valence, semantic feature of subject, se-mantic feature of object, English equivalent and an example sentence.A corpus containing People’s Daily News (PDN) of the first three months of year 2000 (i.e., January, February and March) is used as our training/test set. The corpus is segmented (3,719,951 words) and POS tagged automatically before hand, and then is sense-tagged manually. To keep the consistency, a text is first tagged by one annota-tor and then checked by other two checkers. Five annotators are all native Chinese speakers. What’s more, a software tool is developed to gather all the occurrences of a target word in the corpus into a checking file with the sense KWIC (Key Word in Context) format in sense tags order. Although the agreement rate between human annotators on verb sense annotation is only 81.3%, the checking process with the help of this tool improves significantly the consistency.We also conduct an open test. The test corpus consists of the news of the first ten days of January 1998. The news corresponding to the first three months of 2000 are used as training set to construct the collocation list. The corpus which is used to word cluster amounts to seven months PDN.4.2 Experimental SetupFive-fold cross-validation method is used to evaluate these performances. We divide the sense-tagged three months corpus into five equal parts. In each process, the sense labels in one part are removed in order to be used as test corpus. And then, the collo-cation list is constructed from the other four parts of corpus. We first use this list to tag test corpus according to the Yarwosky algorithm and set its result as the baseline. After that the word-class is considered and the test corpus is tagged again according to the algorithm described in section 3.Word Clustering for Collocation-Based Word Sense Disambiguation 271 To draw the learning curve, we vary the number of word-class and the sizes of corpus which used to cluster the words. In open test, the collocation list is constructed from the news corresponding to the first three months of year 2000.4.3 Experiment ResultsTable 1 shows the results of close test. It is achieved by 5-fold Cross-Validation with 200 word-clusters trained from the seven months corpus. “Tagged tokens” is referred to the occurrences of the polysemous words which are disambiguated automatically. “All tokens” means the occurrences of the all polysemous words in one test corpus.We can see the performance of each process is stable. It demonstrates that the word class is very useful to alleviate the data sparse problem.Table 1. Results with 200 Word Classes Trained from 7 Month CorpusTagged TokensAllTokensPrecision Recall F-measureT1 2,346 4237 0.9301 0.5537 0.6942T2 2,969 4,676 0.9343 0.5766 0.7131T3 2,362 4,133 0.9306 0.5715 0.7081T4 2,773 4,721 0.9318 0.5874 0.7206T5 2,871 4,992 0.9154 0.5751 0.7046Ave. 2,664 4,552 0.9284 0.5729 0.7081 Table 2 shows the power of word-class. B1 and B2 denote individually the baseline in close and open test. S1 and S2 show the performance with the help of word-classes in these tests. Although the precision decreases slightly, the F-measures are improved significantly. Because in open test, the size of corpus used to training is bigger while the size of corpus used to test is less compared with the corpus in open test, the F-measure is even a bit higher than in close test.Table 2. Results of Close and Open TestTagged TokensAllTokensPrecision Recall F-measureB1 1,691 4,552 0.9793 0.3708 0.5401S1 2,664 4,552 0.9284 0.5729 0.7081B2 874 2,325 0.9908 0.3559 0.5450S2 1,380 2,325 0.9268 0.5935 0.7237 5 Discussion of ResultsFig 1 presents the relationship between the F-measure and the number of word-class trained from the various sizes of corpus. The reasons for errors are also explained.272 P. Jin et al.5.1 Relationship Between F-Measure with Word-Class and CorpusWhen we fix the size of the corpus which is used to cluster the word-class, we can see that the F-measure is verse proportional to the number of the word classes. However in our experiments, the precision is proportional to the number of the word classes (this can not be presented in this figure). The reason is straightforward that with the augment of the word classes, there are fewer words in every word-class. So the collo-cation which comes from test corpus has less chance of finding the word in the decision list belonging to the same word-class.Fig. 1. F-measure at different number of word-class trained from the various sizes of corpus When we fix the number of word classes, we can see that the F-measure increases with the size of the training corpus. This demonstrates that more data improve the system performance. But the increase rate is less and less. It shows there is a ceiling effect. That is to say, the effect on the performance will be less although more cor-puses are trained for clustering the words.5.2 Error AnalysisUnrelated words are clustered is the main cause of precision decreases. For example, there are two words “牛” (cattle) and “鞭炮” (cracker) are clustered in the same word-class. To the target word “放”, “放牛” means “graze cattle” and “放鞭炮” means “fire crackers”. To resolve this problem, we should pay much attention to improve the clustering results.Word Clustering for Collocation-Based Word Sense Disambiguation 273However, the reasonable word-classes also cause errors. Another example is “包饺子” (wrap dumpling) and “包午餐” (offer free lunch) . The word “饺子” (dumpling) and the word “午餐”(lunch) are clustered reasonable because both of them are nouns and related concepts. However, to the target polysemous word “包” , the sense is completely different: the former means “wrap” and the sense of the later is “offer free”. It also explains why the WSD system benefits little from the ontology such as HowNet [4].Although the collocation list obtained from the sense tagged corpus is extended by word classes, the F-measure is still not satisfied. There are still many unfamiliar collocations can not be matched because of the data sparseness.6 Conclusion and the Future WorkWe have demonstrated the word-class is very useful to improve the performance of the collocation-base method. The result shows that the F-measure is improved to 70.81% compared to 54.02% of the baseline system where the word clusters are not considered, although the precision decreases slightly. To open test, the performance is also improved from 54.50% to 72.37%.This method will be used to help us to accelerate the construction sense tagged corpus. Another utility of word class is used as a feature in the supervised machine learning algorithms in our future research.We can see that some words are highly sensitive to collocation while others are not. To the later, the performance is poor whether the word-class is used or not. We will further study which words and why they are sensitive to collocation from the perspectives of both linguistics and WSD.References1.Brown, P. F., Pietra, V. J., deSouza, P. V., Lai, J. C. and Mercer, R. L. Class-based N-gram Models of Natural Language. Computational Linguistics. 4 (1992) 467-4792.Chao, G., Dyer, G.M. Maximum Entropy Models for Word Sense Disambiguation. Pro-ceedings of the 19th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan (2002) 155–1613.Dagan, D., Itai, A. Word Sense Disambiguation Using a Second Language MonolingualCorpus. Computational Linguistics. 4 (1994) 563–5964.Dang, H. T., Chia, C., Palmer, M., Chiou, F. D., Rosenzweig J. Simple Features for Chi-nese Word Sense Disambiguation. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. Taipei, Taiwan (2002) 204–2115.Gelbukh, A., G. Sidorov, S.-Y. Han, E. Hernández-Rubio. Automatic Enrichment of aVery Large Dictionary of Word Combinations on the Basis of Dependency Formalism.Proceedings of Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, N 2972, Springer-Verlag, (2004) 430-4376.Kim, S.B., Seo, H.C., Rim, H.C. Information Retrieval Using Word Senses: Root SenseTagging Approach, SIGIR’04, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, UK (2004) 258–265274 P. Jin et al.7.Lee, H.A., Kim, G.C. Translation Selection through Source Word Sense Disambiguationand Target Word Selection. Proceedings of the 19th International. Conference on Compu-tational Linguistics, Taipei, Taiwan (2002)8.Lee, Y. K., Ng, H. T. and Chia, T. K. Supervised Word Sense Disambiguation with Sup-port Vector Machines and Multiple Knowledge Sources. Proceedings of SENSEVAL-3: Third International Workshop on the Evaluating Systems for the Semantic Analysis of Text, Barcelona, Spain. (2004)9.Li, H. Word Clustering and Disambiguation Based on Co-occurrence Data. Natural Lan-guage Engineering. 8 (2002) 25-4210.Li W.Y., Lu Q., Li W.J. Integrating Collocation Features in Chinese Word Sense Disam-biguation. Proceeding of the Fourth SIGHAN Workshop on Chinese Language Processing (2005) 87–9411.Martin, S., Liermann, J. and Ney, K. Algorithms for Bigram and Trigram Word Clustering.Speech Communication. 1 (1998) 19-3712.Och, F. J. An Efficient Method for Determining Bilingual Word Classes. Proceeding of theNinth Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguis-tics. (1999) 71-7613.Pedersen, T. A Simple Approach to Building Ensembles of Naive Bayesian Classifiers forWord Sense Disambiguation. Proceeding of the first Annul Meeting of the North Ameri-can Chapter for Computational Linguistics (2000) 63–6914.Stokoe, C., Oakes, M.P., Tait, J. Word Sense Disambiguation in Information Retrieval Re-visited. Proceeding of the 26th annul International ACM SIGIR conference On research and development in Information retrieval (2003)15.Yarowsky, D. One Sense Per Collocation, Proceeding of ARPA Human Language Tech-nology workshop.Princeton, New Jersey (1993)16.Yarowsky, D. Hierarchical Decision Lists for Word Sense Disambiguation, Computers andthe Humanities. 1 (2000) 179–186。
语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design featureswhich can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.5. Main branches of linguistics✧Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acousticphonetics, and auditory phonetics.✧Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables.✧Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.✧Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply,the study of the formation of sentences.✧Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of wordsas lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it.✧Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicaterather than with the way language is structured.6.Important distinctions in linguistics1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, orcompletely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Vowel:are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. [p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant[f v]labiodental fricative[ ]dental fricative[t d]alveolar stop[k g]velar stop[w]velar approximant8. Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.9.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.10. Assimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.11. Classification of wordsa)Variable and invariable words E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer tothose words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc.b)grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles andpronouns. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.c)Closed-class words and open-class words pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.d)4.Word class particles助词auxiliaries助动词pro-form代词形式determiners限定词13.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme is a branch of morphology.Types of morphemesa)Free morpheme and bound morpheme Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitutewords by themselves, are free morphemes.eg.dog,nation,free.Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes. Eg.dogs,national,disclose.b)Root, affix and stem A root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed.eg.internationalism,the root is nation. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.friend in friendsc)Inflectional affix and derivational affix The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivationalaffixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. pounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes.un＋conscious→unconscious15. Lexical change propera)Invention Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexicalitems come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.eg.coke,kodak,nylonb)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.eg.smoke+fog→smog,breakfast+lunch→bru nchc)Abbreviation / clipping A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cuttingboth the initial parts of the original words.eg.bicyle→bike,aeroplane→plane,influenza→flud)Acronym Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavilymodified headword.WTO world trade organizatione)Back-formation Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word isderived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language. editor→edit gangling→ganglef)Analogical creation The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.work→wrought→workedg)Borrowing English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words fromother languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.feast was borrowed directly from the middle french festa16.constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit,which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.17.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents. Eg.the boy smiled.(neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole)18.Meanings of “meaning”Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning.Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1)Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2)Associative meaning a.Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. b.Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. c.Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer.d.Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.19.The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impressio n of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.20..The referential theoryThe referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.The semantic triangle theory Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the followin g diagram, in which the “symbol” refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made pos sible only through “concept.”21. Sense relations sense: the semantic relations between one world and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.(1)Synonymy:is the technical name for the sameness relation.eg.buy and purchase Antonymy:is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.Gradable antonymy e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, plementary antonymy , e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.Converse antonymy e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.Hyponymy.It is a matter of class membership. e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.ponential analysis Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g Boy: [+human][-adult][+male] Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x) Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y))) Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y (2) X is inconsistent with Y(3) X entails Y (4)X presupposes Y (5) X is a contradiction (6)X is semantically anomalous23. What is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentence24.The theory of conversational implicature austin’sa)The cooperative principle (CP)refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims duringthe conversation. There are four conversational maxims:b)Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation iscalled conversational implicature.1. How do you understand the design features of human language?1) Arbitrariness,According to Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. For instance,we cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/. 2) Duality.It refers to the property of having two levels of structures: units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 3）Creativity.by creativity we mean language is resouceful owing to its duality and its recursiveness. Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.For example,“ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” 4) nguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Displacement enables people to handle generalizations and abstractions.For example,a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.2. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the Articulatory phonetics —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.3. Cite examples from English and Chinese to discuss the concept of the syllable.English: a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Chinese: word or part of word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.In English we can divide a syllable into two parts: the phyme and the onset. As the vowel within the thyme is the nucleus, the consonant after it will be termed the coda, for example clasp .All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable, for example: bar, tie. While a syllable with coda is known as closed syllable, forexample: hard, tied, dead.English syllable can be represented as (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) , However ,the Chinese syllable allows at most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals in the coda for the Putonghua .Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C)e.g. “split”, “sixths” and “prompts”. “您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”4. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenSince morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit.A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme,such as I,but usually not,as in pig,in which the morpheme is the whole word,i.e. an independent,free morpheme,but the phonemes are/p/,/i/,and/g/.5. Use examples to illustrate the concept of “recursiveness”.Recursiveness is an umbrella term, under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. All these are means to extend sentences. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of embedded clauses in a sentence, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. This is what we call recursiveness, for example, (1) I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped withelectrical appliances that were new. Recursiveness, together with openness, is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language. Coordination and conjoining are different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this “[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a car and a dog] got into the car”. Subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element (here a relative clause). Other examples of this type include:(2) I saw the man who had visited you last year. (relative clause)(3) I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book. (complement clause)(4) If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes. (adverbial clause) Hypotaxis and parataxis are two traditional terms for the description of syntacticrelations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, whilethe latter is paratactic:(5) We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.(6) He dictated the letter. She wrote it.6.The sentence "John saw the police with binoculars" has two semantic interpretations. You are required to explain why the sentence is two way ambiguous. Syntactic tree diagrams are necessary for your explanation.SS N VPN VP V NPVP DET NPV NP PP N PPDET N P N P NJohn saw the police with binoculars John saw the police with binoculars 7. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative thanIn addition to revealing a linear order,a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent,and consequently is believed to most truth fully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.For example,the phrase“the old men and women”may have two interpretations,i.e.the adjective“old”may modify the noun“men”,or the following two nouns“men and women”.Linear order analysis cannot tell this difference,so it is ambiguous.Whereas,the constituent or tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.So,we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis.NP NPNP NP NP NPThe old men and the women the old men and the old women8 why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know thesigns it is used together with and those it issubstitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.9.“任何语言里的任何一句话，它的意义绝不等于一个个字的总和，而是还多些semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence(without taking context into consideration).pragmatics is the study of the intended meaning of a speaker(taking context into consideration).For example,“Today is Sunday”,semantically,it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker,say,making a suggestion or giving an invitation.10. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples(1)quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. eg.War is war.> War is cruel----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. eg. A: Where is Tom?B: He has gone to the library. He said so when he left.> I am not sure and I do not believe what he said.(2)quality----Do not say what you believe to be false. eg.He is made of iron ----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. eg. A:would you like to come to our party tonight?B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.(3)relation----Be relevant. eg. A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year. > I don’t want to talk about Prof. Wang. (4)manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.Eg.A:Let’s get the kids something.B:Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate ----Avoid ambiguity. eg. A: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.----Be brief. eg.A:Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.----Be orderly.11. In recent years, people, e.g. 上网，海选.If we compare newspaper articles published recently with those published five years ago, we will catch a big difference in their lexical choice—there are so many new words and expressions in these new articles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict that today's readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what future newspapers will carry.Over the past decades, Chinese people have enjoyed a much more colorful life,materially and spiritually. The rapid development in science, technology, economics,culture, and education has brought in our daily communication thousands andthousands of new words. Words such as 短信、鼠标、上网、博客、动漫、网游、按揭、干细胞、海选(in an election or contest)、海面(in a job interview), which used to sound so professional, have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequently in our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question: Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easy job to tell a complete story of these words. If you look at the question from a sociolinguistic point of view,you may claim that language changes with society. Words are the most active, sensible, and changeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, we may conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our language will become richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come.。
2023年自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。
文体学
Shakespearean sonnet: A sonnet is a form if lyric poetry with 14 lines and a specific rhyme scheme. The Shakespearean sonnet (also called the English sonnet) has three four-line stanzas (quatrains) in iambic pentameter and a heroic couplet. Each of the four-line stanzas rhymes every other line, and the sonnet ends with a heroic couplet. The rhyming pattern in a Shakespeare`s sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg.Oxymoron is the yoking of two expression which are incompatible/a theatrical figure in which an epigrammatic effect is created by the conjunction of incongruous or contradictory terms.矛盾修饰Iambic pentameter is a rhythmic pattern of English verse. A line of iambic pentameter consists of five verse feet (i.e. ten syllables), with the unstressed syllable prior to the stressed syllable in each foot.五步抑扬格Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions. Usually an extended metaphor has one basic comparison as its core, from which other relevant figurative expressions derive.扩展性隐喻Heroic couplet is a verse unit consisting of two rhymed lines in iambic pentameter.英雄双韵体Paradox is a type of statement that seems to be absurd, self-contradictory or self-evidently false at the first sight, but is or may be true if considered in a different way.似是而非的隽语Couplet: A couplet is a two- line unit that is always indented; both lines rhyme at the end.Onomatopoeia refers to both the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved, and recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds.拟声，像声Onomatopoeia: There are two interpretation of Onomatopoeia. Firstly, Onomatopoeia refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved. Secondly, Onomatopoeia refers to the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Spenserian stanza is an English poetic stanza of nine iambic lines, the first eight being pentameter while the ninth is a longer line known either as an iambic hexameter or as an alexandrine. The rhyme scheme of the stanza is abab bcbc c.斯宾塞的诗节Open-class items: In English, there are two major classes of words: open-class items and close-system items. The open-class items include nouns, verbs (not including auxiliary verbs), adjectives and adverbs. The class is open in the sense that new items a re constantly being created.开放类词Close-system item include the other six classes of words such as pronouns, articles, prepositions. The system is closed in the sense that creation of new item is hardly possible. 闭合词类Grammetrics means the ways in which grammatical units (usually sentences) are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzas.语法单位嵌入诗歌单位Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the a substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for the part.提喻Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new words. In coining new words, the literary writer is not so much breaking rules of word-formation as extending the rules such as affixation, compounding, conversion and etc. those new words are usually made up for use on only one particular occasion.词汇变异Graphological deviation is a distinctiveness of a literary text (i.e. its departure from the communicatively normal characteristics) in terms of the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.语项变异Polysemy is the state of being a polyseme; i.e. a word or phrase with multiple meanings, but all the meanings come from the same etymology.一词多项Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables.押头韵Aphesis——the omission of an initial part of a word.（词首短元音省略）Syncope——the omission of a medial part of a word（词中音省略）Apocope——the omission of a final part of a word(词尾音省略) Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental.（夸张）Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it. (低调陈述)Stylistics is an area of which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.Two assumptions: literature is made of language; literature is a type of communicative discourse.Graphology is the encoding of meaning in visual symbolsSyntactic deviation refers to departures from normal(surface)grammar. These include a number of features such as unusual clause themes, unusual phrase structures.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new wordsAffixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.Compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Conversion,“zero affixation”, the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.Paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and therefore has often been confused with synecdoche. the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.Irony is misrepresenting the truth by saying the opposite of what one feels to be the case.正话反说，反话正说Rhyme is identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further. Masculine rhymes; feminine rhymes; an alternation of masculine and polysyllabic rhymes; end rhymes. Internal rhyme (occurs within a verse line); half-rhyme formed by the vowel or the final consonant cluster.Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables.半韵Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables.和声Foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern.·Surface-structure deviation:1.Phonological deviation:Omission（aphesis; syncope; apocope）; Mispronunciation and sub-pronunciation; Special pronunciation; Change of stress2.Graphological deviation: Shape of text; Type of print(italics,bold print,capitalization, ecapitalization); Grammetrics; Punctuation; Indentation.3.Syntctic deviation: Unusual clause theme; Deviation phrase structure4.Lexical deviation: Affixation; Compounding; Conversion ·Deep-surface deviation:1.Contradiction: Oxymoron; Paradox2.Transference: Synecdoche; Metonymy; Metaphor (three elements: tenor, vehicle, ground)3.Deception: Overstatement; Understatement (litotes, meiosis); Irony (types: verbal irony, dramatic, Socratic)4.Ambiguity ·Phonological overregularity:1.Phonemic patterning: Alliteration; rhyme(masculine rhymes, feminine rhyme, an alternation of masculine, polysyllabic rhymes, end rhymes)assonance; consonance; onomatopoeia2.Rhythmic patterning: Stress(open-class items, close-system items); Metre(tambic抑扬, trochee扬抑, anapaest抑抑扬, dactyl扬抑抑, spondee扬扬); Metrical variation·Syntactic overregularity: Repetition: immediate; intermittent Parallelism: large-scale; small-scaleDefinition of stylistics：Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.①Wales—the study of style ②Widdowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. ③Leech —the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Three revolutions in social sciences:①the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)②the one in literary criticism which has had a profound and radical influence on stylistics; I.A. Richards, Pratical Criticism(1929)③the third①to show why and how the text means what it does; ②the second is that★Short: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. ★Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (Relations: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)Stylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another.Style The question of what is style is still one of heated dispute. Aristotle defined style as form; Cicero defined style as eloquence; Buffon defined style as the man; Murry defined style as personal idiosyncrasy…Nowadays the choice, deviance，and style as foregrounding, We must note that there is some overlap among these various definitions.文体，风格Widdowson: Style as deviance, the distinctiveness of a literary text resides in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal. Traugott and Pratt: Style as choice, results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.(is not the same as saying that it is always conscious choice; is a matter of form or expression, sometimes content involved.)Mayer (Leech): Style as foregrounding, include both the deviance features and those linguistic phenomena which are not deviance, but striking.4 points P19Five main types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman’s organization.①One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another ②A non-human referent is given human attributes ③A non-animate referent is given animate characteristics ④An abstraction is treated as if it were animate ⑤A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.Two steps of meter: ①First step is to examine the type of foot it has. (Four types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl) ②Second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. We have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter. Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Definition of stylisticsWales—the study of styleWiddowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what dist inguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. Leech—the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.1.2 Emergence of Stylistics as an Interdisciplinary Field of StudyThree revolutions in social sciences:# the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)#the one in literary criticism #the third revolution took place in linguistic science starting in the late 1950‟s.1.3 Two Important Assumptions of StylisticsThe first important assumption of stylistics is that literature is made of language. The second is the assumption that literature is a type of communicative discourse.1.4 The Goals, Components and Procedure of Stylistic InquiryHalliday identifies two possible goals of stylistic inquiry: the first is to show why and how the text means what it does; the second is that of showing why the text is valued as it is.The components of literary criticism—Short: the three parts are logically ordered: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (relations of two phases: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)1.5 The Nature of Stylistic AnalysisStylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another. Chapter2 Three views on Style2.1 Style as DevianceJan Mukarovsky <<Standard language and poetic language>>2.2 Style as ChoiceBy style as choice is meant that style results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structur e over others available in the language.2.3 Style as ForegroundingThe term foregrounding is a concept of pictorial arts, referring to that part of the composition that appears to be closest to th e view.Chapter3 Surface-structure Deviation3.1 Phonological Deviation3.1.1 Omission(省略)Aphesis—the omission of an initial part of a wordSyncope—the omission of a medial part of a wordApocope—the omission of a final part of a word3.1.2 Mispronunciation and Sub-standard Pronunciation3.1.3 Special Pronunciation3.1.4 Change of Stress3.2 Graphological Deviation3.2.1 Shape of T ext: the shape of a piece of literary work, especially a poem, can be designed in an unconventional way so that it may be suggestive of a certain literary theme.3.2.2 Type of Print: italics, bold print, capitalization and decapitalization, etc.3.2.3 Grammetrics 1.every line of the poem creates a strong pulling-forward effect. 2. the majority of the lines in the first two stanzas create a very strong pulling-forward effect because they arouse syntactic expectations from the reader.3.3 Syntactic Deviation: refers to departures from normal (surface) grammar.3.3.1 Unusual Clause Theme3.3.2 Deviant Phrase Structure3.4 Lexical Deviation: three major rules of word-formation: affixation, compounding and conversion.3.4.1 Affixation: is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.3.4.2 Compounding: is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.3.4.3 Conversion, which is often described as …zero affixation‟, is the adaptation of an item to a new gr ammatical function without changing its form.Chapter4 Deep-structure Deviation---refers to semantic deviation, which may be defined as “linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit”4.1 ContradictionContradiction is a type of semantic deviation which conveys self-conflicting information. Two types: Rhetoric oxymoron and paradox.4.1.1 Oxymoron 4.1.2 Paradox4.2 TransferenceIn literature, transference of meaning is the process whereby literary absur dity leads the mind to comprehension on a figurative plane.4.2.1 Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.4.2.2 Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and there fore has often been confused with synecdoche. However, metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.4.2.3 Metaphor “metaphoric rule”—the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning.There are three elements in metaphor: tenor (for the literal meaning); vehicle (for the figurative meaning); ground (of comparison)There are five mai n types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman‟s organization.A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another.B. A non-human referent is given human attributesC. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristicsD. An abstraction is treated as if it were animateE. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.----the extended metaphor.4.3 Deception4.3.1 Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect. An overstatement is often metaphorical.4.3.2 Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by delibera tely understating it as opposed to exaggerating it.4.3.3 IronyVerbal irony, achieves emphasis by misrepresenting the truth. It takes the form of saying the opposite of what one feels to b e case.4.4 AmbiguityWe mean the case of more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language.Ambiguity can be purely phonetic, resulting from homophony.Most case of ambiguity are at the level of lexis, resulting from either homonymy or polysemy.Chapter5 Phonological Overregularity5.1 Phonemic Patterning (ways in which phonemes are patterned)The most important types of patterning in English literature are:5.1.1 Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. (In English, a syllable consists of three parts: an initia l consonant cluster, a vowel or diphthong and a final consonant cluster; it‟s the main stressed syllable of a word which generally carries the alliteration)5.1.2 Rhyme—identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.Masculine (one-syllable); feminine (two syllable); polysyllabic.Half-rhyme is formed by repeating either the vowel(or diphthong) or the final consonant cluster.Pararhyme, repeats the initial consonant cluster as well as the final consonant cluster.Rhymes are arranged in a pattern within a poem. This pattern is called a rhyme-scheme. The way of making it: to denote the rhyme schemes by marking the different rhymes with decapitalized letters in alphabetical order according to the sequence of their occurance.5.1.3 Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. It is one of the important phonologi cal features of literary texts.5.1.4 Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllable.5.1.5 Onomatopoeia5.2 Rhythmic Patterning5.2 .1 StressIn English, every word except the monosyllabic ones has one syllable that carries the stress. Some polysyllabic words may have two stresses. But one of them is stronger than the other. The stronger stress is called a primary stress, and the other a secondary stress.5.2.2 MetreAccentual syllable, it‟s a pattern of regularity both in the number of syllables and the number of stresses.The analysis of the meter of a poem usually consists of two steps. The first step is to examine the type of foot it has. The foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern. The four main types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl. The second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. Thus we have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter.。
2021年语言学家菲尔墨的三个理论探讨
语言学家菲尔墨的三个理论探讨格语法、框架语义学和构式语法层层递进并逐步拓展和延伸，下面是搜集的一篇探究语言学家菲尔墨的三个理论的，欢迎阅读借鉴。
美国着名语言学家菲尔墨(Charles J.Fillmore)的语言学理论可以分为相对 ___又相互 ___的三个阶段：20世纪60年代提出的格语法(Case Gram ___r)、70年代中后期提出的框架语义学(Frame Se ___ntics)和80年代末兴起的构式语法(Construction Gram___r)。
这些理论基本分布于其14篇主要论文中[1].Fillmore提出的这三项理论具有里程碑式的意义，分别代表了当代语言学研究的三个重要阶段：生成语法、认知语法和构式语法，对语言学的发展和走向起到了引导性作用[2].笔者试整合Fillmore的这三项理论，分析这三项语言学理论的内在逻辑。
以这三项理论的内容为基础分析理论之间的共同点和逻辑关系，指出贯穿Fillmore这三项理论的一脉相承的隐线。
格语法、框架语义学和构式语法这三项理论看似关联甚微，甚至分属不同的理论阵营，Fillmore本人也承认自己在语言观上从形式观到认知观的转变。
但是，笔者认为，Fillmore的格语法、框架语义学和构式语法在理论上是一脉相承的：格语法在底层层次上以句中动词和名词的关系为研究角度，制定动词在语法上的格框架，分析句子的深层语义;框架语义学是语义理解的新视野，提供了意义理解上的整体框架，意义是核心，框架围绕意义形成;构式语法则是在句法、语义和语用三种分析结合的基础上，对词组或句子进行词语组合意义之外的理解，也是对句子和语言现象的形式化。
三者既相互区别又层层递进，有其共同的思想基础。
Fillmore师从美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基，受乔姆斯基 ___思想的影响甚深。
追根溯源，Fillmore还受到语言学开山鼻祖洪堡特和索绪尔的思想影响，因而，Fillmore的语言学理论中，不管是格语法、框架语义学还是构式语法，都有 ___思想的缩影。
语言学导论术语汉译..
A-bar movement（A-棒儿移位）306 Ablaut（元音交替）164Abney, S.（人名，阿伯尼）360accent (see phrasal stress)（重读）accusative case （宾格）248, 251, 265–6, 356, 360–1accusative possessors in Child English（儿童英语中宾格性领属者）359–61accusative subjects（儿童英语中宾格性主语）in Child English355–8in infinitive clauses（非定式小句）251 acquired language disorders（获得性语言错乱）13, 213acquisition of language（语言的获得）(see also developmental linguistics（发展语言学）) 408acrolect（上层方言）234activation in psycholinguistics（心理语言学中的激活作用）202, 209active articulator（主动性发音器官）31 active voice（主动语态）137additions in speech errors（言语失误中的追加）115Adger, D. （人名，阿杰尔）267 adjacency pairs（邻接对）401adjectives（形容词）130comparative form of （（形容词）的比较级形式）130and derivational morphology（（形容词）和派生形态学）144dimensional（程度（形容词））175–6, 177, 179incorporation（（形容词）并入）161in language acquisition（（语言习中的）形容词）187superlative form of （形容词的最高级）130adjuncts（附加语）249, 331adverbs（副词）130, 144Affected Object（蒙受性宾语）334–5affix（词缀）140Affix Attachment（词缀附接）273, 319 affricates（塞擦音）29African American V ernacular English (AA VE)（非裔美国人英语方言土语）agreement in（AA VE的一致关系）233, 237double negation in（AA VE的双重否定）297empty T in（AA VE中的空语类T）271–2 inversion in（AA VE中的倒装）311–13 possessives in（AA VE中的所有格或属格）237age and variation in language use（年龄与语言运用中的变异）235–6age-graded sociolinguistic variables（与年龄段相关的社会语言学变量）16Agent（施事）305, 333, 334–5 agglutinating languages（黏着语）156–7 agrammatism（语法缺失）(see also Broca’s aphasia（布洛卡失语症）) 214–17,377–82, 385, 408comprehension errors in（语法缺失中的理解错误）215, 216–17, 378–80production errors in（语法缺失中的发音错误）215–16, 378agreement （一致关系）135, 137, 144–5, 233, 248in AA VE（AA VE中的一致关系）233, 237 in complement clauses（补语小句中的一致关系）251in East Anglian English（东央格鲁英语中的一致关系）233in EME（EME中的一致关系）320 operations in syntax（句法中一致关系演算或操作）264–5, 267–8, 306, 345, 407in SLI（SLI中的一致关系）219, 385in south western English （东南部英语中的一致关系）233allomorphs（语素变体）152allomorphy（语素音位变化）151–2 lexically conditioned（词汇制约的语素音位变化）152phonologically conditioned（音系制约的语素音位变化）152, 220plural（复数的语素音位变化）188–9 third person singular present（第三人称单数现在时的语素音位变化）220allophones（音位变体）77allophonic variation（音位的变化）77 allophony（音位变化）77alternation in phonology（音系（学）中的交替）26, 83–5, 90, 152alveolars（齿龈音）30, 109 alveopalatals（齿龈硬腭音）(see palato-alveolars)ambiguity（歧义）(see also structural ambiguity（结构歧义）) 5, 232 amelioration in semantic change（语义变化中的改进现象）231American English（美国英语）55, 63, 71, 227 A-movement（论元移位）306Ancient Egyptian（古埃及人）119 Antecedent（先行语）277local for reflexives（约束反身代词的局部先行语）277–8anterior as phonological feature（作为音系特征的前部性）86, 413anticipations in speech errors（言语错失中的先兆）115, 117antonyms（反义词）176, 208, 209 antonymy（反义关系，反义现象）176, 177–8 aphasia（失语症）11–13, 213–19 selective impairment in（失语症中的缺陷或障碍选择性）213apophony （元音交替，元音弱化）(see ablaut) apparent-time method（视时方法后手段）16, 66approximant as phonological feature（无擦通音作为音系特征）412approximants（无擦通音）33in child phonology（儿童音系中的无擦通音）100–4Arabic （阿拉伯语）81, 224 arbitrariness of the linguistic sign（语言符号的任意性）205argument movement（论元移位）(see A-movement)arguments（论元）130, 247Armenian alphabet（亚美尼亚字母或文字）119Articles（冠词）( see also determiners（限定语）) 130, 133Ash, S. （人名，阿施）237aspect （体）252perfect（完成（体））252, 261 progressive（进行（体））252aspirated as phonological feature（送气作为音系特征）87, 413aspiration（送气音）35, 75–7, 87–90, 90–1 assimilation（同化现象）(see also harmony （和谐发音）) 5in Farsi（Farsi中的同化现象）49 partial（部分同化）100target of （同化对象）100total（整体同化）100trigger for（同化的触发者）100 audience design（（面向受众的设计））53–4, 409Austin, J. L. （人名，奥斯汀）394 Australian English（澳大利亚英语）62, 64, 71, 227auxiliary copying in children（儿童语言中的助动词拷贝）295auxiliary inversion（助动词倒装）294–6 auxiliary verbs（助动词）133difficulties with in SLI（特定语言障碍中助动词使用上的困难）219, 385dummy（假性助动词）319errors in SLI （SLI中助动词的错失）385 as finite T（助动词作为定式的T）259, 261and gapping（助动词和空位）272 perfect （完成体）136progressive（进行体）136babbling（婴儿发出的咿哑声）96back as phonological feature（后部（音）作为音系特征）413backtracking in parsing（切分中的回溯法）373back vowels（后元音）36, 109–10Bailey（贝利）, B. 313Bantu（班图语）156bare nominals（光杆名词性成分）284–5 in Child English（儿童英语中的光杆名词型成分）358–9base form of verbs（动词的基础形式/基式）147basic level of categorisation（（范畴化的基本层级）194–6, 226, 232in Wernicke’s aphasia（维尼克失语症中范畴化的基本层级）217–18basilect（下层方言）235behaviourism（行为主义）115Belfast（贝尔法斯特）51Belfast English（贝尔法斯特英语）300Bell（贝尔）, A. 53Bengali（孟加拉人（的），孟加拉语（的））71–2, 87Berko（拨库）, J. 189Bidialectalism（双方言现象）409 Bilabials（双唇音）30Bilingualism（双语现象）409Binarity（二分性）of parametric values（参数值的二分性）314, 317, 320, 321, 325,349, 351of phonological features（音系特征的二分性）85blends（融合）207–8, 209in paragrammatism（语法倒错性言语障碍中融合现象）382Bloom（布龙姆）, L. 355body of tongue （舌面）(see dorsum) borrowing（借用）224–5bound morphemes（粘着语素）140in aphasia （失语症者话语中的）216in SLI（特定语言损伤中的）219–21 bound variable interpretation of pronouns（约束代词阐释的变量）342–4bound word（粘着词）150Bradford（布莱德福德）47–8Braine, M.（人名）351Bresnan, J. （人名）246British English ( 英国英语see also Contemporary Standard English) 62 , 69 –70, 71,227–8, 230broad transcription（宽式标音）76 Broca, P. （人名）12Broca’s aphasia (布洛卡失语症see also agrammatism) 214– 17, 377–82 Broca’s area （布洛卡区）12Brown, R. （人名）189Bucholtz, M. （人名）51Bulgarian （保加利亚语）85calque（仿造，语义转借）225 Cambodian （柬埔寨语）38Canadian English （加拿大英语）227–8 Cantonese （广东话，粤语）79, 81Cardiff （加迪夫，地名）53Caribbean English（加勒比式英语）66 case (格see also genitive case（属格）, nominative case（主格）,objective case（宾格）) 248assignment of（格指派）264, 265–6, 267–8, 345, 356–8,360–1errors in agrammatism （语法缺失中的格错误）216errors in SLI（特定语言损伤中的格错误）385（拉丁语中的格）in Latin 158marking in Child English（儿童英语中的格标记）355–8structural（结构格）356in Turkish（土耳其语中格）158 categorical perception（范畴感知）113 causative verb（致使动词）274–5Celtic languages（凯饵特语族语言）164 central vowels（央元音）36centre-embedding（中心内嵌现象）370, 373–4cerebral cortex（大脑皮层）11cerebral hemispheres（大脑半球）11, 214 chain shift（链移）66–7Chambers, J. （人名）227child grammar（儿童语法）349–61child phonology（儿童音系）96–106 Cherokee（切罗基语）119Chicago（芝加哥）66Chinese （汉语）43, 119, 156, 224 Chomsky, N. （人名，乔姆斯基）1, 2, 7, 11, 213, 245–6, 314, 325, 377, 407Chukchee（楚克其人[语]）160–1 circumfix (框架式词缀see confix)citation form（引用形式，基础形式，原形）134clauses（小句）247bare infinitive（光杆不定试小句）275–6 complement （小句补语）250–2, 275, 276 as CPs （充任CPs的小句）279, 280, 282, 283, 293, 304, 349, 356, 361declarative（陈述小句）279, 280finite in German SLI（德语SLI小句中的限定性）385finite verb in （小句中的限定动词）251, 265–6force of（小句的语力）279function of（小句的功能）253in German（德语中的小句）321–4 infinitive（不定式小句）275, 276–8 interrogative （疑问小句）279main（主要小句，主句）250, 280–1 non-finite verb in（小句中的非定式动词）251, 281–2v. phrases（小句和短语）261–2relative（关系小句）253, 367in sentence perception（句子感知过程中的小句）367, 368tensed (v. untensed)（时态小句和非时态小句）251as TPs（小句作为TPs）273, 274, 275–6, 278click studies（点击调查）367–8 cliticisation（附着化）274–6and copies（附着化和拷贝）296, 298–9 clitics（附着成分）150–1in Spanish（西班牙语中的附着成分）151 cluster (see consonant cluster) 音丛（参见辅音丛）codas of syllables（音节的节尾（音））79–82 in child language（儿童语言中的节尾音）104–5cognitive effects of utterances（话语的认知效应）399cognitive synonymy（认知同义关系或现象）174–5cognitive system（认知系统）language as（语言作为认知系统）1–14, 409 coherence in discourse（语篇中的连贯）397 co-hyponyms（共存性下义词/下位词）172, 209in Wernicke’s aphasia（维尼克失语症中的共存性下义词）218co-indexing（同指标/同标引）341 Comanche（科曼奇族/语）225co-meronyms（共存性局部关系词）174, 208 comment (v. topic)（话题和评述/述题）249, 281Communicative Princ iple of Relevance（交际的关联原则）399–400communities of practice（实践社群）52 commutation test（接换测试）390 competence (v. performance)（（语言能力）和语言行为/运用）2–3, 9, 264, 339, 367, 370, 375, 388, 408, 409complement（补语）130, 247–9, 262 covert（隐性补语）278interrogative expressions as（疑问表达式充任补语）297complementaries（互补性反义词）176 complementarity（互补性/关系）176, 177–8 complementary distribution（互补分布）76 complement clause（补语小句）250–2in German（德语中的补语小句）322 complement clause question（疑问型补语小句）299–300complement clause yes-no question（是非型疑问补语小句）303complementiser（标句词）135 declarative（陈述句的标句词）279 empty（空标句词）278–83, 284, 299 interrogative（疑问型标句词）279 complex sentence（复合句）250–3 compounds（复合词）148–50, 379, 408in language acquisition （语言习得中的复合词）191–2structural ambiguity in（复合词中的结构歧义）149synthetic（合成性复合词）162 comprehension of language (see sentence comprehension, speech perception)（语言理解（参见句子理解、言语感知））concatenative morphology（并置形态学）163 concept (v. lexical entry)（概念（和词条））205–6, 209, 225, 233confix（框架词缀/环缀）162 conjugation （接合）159consonants（辅音）28–35categorical perception of （辅音的类别感知）113syllabic（成音节性辅音）41three-term description of（辅音的三个方面的描写）34, 61in writing systems （书写系统中的辅音）119consonant change （辅音变化）61–4 consonant cluster （辅音丛）41deletion in（辅音丛中的删除现象）54–6 simplification in child language（儿童语言中的辅音丛简化现象）98consonant harmony（辅音和谐/辅音的协同发音）99consonant insertion（辅音插入）64 consonant loss（辅音丢失）63 consonant mutation（辅音变换）164–5 consonantal as phonological feature（作为音系特征的辅音性）412constituency tests（成分性测试）263–4 constituents（结构成分）249, 263–4 covert (see empty constituents)（隐性成分（参见空成分））in sentence comprehension（句子了解中的隐性成分）366constraints（限制（条件））in phonology （音系中的限制条件）90–1 in syntax （句法中的限制条件）263, 312–13, 318Contemporary Standard English (CSE) （当代标准英语）311questions in（CSE中的疑问句）311, 313, 316strong C in（CSE中的强C）314weak T in （CSE中的弱T）317, 319 content words （内容词、实词）132in aphasias （失语症中的内容词或实词）214–15 continuous perception of vowels（元音的连续性感知）110–11contour tone（轮廓调或曲折型声调）43 contrastive sounds（对立音）77control（控制）276clause（控制小句）277, 282–3verbs （控制动词）277conversation（会话）245, 388logic of（会话的逻辑）395–7 Conversational Analysis (CA)（会话分析）246, 401–2conversational implicature（会话涵义）397 conversational maxims（会话准则）396–7, 399, 409conversational particles（会话中的小品词）400conversion（（词性）转换）143Co-operative Principle（合作原则）396co-ordinating conjunction（并列连词）134 co-ordination test（并列关系测试）263–4, 279–80, 283, 333copy (trace) of movement（移位拷贝（语迹））295, 298–9, 340in Child English（儿童英语中的移位拷贝）295in sentence perception（句子感知中的移位拷贝）368–70as variable（移位拷贝作为变量）341co-referential interpretation of pronouns（代词的同指阐释）342, 343coronal（前舌音/舌冠音）34count noun（可数名词）285Coupland, N. （人名）53covert movement （隐性移位）339, 343–5 covert question operator（隐性疑问算子）302–3, 324Crossover Principle（跨越原则）343–4C Strength Parameter（C强度参数）314 cumulation（堆积现象）158Cutler, A.（人名）207Czech（捷克（语））81data of linguistics（语言学语料/数据）1–2, 117, 170declarative（陈述句/式）253–4, 394–5 declension（形态变化，尤其指格变化）158–9, 160default cases in phonology（音系（学）中的缺省情况）90definitions（定义）179–81, 193deictic words（指示性词语）389, 398 delinking in child phonology（儿童音系中的链接解除现象）103demonstratives（指示语）133dentals（牙齿，齿音）31, 109 derivational morphology（派生形态学）131, 143, 144in compounds（复合词中的派生形态）150 in language acquisition（语言习得中的派生形态）190–2Derivational Theory of Complexity (DTC)（复杂性推导理论）367Derivations（派生（式），推导（式））in phonology（音系学中的推导（式））85 in syntax（句法中的推导（式））306 despecification in child phonology（儿童音系中的描写（式））103determiner phrase (DP)（限定词短语/词组）262, 283–7in Child English（儿童英语中的限定词词组）286determiners (see also articles) （限定词（参见冠词））133, 297empty（空限定词）283–7null in Child English （儿童英语中的空限定词）358as operators（限定词作为算子）297 prenominal（名词前的限定词）286–7 pronominal（代词性限定词）286–7 quantifying（量化限定词）284–5, 303in SLI （SLI中的限定词）219Detroit （底特律）52, 66developmental linguistics（发展论语言学）1, 6–9DhoLuo（卢奥语，东苏丹语族，尼罗语支）164diachronic method in historical linguistics（历史语言学中的历时方法）15–16 diacritic （附加符号）35dialect contact（方言接触）227dialects（方言）regional （地域方言）14rhotic（翘舌音方言）77rural （乡村方言）228social（社会方言）14urban（城市方言）228dictionaries（词典、辞书）179–81 diphthongisation in language change（语言变化中的双元音化）64diphthongs（双元音）38–9discourse markers（话语标记）15 discourses（话语）245discrimination experiment（辨别力实验）111 distinctive features（区别性特征）85, 412, 414in child phonology（儿童音系中的区别性特征）101distribution（分布）76dorsals（舌面音）34dorsum（舌背、舌面）31Do-support（Do支撑）274D-projections（D投射）287, 349drag chain（拉链）67dual-lexicon model of child phonology（音系学中的双词库模型）104–5Dutch（荷兰语）231Early Modern English (EME)（早期现代英语，初期现代英语）negation in（EME中的否定）314–20 null subjects in （EME中的空主语）319–20, 351, 352questions in（EME中的疑问句）316 strong T in（EME中的强T）317East Anglian English（东盎格鲁英语）63, 64–5echo question（回声问）297, 299 Eckert, P. （人名）51–2Economy Principle（经济原则）301–2, 314, 318–19, 324‘edge’ as target of movement （边缘位置作为移位的目的地）306education level and language use（教育水平和语言运用/使用）49Egyptian cuneiform（古埃及楔形文字）119 Eimas, P.（人名）96elision （省缺）4ellipsis（省略）278, 371Elsewhere Condition（另处原则）89–90 empty constituents （空成分）246, 271–86, 407, 408in psycholinguistics（心理语言学中的空成分）271in sentence perception（句子感知中的空成分）368–70enclitic（后附着）151entailment（衍推/蕴含）170–1, 392–3 environment (context) in phonological rules （音系规则中的环境（语境））87errors in speech （言语中的偏误/失误，口误）114–17, 199, 207–9Estonian（爱沙尼亚语）38ethnic group and language use（族群和语言运用/使用）49–50exchanges in speech errors (see also word exchanges) （言语失误中的换位现象（参见词的换位））11 4 –16, 11 7exclamative（感叹句，感叹式）254 exponent（体现）145, 152–3, 252, 259, 261 extended exponence（扩展了的体现）159 extraction site（提取部位）298Farsi (Persian) （波斯语（波斯语的））49 Fasold, R.（人名）272feature matrix （特征矩阵）86features（特征）distinctive in phonology（音系学中的区别性特征）86–90, 177functional in agrammatism（语法缺失中的功能性特征）380–2morphological（形态特征）153, 163 semantic（语义特征）176–9semantic in acquisition（习得中的语义特征）193filler-gap dependencies（填充词-空位依存性/关系）369–70finite (v. non-finite) verb forms（定式（非-定式）动词形式）251–3 finiteness in language acquisition （语言习得中的有定性）359–61Finnish （芬兰语）99, 156flap （闪音）34flapping（闪音化）61floating features（漂移特征）101–4, 106 flouting of conversational maxims（对会话准则的藐视）397, 399focus（焦点）282, 389–92position（位置）282focus bar（焦点棒儿）88Fodor, J. （人名）201form (v. lemma)（形式（和内容））in lexical entries（词条中的形式和内容）128, 205–7free morphemes （自由语素）140Frege, G. （人名）338, 339, 344French （法语）90–1, 215, 224, 225, 230 frequency effect（频率效应）in paraphasias（言语错乱中的频率效应）217, 218in substitution errors（替换语误中的频率效应）208fricatives（擦音）29, 31–3Frisian（弗里斯兰语）231Fromkin, V. （人名）207front vowels （前(部)元音）36, 109–10 functional categories（功能语类）132–5, 247, 385in aphasia（失语症中的功能语类）214–17, 378–82comprehension of in agrammatism （语法缺失中功能语类的理解）378–80in language acquisition（语言习得中的功能语类）187–8and pragmatic presupposition（功能语类和语用预设）393production of in agrammatism（语法缺失中功能语类的产生）378in SLI （SLI中的功能语类）219–21 function words（功能词）132gapping（功能词缺项）272garden-path sentences（花园幽径句）10, 370, 374, 408gender（性范畴）errors in agrammatism（语法缺失中的性范畴错误）380, 381–2errors in SLI（SLI中的性范畴错误）385 in Old English（古英语中的性范畴）233 gender and language use （性范畴和语言的使用/运用）49, 234generative grammar（生成语法）4, 245 generative phonology（生成音系学）97–8 generic interpretation（通指阐释）of determiners（限定词的通指阐释）284 genetic endowment and language（遗传本能与语言）7, 13–14, 188, 311and language disorders（遗传本能与语言错乱）213genitive case（领属格）248, 265, 267, 356, 360–1and possessors in Child English（儿童英语中的领属格和领有者）359–61Georgian alphabet（乔治亚字母表）119 German（德语）81, 162, 164, 206, 231, 321–4 clause structure in（德语中的小句结构）321–4movement in （德语中移位）322–3 operator questions in （德语中的算子疑问句）323–4SLI in（德语中的SLI）383–5strong C in finite clauses in（德语中的强C）323strong T in finite clauses in（德语中的强T）323yes-no questions in（德语中的是非问句）324Germanic （日耳曼语）164, 224, 231 Glides（滑音）33global aphasia（全局性失语症）11glottal fricative（声门擦音）33, 47 glottalisation（声门化）82glottal plosive (glottal stop) （声门爆破音（声门塞音））34Goal（目标/终点）334Gordon, P. （人名）192grammar of a language（一种语言的语法）2–6, 81, 83, 120, 238, 306, 345, 350, 407 grammatical categories（语法语类）247in acquisition（习得中的语法语类）186–8 in sentence comprehension（句子理解中的语法语类）200grammatical functions（语法功能）247–50, 262grammatical (morphosyntactic) word（语法（形态-句法）词）146, 159Greek （希腊语）160, 225Greek alphabet（希腊字母表）119 Grice, P. （人名）396–7, 398, 402 Grimshaw, J. （人名）302Grodzinsky, Y. （人名）380–2gutturals（侯音，腭音）78Halliday, M.（人名）97hard palate（硬腭）31harmony（和谐）consonant （辅音和谐）99lateral（边音和谐）101–4velar（软腭音和谐）99, 101vowel（元音和谐）99–100Hawaiian（夏威夷语）81Head（核心成分）of compounds（复合词的核心）148of phrases（短语或词组的核心）257–61 head-driven phrase structure grammar（核心驱动短语结构语法）246head first word order（核心在首的词序）321, 350head last word order（核心在尾的词序）321 head movement（核心移位）293–6, 298, 306 Head Movement Constraint (HMC)（核心移位限制）318, 324Head Position Parameter（核心位置参数）321, 349, 350–1, 361Head Strength Parameter（核心强度参数）314Hebrew（希伯莱语）215, 380, 381 Henry, A. （人名）300high as phonological feature（高舌位作为音系特征）413high vowels（高元音）36, 109–10 historical linguistics（历史语言学）15–16 Hoekstra, T. （人名）373Holmes, J. （人名）49host for clitic（附着形式的宿主）151 Hungarian（西班牙语）38, 99, 156, 224, 267, 360Hyams, N. （人名）351–2, 359–61 Hyponyms（下位词）172in Wernicke’s aphasia（维尼克失语症中的下位词）218hyponymy（上下位关系）170–3, 177, 178, 194Icelandic（冰岛语）230Idealisation（理想化）409identification experiment（鉴别/识别实验）110–11, 112identification of null subject（空主语的识别）320, 352identity of meaning (see synonymy)（意义的同一性（参见同义关系））imaging techniques （成像技术）13 imperative （祈使句/式）254, 394–5 implicational scale（含义等级）55–6 implicit (understood) subject（隐性（理解出来的）主语）277, 351incomplete phrase（未完成短语/词组）261–2 incorporation（并入）160–1 independence of language faculty（语言能力的独立性）11, 377indirect speech acts（间接言语行为）394–5 inferences in conversation（会话中的推理）400infinite nature of language（语言的无限性）3–4, 260infinitive（不定式）134infinitive particle（不定式小品词）259–60 as non-finite T（不定式作为非有定的T）259 infinitive phrase （不定式短语/词组）259 infix（中缀）163INFL as grammatical category（屈折语素作为语法的语类）261inflection （屈折）143in English（英语中的屈折）137in grammar（语法中的屈折）136 inflectional categories（屈折语类）136as deictic（屈折语类终于哦为指示语）389 inflectional errors（屈折错误）in agrammatism （语法缺失中的屈折错误）378in SLI（SLI中的屈折错误）219–21, 385 inflectional formative（屈折的构成）145 inflectional languages（屈折语）156, 158–9, 160inflectional morphology（屈折形态学）143, 144–8in compounds （复合词中的屈折形态学）150in language acquisition（语言习得中的曲折形态学）187, 188–92inflectional paradigms in aphasia（失语症中的屈折变化表）216inflectional properties（屈折特征）137 inflectional rules （see morphological processes）（屈折规则）（参见形态过程）inflectional systems （屈折系统）156 informational encapsulation（信息封装）201 ‘information’ i n categories（语类中的信息）195–6information structure（信息结构）390–1 innateness hypothesis（内在性假说）7, 11, 213, 349–50, 361, 408input representations in child phonology （儿童音系中的输入表达式）103–6 Instrument（工具/用事）333interaction and variation（互动和变异）54 interdentals （齿间音）31interrogative（疑问（句））253–4, 394–5 interrogative complement（疑问性补语）299–300, 303interrogative interpretation（疑问句阐释）300–2, 341interrogative operator（疑问算子）302–3 intonation（语调）43–4intonational change （语调变化）71–2Inuit（因纽特语）119inversion（倒置、倒装）in questions（疑问句中的倒置现象）294–6, 300, 316, 322in varieties of English（英语变异中的倒置）311–14IPA (International Phonetic Association)（国际语音学会）27–44, 411Irish Gaelic （爱尔兰盖尔语）225Irony（反语）397Iroquoian（伊洛魁语的）161isolating languages（孤立语）156, 157 Italian（意大利语）214, 224, 230, 380 aphasic speech in（意大利语中的失语症者的言语）215, 380, 381–2Jamaican V ernacular English (JVE)（牙买加英语土语）313–14weak C in（牙买加英语土语中的弱C）314Japanese（日语）38, 78, 81, 160topic marking in（日语中的话题）391–2 Jones, D. （人名）27labelled bracketing（带标签的加方括弧法）141, 258labelled tree diagram（带标签的树形图）141–2, 258labials（唇音）34labiodentals（唇齿音）31Labov, W. （人名）16, 56, 57–8, 66–7, 68, 70 language contact（语言接触）227 language change（语言变化）15–16, 56–8, 61–72language disorders（语言错乱）11–14, 408 Language Faculty（语言官能）7–9, 280, 349–50language games（语言游戏）117 language shift（语言变换）15language use（语言运用）and the structure of society（语言运用与社会结构）14–16language variation（语言变异）15 laryngeal fricative (see glottal fricative)（喉擦音（参见声门擦音））larynx（喉）28Lashley, K.（人名）116–17lateral as phonological feature（边音作为音系特征）413lateral harmony（边音和谐）101–4 laterals（边音）33in child phonology（儿童音系中的边音）100–4Latin（拉丁语）157–60, 165, 224, 225, 391 Latin alphabet （拉丁语字母（表））119lax vowels（松元音）38, 77lemma（词条的内容）205–7retrieval of（词条内容的恢复）207–9 lesions of the brain（大脑的损伤）11 levels of linguistic analysis（语言分析的层次/级）76–7, 78, 106, 120Levelt, P.（人名）205level tones（直线调，水平调）43lexeme （词位）143–4, 145, 146, 205 lexical attrition（词汇磨损）228lexical categories（词汇语类）129–32, 247 lexical diffusion（词汇扩散）68–70lexical entry（词条）4, 78, 128, 129, 131, 138, 147–8, 152, 170, 176–8, 191–2, 219–20, 238, 287, 335, 407v. concept（词条和概念）205, 225 lexical functional grammar （词汇功能语法）245lexical gap（词汇空缺）174lexical learning（词汇学习）349lexical recognition（词汇认知）201–3, 207–9 lexical stress (see word stress)（词汇重音）（参见词重音）lexical substitutions in speech errors（语误中的词汇替换）207lexical tone（词调）43lexical verbs（词汇性动词）133lexicon（词库）4, 128, 131, 137–8, 147–8, 170–6, 199, 203, 217–18, 238, 345, 354, 407 grammatical properties in（词库中的语法特征）4, 147phonological properties in（词库中的音系特征）4, 147psycholinguistics and（心理语言学和词库）204–10semantic properties in （语义特征）4, 147 LF component of a grammar（语法的LF部分）5, 407Linear B（线性B）119linguistically determined variation（由语言决定着的变异，语言性质的变异）54–6linguistic experience of the child（儿童的语言经验）7–8linguistic variables and language use （语言的可变性和语言应用）47–58Linking Rules（链接规则）335Liquids（流音）33Literary Welsh （威尔士文学语言）164–5 Litotes（间接肯定法）397Liverpool（利物浦）63local attachment preferences（局部附加优势）372–3localisation of brain function（大脑功能的侧化）11–13Location（处所，位置）334Logical Form (LF) （逻辑形式）5, 246, 330, 339–45, 407logical object （逻辑宾语）5logical subject（逻辑主语）5, 374logic of conversation（会话逻辑）395–7 London（伦敦）65long vowels（长元音）37–8low as phonological feature（低舌位作为音系特征）413low vowels（低元音）36, 109–10 McMahon, A. （人名）232–3McNeill, D. （人名）286Malay（马来语）224Manner, Maxim of（方式，方式准则）397 manner of articulation（发音方式）29–30, 33 and language change（发音方式和语音变化）62–3Maori（毛利语）161, 225Maximal Onset Principle（首音最大化原则）82Meaning（意义）in sentence perception（句子感知中的意义）200meaning inclusion ( see also hyponymy) （意义包含（参见上下位关系））172, 178 meaning opposites（意义对立）175–6 memory for syntax（句法记忆）366 merger（合并）257–62, 306, 345, 407 constraints on （合并的条件限制）264 meronyms（部分关系词）174 meronymy（整体-部分关系）173–4, 208 metalanguage（元语言）336–7, 339 Meyerhoff, M. （人名）51mid closed vowels（中闭元音/半闭元音）38 Middle English（中古英语）231mid open vowels（中开元音/半开元音）38 mid vowels（中元音）36Milroy, J.（人名）51Milroy, L.（人名）51minimal pair（最小比对）75–6minimal responses（小型应对语）15 modifiers in compounds（复合词中的修饰语）148monophthongisation（单元音化）64–5 monophthongs（单元音）38 monosyllabic words（单音节词）41mood and speech acts（语气和言语行为）394–5morphemes（语素）140–3in aphasia（失语症中的语素）214–17 bound（粘着语素）140free（自由语素）140as minimal linguistic sign （语素作为最小的语言符号）140, 145morphological change（形态变化）233–7 morphological development in children （儿童的形态发展）188–92morphological irregularity （形态的不规则性）137morphological operations（形态操作）162–5 morphological processes（形态过程）140–50, 157–65, 407dissociation of in SLI（SLI中的形态的分离）219–20as features（形态作为特征）153 phonological conditioning of（形态的音系限制）152, 220realisations of（形态的实现）152 voicing as（浊化作为形态）164vowel change as（作为形态的元音变化）163–4morphological properties in sentence perception （句子感知中的形态特征）200 morphological variation（形态变异）233–7social contact and （社会接触和形态变异）237morphology（形态学）140, 165 phonological processes in（形态学中的音系过程）162–5morphs（形素）152motor control （运动神经控制）109, 113 movement in syntax （句法中的移位）246, 293–306, 340covert（句法中的隐性移位）345, 407in German（德语中句法移位）322–3 overt（显性句法移位）345, 407in sentence comprehension（句子理解过程中的句法移位）366Myhill, J. （人名）237Nahuatl （那瓦特语）161, 224narrow transcription（严式音标）77nasal as phonological feature（鼻音作为音系特征）85, 412nasalisation（鼻音化）40–1nasals（鼻，鼻音）30native speakers as sources of data（母语者作为语言数据的来源） 1natural classes in phonology（音系中的自然类）88–9Navajo（纳瓦霍语）83, 160Negation（否定）133in Child English（儿童英语中的否定）104 in CSE（CSE中的否定）312, 314–20in EME（EME中的否定）314–20 negative concord in AA VE（AA VE中的否定一致）312negative operator（否定算子）297 Neogrammarians（新语法学派学者）68 Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）1, 11–14 neutral context in lexical decision task（词汇确定任务中的中性语境）202new (v. old) information（新信息和旧信息）390New Y ork（纽约）57New Zealand English（新西兰英语）66, 71–2, 227, 230nodes in tree diagrams（树形图中的节点）258 nominal phrases（名词性短语/词组）in Child English（儿童英语中的名词性词组或短语）358–61as D-projections（名词性短语或词组作为D投射）286, 287, 349, 358, 361 nominative case（主格）248, 251, 265–6, 356, 360in AA VE（AA VE中的主格）272 nominative subjects in Child English（儿童语言中的主格主语）355–8noun incorporation（名词并入）161 nouns（名词）129–30and derivational morphology（名词和派生形态学）144in language acquisition（语言习得中的名词）186, 192–6and person（名词和人称）135in taxonomies（分析体系中的名词）173 non-concatenative morphology（非并置形态学）165non-count nouns（非复数名词）285non-finite clauses（非定式小句）in Child English（儿童英语中的非定式小句）353–61non-finite (v. finite) verb forms（非定式（和定式）动词形式）251–3in German SLI（德语SLI中的非定式动词形式）384–5non-rhotic dialects（非翘舌音方言）37–8, 57 non-standard dialects（非标准方言）15 non-words（非词）perception of （非词的感知）206–7 Norfolk（诺福克）66, 228Northern Cities Chain Shift（北城市链移）66–7, 68Northern English（北部英语）65, 69 Norwich（诺威奇）49, 235nucleus of syllable（音节的节核）41, 79 null constituents (see empty constituents)（空结构成分（参见空成分））null determiners（空限定词）283–7in Child English（儿童英语中的空限定词）358null infinitive particle（空不定式小品词）275null operator questions in Child English（儿童英语中的空疑问算子）352null subject language （空主语语言）320, 351 null subject parameter（空主语参数）319–20, 349, 352, 353, 361null subjects（空主语）in Child English（儿童英语中的空主语）352in Child Italian（儿童意大利语中的空主语）353identification of（空主语的识别）320, 352 in Japanese（日语中的空主语）392in non-finite clauses（非定式小句中的空主语）353–61in wh-questions（wh-疑问句中的空主语）353–4number（数）134errors in agrammatism（语法缺失中的数范畴错误）380errors in SLI（SLI中的数范畴错误）219 object（宾语）137objective case (see also accusative case)（宾格）248object language（对象语言）336–7, 339 obstruents（阻塞音）34, 79Old English（古英语）230, 231, 232, 233, 236Old French （古法语）229, 231old (v. new) information（旧信息）390Old Norse（古斯堪的那维亚语）230 omissions in speech errors（言语失误中的省减现象）115onsets of syllables（音节的首音）79–82in child language（儿童语言中的节首音）104in poetic systems（艺术表达手段系统中的节首音）118in speech errors（言语失误中的节首音）115operator expressions（算子表达）297, 340 in German（德语中的算子表达）323 operator movement（算子移位）297–302, 304, 306Optimality Theory（优选论）90–1 Optional Infinitive (OI) stage（不定式选择性使用阶段）357–8orthographic representation（规范书写法，正字法表示法）84orthography ( see also writing systems) （正字法（参见书写系统））27output representations in child phonology （儿童音系中的输出表达式）103–6 overextension in children’s word use（儿童词语运用中的泛化现象）192–3, 232 overregularisation（过渡规则化）lack of in SLI（SLI中过渡规则化的缺乏）220in morphological development（形态发展中的过渡规则化）190palatals（腭音，舌面中音）31palato-alveolars（舌面-齿龈音）31 paragrammatism（语法倒错型言语障碍）377, 382–3, 385parallel-interactive processing models （平行-交互式处理模式）199–204parameters（参数0 314–24in language acquisition（语言习得中的参数）349–54parameter setting（参数设定）350–4 parametric variation（参数变异）314–24 paraphasia（语言错乱）214–15, 217–19 parser（语法分析器）9, 372–5locality and（局部性和语法分析器）373–5 parsing（句法分析）366partitive interpretation of determiners（限定词的部分释义）284, 303part–whole relationship (see meronymy)（部分-整体关系（参见整体-部分关系））passive articulator（被动发音体）31 passive construction（被动结构）304–5 passive participle（被动分词）137, 146, 148 in German（德语中的被动分词）162 passive voice（被动语态）137, 146, 305 passivisation（被动化）306past participle（过去分词）136past tense morpheme in acquisition（习得过程中的过去时语素）189–90Patient (see Affected Object)（受事（参见受。
新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram
The criteria on which categories are determined
确定词的范畴的标准
Meaning (意义) Inflection (屈折变化) Distribution(分布)
11
Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. e.g.
9
Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
14
‘s; -ed, -ing; -er, -est… Although inflection is very helpful in determining a
word’s category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. Moisture, fog, sheep; Frequent, intelligent Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.
因此, 一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化 能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.
16
Phrase categories and their structures
汉语的动词和副词英文版
• The verb “to be” expresses a state of being. Therefore these kinds of Chinese verbs are called stative verbs.
1. Chinese Verbs
1.1 Chinese Stative Verbs
• Convey states rather than actions • They take what would be considered an adjective in English and use it seemingly as a verb. • When translating stative verbs into English, one needs to add the English verb “to be”
– Time: 今天，去年, 将来, 近来 “recently”, 现 在，下午，暂时 zanshi, 刚（刚）
• 今天我不舒服 Today I am comfortable. • 我今天不舒服 *I today am comfortable.
– Attitude: adverbs that denote the speaker’s attitude toward or evaluation of an event. 显然 xianran “obviously”
– 他快快地走。*He quickly walks. He walks quickly – 她静静的躺在草上。 He quietly lays on the grass. – 张三空手被李四制服了。Zhangsan, empty handed, was subdued by Lisi. Empty handed Zhangsan was subdued by Lisi. – 张三被李四空手制服了。Zhangsan was subdued by Lisi empty-handedly. – Zhangsan was subdued by empty-handed Lisi.
语言学Morphology形态学PPT课件
3) A grammatical unit:
sentence clause phrase word morpheme
第3页/共84页
1.2 Identification of words 1) Stability: the constituent parts of a complex
the first two days
another three weeks
第14页/共84页
The formation of word
Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a
minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed:
has, had, etc.
第10页/共84页
C. Pro-form(替代形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group (名词 词组)or a single noun.
第12页/共84页
3) Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals(基数词), ordinal numerals(序数 词), general ordinals(一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers like many, a few, several, much, little, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, a great number of
英语语言学笔记纲要（4）
Chapter 4 Morphologyl What is morphology?n The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.n Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.n Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.l Morphemes and allomorphsn The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.n A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.n “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesu Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.u Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.l Free and bound morphemesn Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.n Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.n The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.n Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).l Inflexional and derivational morphemesn Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.n Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.u English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.u Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.u The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.l Conclusion: classification of morphemesn Morphemesu Free morphemesu Bound morphemesl Inflexionall Derivational: affixesn Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sn Suffixesl Formation of new wordsu Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.u Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.u Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.u Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.u Some English suffixes also change the word stress.n Compoundingu Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.u The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives –and fall into the three classes.u In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.u The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.n Conversionu Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.u Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.n Clippingu Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.u Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.u Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form. n Blendingu Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students – “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).n Back-formationu Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.n Acronyms and abbreviationsu Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.u Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.u This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.n Eponymsu Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.u Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.u This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.n For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.。
英语一年级下册单词表
英语一年级下册单词表1. Nouns: Students will learn basic nouns to describe common objects, animals, and people. Examples may include words like apple, tree, cat, and friend.2. Verbs: Basic action words will also be taught to enable students to express activities or actions. Some examples could be eat, run, jump, and sleep.3. Adjectives: Students will be introduced to simple adjectives to describe qualities or attributes of objects, people, or places. Examples might include big, small, happy, and sad.4. Numbers: First graders will continue their math-related vocabulary development by learning numbers beyond 10. They may learn to count up to 20 or even 30, and possibly learn how to write these numbers in word form as well.5. Colors: Expanding on the color vocabulary learned in the previous book, students will learn more color words such as purple, orange, and brown.6. Shapes: Basic shapes such as circle, triangle, square, and rectangle may be introduced to help students recognize and name different geometric figures.7. Family: Students may learn vocabulary related to family members such as mother, father, brother, and sister.8. Food: This category will consist of words related to common food items,such as bread, milk, fruit, and vegetables.9. Daily Activities: Vocabulary related to daily routines and activities, including words like wake up, brush teeth, go to school, and play.10. Nature: Basic words related to nature, such as sun, moon, sky, and rain, may also be introduced at this level.11. Time: Students will learn to tell time with basic time-related vocabulary like clock, hour, minute, and o'clock.12. Weather: Words to describe different weather conditions will be introduced, such as sunny, cloudy, rainy, and windy.13. Opposites: Basic opposite concepts will be taught to enhance students' understanding of the English language. Examples include words like tall-short, big-small, and fast-slow.14. School: Vocabulary related to school items and environments, such as book, backpack, classroom, and library.15. Body Parts: Students will learn to name different body parts, including words like hand, foot, eye, and ear.16. Clothing: Basic clothing items will be introduced, such as shirt, pants, dress, and shoes.17. Transportation: Words related to different modes of transportation, suchas car, bus, bike, and plane.18. Jobs: Simple words to describe common occupations, like doctor, teacher, firefighter, and police officer.19. Emotions: Vocabulary to express feelings and emotions, including wordslike happy, sad, angry, and excited.20. Animals: Students will learn to name and describe various animals, such as lion, elephant, giraffe, and zebra.21. Plants: Basic words related to plants and flowers, like leaf, stem, petal, and root.22. Sports: Introduction to vocabulary related to sports and physical activities, such as soccer, basketball, swimming, and running.23. Music: Basic music-related terms, including words like note, song, instrument, and melody.24. Art: Vocabulary related to art and creativity, such as paint, brush, color, and drawing.25. Technology: Simple words to describe technology and devices, such as computer, phone, television, and tablet.26. Celebrations: Vocabulary related to holidays and festivals, including words like birthday, holiday, party, and gift.27. Environment: Basic words related to the environment and nature conservation, such as planet, nature, recycle, and reuse.28. Safety: Vocabulary related to safety and first aid, such as danger, safe, help, and emergency.29. Health: Basic words related to health and wellness, including words like healthy, exercise, doctor, and medicine.30. Culture: Introduction to simple words related to culture and traditions, such as festival, costume, dance, and music.31. Geography: Students will learn words related to geography and the environment, such as mountain, river, ocean, and forest.32. History: Basic terms related to history, such as past, ancient, history, and artifact.33. Science: Vocabulary related to science and the scientific method, including words like experiment, observe, hypothesis, and discovery.34. Insects: Students will learn to name common insects, such as butterfly, bee, ant, and spider.35. Seasons: Words to describe the different seasons, such as spring, summer, autumn, and winter.36. Time of Day: Vocabulary to differentiate between times of the day, such as morning, afternoon, evening, and night.37. Weekdays: Students will learn the names of the days of the week, including Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.38. Months: Basic words for the months of the year, such as January, February, March, and so on until December.39. Directions: Vocabulary to give and understand directions, such as north, south, east, and west.40. Parts of Speech: Introduction to the basic parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.41. Alphabet: Students will review and reinforce their knowledge of the alphabet, including uppercase and lowercase letters.42. Phonics: Introduction to basic phonics rules and sounds to help with reading and spelling, such as short vowels and consonant blends.43. Poetry: Simple poetry terms, such as poem, rhyme, rhythm, and stanza.44. Fairy Tales: Vocabulary related to fairy tales and storytelling, including words like fairy, tale, prince, and princess.45. Jobs Around the House: Words for household chores and responsibilities, such as cook, clean, wash, and iron.46. Hobbies: Basic terms for common hobbies, such as read, paint, play guitar, and garden.47. Computers: Vocabulary related to computers and technology, such as keyboard, mouse, screen, and internet.48. Space: Simple words related to space and astronomy, such as star, planet, moon, and galaxy.49. Music Instruments: Students will learn to name different musical instruments, such as piano, guitar, violin, and drums.50. Sports Equipment: Basic terms for sports equipment, such as ball, bat, racket, and puck.51. Clothes Accessories: Vocabulary for accessories worn with clothes, such as hat, scarf, gloves, and jewelry.52. School Subjects: Simple words for school subjects, including math, science, language arts, and social studies.53. Weather Instruments: Terms for instruments used to measure weather, such as thermometer, barometer, and anemometer.54. Art Supplies: Basic words for art materials and tools, such as crayon, marker, paintbrush, and clay.55. Cooking Utensils: Vocabulary related to cooking and kitchen utensils, such as pot, pan, spoon, and knife.56. Construction Tools: Simple terms for tools used in construction, such as hammer, screwdriver, saw, and drill.57. Garden Tools: Words for tools used in gardening, such as shovel, rake, watering can, and pruning shears.58. Measurement: Basic terms for units of measurement, such as meter, liter, gram, and pound.59. Time Zones: Vocabulary to understand time zones around the world, such as GMT, EST, CST, and PST.60. Currency: Simple words for different currencies, such as dollar, euro, yen, and pound sterling.61. Countries: Students will learn to name and locate different countries around the world, such as China, the United States, Canada, and Australia.62. Continents: Basic terms for the seven continents, including Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, and Oceania.63. Oceans: Vocabulary for the major oceans, such as the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Arctic Ocean.64. Deserts: Words for famous deserts around the world, such as the Sahara, Gobi, Mojave, and Atacama.65. Mountains: Basic terms for famous mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, and Alps.66. Rivers: Vocabulary for major rivers, including the Nile, Amazon, Mississippi, and Yangtze.67. Languages: Students will learn to name different languages, such as English, Spanish, French, and Chinese.68. Flags: Basic terms for flags and national symbols, such as flag, emblem, and coat of arms.69. International Organizations: Vocabulary for important international organizations, such as the United Nations, World Health Organization, and International Olympic Committee.70. Sports Teams: Simple words for sports teams, such as soccer team, basketball team, and baseball team.。
关于如何练习听力(英文版)
The nature of listening
spbulary
Grammatica l knowledge
Backgrou nd knowledg e
Memory, etc.
Your questions might be…
How can I improve my listening competence? What material should I select?
How to take notes
Put down the key words as fast as possible. Key words refer to those like nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Write down the important deatails (who, what, when, how, why). If some of the words to be noted down are pretty long and complicated, write the clipped form. e.g. compr--comprehension, students-ss, yr-year, wkweek, m-month, UN-the United Nations, WTOthe World Trade Organization, etc. Numbers should not be spelled out. E.g. 150, instead of ‘one hundred fifty’.
Lots of details
Topic not interesting Theme not clear
background information
英语作文描述动物
When describing animals in an English essay,its essential to provide a vivid and engaging portrayal that captures the readers interest.Here are some key points to consider when crafting your essay:1.Introduction:Begin with a general statement about animals,possibly highlighting their importance in the ecosystem or their role in human culture.2.Choice of Animal:Select an animal that you find interesting or have a personal connection with.This could be a domestic pet,a wild creature,or even an endangered species.3.Physical Description:Describe the animals appearance in detail.Include information about its size,color,fur or skin texture,and any distinctive features such as stripes,spots, or unique markings.4.Behavior:Discuss the animals behavior patterns.This could include its diet,sleeping habits,social interactions,and any specific behaviors that are unique to the species.5.Habitat:Describe the natural habitat of the animal.Explain the type of environment it lives in,such as forests,deserts,or oceans,and how it has adapted to survive in these conditions.6.Reproduction and Life Cycle:Provide information about the animals reproductive habits and life cycle.This could include details about mating rituals,gestation periods, and the stages of growth from birth to adulthood.7.Conservation Status:If applicable,discuss the conservation status of the animal. Highlight any threats it faces,such as habitat loss,poaching,or climate change,and mention any efforts being made to protect the species.8.Personal Connection or Experience:If you have a personal experience with the animal, share a story or anecdote that illustrates your connection or understanding of the creature.9.Conclusion:Summarize the main points of your essay and reiterate why the animal is important or interesting to you.You may also include a call to action or a reflection on the broader implications of the animals existence.10.Vocabulary and Language:Use a variety of vocabulary and descriptive language to bring the animal to life.Adjectives,adverbs,and sensory details can make your description more engaging.Remember to proofread your essay for grammar and spelling errors,and ensure that your sentences are clear and concise.By following these guidelines,you can create a compelling and informative essay about an animal that will engage and educate your readers.。
英语必修一复习资料
coordinating connections
Interjections
expressions of emotion or surprise
Summary of Common Phrases
Greetings and farewells
"Hello", "Good morning", "Goodbye", "See you later"
Master the basic grammar rules and structures of the English language
Improve listening and speaking skills to communicate effectively in English
Assessment methods and standards
Writing Skills
Students will develop their writing abilities by learning how to construct clear and coherent intentions and paragraphs, as well as how to write different types of essays
used to describe hats, general truths, and fixed arrangements
Present Continuous Tense
used to describe actions happening now or in the near future
英汉转换翻译
Metals can be welded by means of heat produced by a current.
金属可以用电流产生的热来进行焊接。
3 形容词转译成动词（adj.---v.）
Doctors have said that they are not sure they can save his life.
In those years the republicans were in. 那些年是共和党执政。
Double windows were fixed to keep the cold out. 安装双层窗御寒。 动名词转译成动词（gerund---v.） The origin of this particular culture is far from clearing. 这种奇特的文化根源远没有弄清楚。
登山运动员第三天建立了另一座营地，当时高度表的读 数为6500英尺。
Harry aims to become a computer expert. 哈里的目标是成为计算机专家。 Your work is characterized by lack of attention to detail. 你工作的毛病是不注意细节。（粗心大意） The machine weighs about five hundred kilograms. 这台机器的重量是500公斤。
*The youths always dream fondly of their future. 年轻人对前途总是怀有美好的梦想。
*Independent observers have commented favorably on the achievements you have made in this direction.
Conversion转性译法
There are 3 types of English nouns which can be turned into Chinese verbs in translation
A. Nouns derived from verbs: construction, application, appearance, etc.
4). A discussion of the importance of the study of the origin of geological structures using mathematic mechanical models is given at the end of the paper. 论文最后讨论了运用数学机械模型研究地质结 构起源的重要性。
8). Every state is the best judge of what is required to safeguard its national security. 每个国家最清楚应怎样维护自己的国家安全。
(2). Adjectives Converted into V. (形—动)
3). Such criticisms have become familiar in his later commentaries on America. 类似的批评在他后来写的评论美国的文章中屡见不 鲜。
4). In order to carry through her policies of economic development, peace is necessary for China. 为了贯彻经济发展政策，中国需要和平。
1.Conversion to Chinese Verbs (转化为汉语动词）
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
VERBS ~~~4
ADVERBS
ANN RI GGS
"_ .-!--....... , .
SE \ TE 'iCE
,._+-_, .
\\ rilingi~
tf'IlSf'!
Art direc tion hy B itu Mafflhall Photographs by Corhis (Bcllmann. Christic's Imllges. Trolley Dodger. Jason Horowi tz. Photo Coilec lioll Alcxlmd"r Allam!. Sr.), l\I ick El liso n. Getty Imll!;!!;; (Michael lll ann.
\1I STA KES
PHR ASES.
C LAt;SES ~ LU "JL ' (;TlU \ !'I
X
978 1 445 I 1077 6 978 t 4451 1075 2
978 I 4451 1074 5
ISBN 978-1-4451- 1076-9
£12.99
WATTS
W
FRANKLI N
nervous to most entertaining -
these are adverbs too. When writers accurately use verbs and th e words that desc ribe them, readers have no trouble foll owing al ong.
THEVERB THEWORD
or other adverbs. Adverbs add character
to the words they describe by restri cting or intensifying their meaning, as in the
y. words gently, yesterday, there a nd ultimateL What else makes adverbs important
two words can become a
SE\ TE\C E.
or it is existing (it just is). Even when the subj ect of a sentence may be understood (not
\\~'ill e n
in th e sentence), a verb is mandatory, as in the one-word
IIJJECril ES
that
to use? And what does a ll of thi s mean? Words fa ll into place more eas il y when one has an unde rstandin g of grammar, a sys te m of rul es that gives write rs the fou ndation for produ c in g acce ptabl e formal exp ression. It is thi s aece ptable form , thi s app ropriate grammar, that he lps reade rs comprehe nd what has been written.
44
27 aldorardo/Shutlerstock . liIus tru tioll on page 5
e
Etienne Delesscrt.
46 47
"EI.ECI'EIl HIHI.I()CH 11'11)
48
Music swells. Siblings squabble. Owls hoot. I am. Grammar is.
Dave Killg, Life On While. Shart)n Montrose. Steve More noslNewspix. Hitoshi Nishimu ra. Chris toph Hosenberger. Joel Sarlorf". Gail Shumwa y. Kim Taylor. Jud y Ungf"r. Freudcmhal V rhagen. Maarten ",,'olllers). iSlock photo (A rlinllo71. J ill Battagliu. e F.mmlIllUf"1 Hid algo. E: ric Issei&:. Leontur.!. Arpacl Nagy-Bagol),. J on Pa tton. Ed)tu Pawlowska. Vic;tur Zaslol Ski y). PUGe 20 Albunpix LttllB ,·x Fea tures. 23 Col ill Ul1der hi Il/AIa.IIl).
As s imply as that,
sentence 'Think!'.
Th e information in a short sente nce can be Our word 'adverb' connec ts the Latin
PHEFI\
expanded by adding more words th at give vivid desc ription s or s pec ific reaction s. Where should the word s be placed? How does a writer know what
12
Spf'ing {· I t'arly . say in g ('orl'('{'tl~
20
Bt'
()
h j .. ,-I ; \
t'
abo ul 1h ; s
www.lmc lie lh:.c· Design and proJucl iulI by Li<ldy Walscth
28
34
6
The \ t'rh ;s
I
.1:m
h,·
II
ort!
1.0 lldoll NW\ 3 1 m Franklin Watt s Aus tralia
[klf-] 17t.207 K\'nl St reet
14
Crossing
0\ ('I'
or not
Sy,lrw),. NSW 2(X)()
Fi rs1Imh ];;:;I.....]Io) Cr".llile Edul'alioo. an impri nt ofTlw Cr.'ali ve CompalJ)', Co p yri ght Q 20 12 Crentiw: Ed un ttion. Inlt'malional l'opyright r('S('r... ~"{1 ;n alll'ounl ri.-s. No 1 ~111 of this iKlok may be feprouu('('d in nny form wiil,oul ",rillen p~' rm i;;sio n from the publi,;lwr. All right;: n~ rY('d. A CIP catalolo;Uc
B U I LD YOUR OWN SEN T E CE AC T I V I TIE S
Pri"lcll in China
Franklin Walls is a cli" ision of I-tac het tc Clli l,trens Hooks. all Hachctte I..:K com pan y
in our sentences? Degrees of comparison that give writers ways to expand the ir
oudest and from more description s from quieter to L
We are indebted to the Roma ns, who co nqu ered most of Europe from 75 H through e the First ce ntury AD, for spreading the term verbum a lon g with th e rest of th eir Latin vocabulary. Verbum is th e source of our word 'verb' and it means 'word' . Tn fac t, without a verb every sentence is doomed. All sente nces have a subj ect and a verb . The verb is the main eleme nt of th e predi cate, th e part of the se ntence th at te ll s something about the subj ect. We defin e th e verb, thi s hub of a sente nce, as a word or group of words that ex presses the action or indi cates the state of being of the sentence's subject. This suggest.s that the verb is e ither doing something (acting)