中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告学原理”绝密资料_kotler17exs
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划与策略”绝密资料_CHAP17
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
Let’s Discuss
Public and Ethical Issues
17.6
Discuss these concerns that customers have about direct marketing:
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
Reasons for Direct Market Growth
Market “demassification” Effort of “traditional shopping” Continuous access Next-day delivery Specialty items Increase in computer power
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
17.3
2001 Prentice Hall
Benefits of Direct Marketing to Companies
Customized offers Ongoing relationships with customers Mailing lists for any market Can achieve higher readership Alternative media and message testing Privacy Measurable response
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划与策略”绝密资料_CHAP04
4.3
2001 Prentice Hall
Quick Quiz
4.4
Marketing Research
Much of a marketing research budget is spent with these types of outside research firms: Syndicated-service Custom marketing Specialty-line
Total market potential Area market potential
Industry sales
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
Market share
2001 Prentice Hall
4.14
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
4.10
Sampling Plan
After deciding on the research approach and instruments, the researcher must design a sampling plan.
Estimating Future Demand
Survey of buyers’ intentions Expert opinion Composite of sales force opinion
Past sales analysis
CH19 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Measurement
Communication impact Sales impact
Media
Reach, frequency, impact Major media types Specific media vehicles Media timing Geographical media allocation
Evidence Scientific Evidence Technical Expertise Personality Symbol Slice of Life
Lifestyle
Typical Message Execution Styles
Fantasydoor
Advantages: Flexibility; high repeat exposure; low cost; low message competition
2000 Prentice Hall
Limitations: Little audience selectivity; creative limitations
Objectives
Developing & Managing an Advertising Program Deciding on Media & Measuring Effectiveness Sales Promotion Public Relations
2000 Prentice Hall
Direct Mail
Advantages: Audience selectivity; flexibility, no ad competition within same medium; allows personalization Limitations: Relative high cost; “junk mail” image
知觉 选择性注意 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
David G. Myers 心理学_7e 第六章知觉选择性注意知觉大约2400年以前，柏拉图就明智地指出，我们的大脑是通过感官来知觉物体的。
为了在头脑中构筑外部世界的景象，我们首先必须觉察环境中的物理能量，然后将其编码成神经信号（传统上，人们把这一过程称作感觉）。
不仅如此，我们还必须对感觉进行选择、组织和解释（这就是传统意义上的知觉）。
因此，我们不仅要感觉原始的光与声、味道与气味，还要对其进行知觉。
我们听到的可能不是仅仅由音高和节律所构成的声音，而是儿童的哭泣声；或者不是车辆的隆隆声，而是交响乐的高潮部分。
总之，我们能够将感觉转换成知觉，解释外界刺激对我们所具有的意义。
选择性注意预览：不论何时，我们的意识就像闪光灯的光柱一样，只能集中于我们的体验的有限方面。
我们的知觉无时不在，一种知觉消失，紧接着就会出现另一种知觉。
图 6．1就可以引起多种知觉。
图中的圆圈可以被组织到若干个连贯的图像中，它们在每一个图像中都合情合理，而由不同图像所形成的知觉却在不断变换。
对尼克尔（Neeker）立方体现象也许还存在其他的解释，但无论如何，在某一时刻你可能只关注其中之一。
这说明了一个重要的原则，即我们的有意识注意具有选择性。
选择性注意（selective attention）指的是，在任何时候，我们所意识到的只占我们所经历全部事情的一小部分。
有人曾经估计，我们的5种感觉每秒共可以接收11 000 000比特信息，而我们在意识状态下仅能加工40比特（Wilson，2002）。
不过，我们仍然能够利用直觉对剩余的10 999 960比特的信息进行充分利用。
在读到此处时，你可能并没有意识到鞋子对脚底的挤压或者鼻子正处于自己的视线之中。
现在一旦你突然将自己的注意焦点转移到这些事情上，你就会觉得自己的脚被包裹着，鼻子顽固地耸立在你和书本之间。
当你注意这几句话的时候，你可能已经将视野边缘的信息排除在意识之外了。
但你可以改变这一切，你可以在注视下面的字母X时，同时注意一下书周围的东西（书本的边缘、书桌上的东西等）。
CH12 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Final buyers
Marketing Organization
Export Department
International Division
GREENLAND
RUSSIA
CANADA EUROPE
USA
MIDDLE EAST
ASIA
Global Organization
Direct exporting
Licensing
Joint ventures
Direct investment
Amount of commitment, risk, control, and profit potential
2000 Prentice Hall
Joint Venture
Licensing: Sell rights to name brand. Contract Manufacturing: make item in host country; manufacturer of product only. Management Contracting: hired as Mgmt. Consultant to host company Joint Ownership: truly partnering with a company in host country, to share expertise and mutual gains.
2000 Prentice Hall
Internationalization Process
No Export Export via Agents
Sales Subsidiaries Production Abroad
CH04 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
PART II -- ANALYZING MARKETINGOPPORTUNITIESCHAPTER4--G ATHERING I NFORMATION AND M EASURINGM ARKET D EMANDOVERVIEW:Marketing information is a critical element in effective marketing as a result of the trend toward global marketing, the transition from buyer needs to buyer wants, and the transition from price to non-price competition. All firms operate some form of marketing information system, but the systems vary greatly in their sophistication. In too many cases, information is not available or comes too late or cannot be trusted. Too many companies are learning that they lack an appropriate information system, still do not have an information system, lack appropriate information, or they do not know what information they lack or need to know to compete effectively.A well-designed market information system consists of four sub-systems. The first is the internal records system, which provides current data on sales, costs, inventories, cash flows, and accounts receivable and payable. Many companies have developed advanced computer-based internal reports systems to allow for speedier and more comprehensive information.The second market information subsystem is the marketing intelligence system, supplying marketing managers with everyday information about developments in the external marketing environment. Here a well-trained salesforce, purchased data from syndicated sources, and an intelligence office can improve marketing intelligence available to company marketing managers. The third subsystem, marketing research, involves collecting information that is relevant to specific marketing problems facing the company. The marketing research process consists of five steps: defining the problem and research objectives; developing the research plan; collecting information; analyzing the information; and presenting the findings. Good marketing research is characterized by the scientific method, creativity, multiple methodologies, model building, and cost/benefit measures of the value of information.The fourth system is the Marketing Decision Support System (MDSS marketing system) that consists of statistical and decision tools to assist marketing managers in making better decisions. MDSS is a coordinated collection of data, systems, tools and techniques with supporting software and hardware. Using MDSS software and decision models, the organization gathers and interprets relevant information from the business and the environment and turns it into a basis for marketing action. MDSS experts use descriptive or decision models, and verbal, graphical, or mathematical models, to perform analysis on a wide variety of marketing problems.To carry out their responsibilities, marketing managers need estimates of current and future demand. Quantitative measurements are essential for market opportunity, planning marketing programs, and controlling the marketing effort. The firm prepares several types of demandestimates, depending in the level of product aggregation, the time dimension, and the space dimension.A market consists of the set of actual and potential consumers of a market offer. The size of the market depends on how many people have interest, income, and access to the market offer. Marketers also must know how to distinguish between the potential market, available market, qualified available market, served market, and the penetrated market. Marketers must also distinguish between market demand and company demand, and within these, between potentials and forecasts. Market demand is a function, not a single number, and as such is highly dependent on the level of other variables.A major marketing research task is to estimate current demand. Total demand can be estimated through the chain ratio method, which involves multiplying a base number by successive percentages. Area market demand can be estimated by the market-buildup method (for business markets) and the multiple-factor index method (for consumer markets). In the latter case, geodemographic coding systems are proving a boon to marketers. Estimating industry sales requires identifying the relevant competitors and estimating their individual sales, in order to judge their relative performance.To estimate future demand, the company can use several major forecasting methods: expert opinion, market tests, time-series analysis, and statistical demand analysis. The appropriate method will vary with the purpose of the forecast, the type of product, and the availability and reliability of data.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Understand demand measurement terminology∙Know the methods of estimating current demand∙Know the methods of estimating future demandCHAPTER OUTLINE:I.Introductionponents of a Modern Marketing Information SystemA.Consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate,and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decisionmakers.III.Internal Records SystemA.The Order-to-Payment Cycle - the heart of the internal records systemB.Sales Information Systems - technology has allowed sales reps to haveimmediate access to information about their prospects and customers.IV.Marketing Intelligence SystemA. A set of procedures for managers to obtain everyday information about pertinentdevelopments in the marketing environment.B.Internal records systems supplies “results” data, and the marketing intelligencesystem supplies “happenings” data.C.There are four steps to improving marketing intelligence: train the sales force,motivate intermediaries to share intelligence, purchase information from outsidesuppliers, and establish an internal marketing information center to collect andcirculate intelligence.V.Marketing Research SystemA.Marketing research -- the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting ofdata and findings relevant to a specific marketing situation facing the company.B.Suppliers of marketing research - can be achieved through an in-housedepartment, an outside marketing research firm, or a variety of other costefficient ways. Increasing amounts of information available via the Internet.C.The Marketing Research Process1.Define the Problem and Research Objectives2.Developing the Research Plan - decisions on data sources, researchapproaches, research instruments, sampling plan, and contact methods.3.Collect the Information - phase most expensive and prone to error.4.Analyze the Information - extract pertinent findings from the collecteddata.5.Present the Findings - pertinent to the major marketing decisions facingmanagement.D.Overcoming Barriers to The Use of Marketing ResearchVI.Marketing Decision Support System (MDSS)A.Coordinated collection of data, systems, tools and techniques with supportingsoftware and hardware by which an organization gathers and interprets relevantinformation from business and environment and turns it into a basis formarketing action. Explanation of how an MDSS works.VII.An Overview of Forecasting and Demand MeasurementA.Measures of Market Demand - see TextB.Which Market to Measure? - available market, qualified available market, targetmarket, or penetrated marketC. A Vocabulary for Demand Measurement1.Market demand2.Market forecast3.Market potentialpany demandpany sales forecastpany sales potentialD.Estimating Current Demand1.Total Market Potential2.Area Market Potentiala)Market-buildup methodb)Multiple-factor index method3.Estimating Industry Sales and Market Shares - identifying competitorsand estimating their salesE. Estimating Future Demand1.Survey of Buyers' Intentionsposite of Sales-Force Opinion3.Expert Opinion4.Past-Sales Analysis5.Market Test MethodVIII.SummaryMARKETING AND ADVERTISING1. Marriott has boosted annual revenues over $12 billion by working to identify and satisfy the differing needs and preferences of travelers. The Marriott ad shown in Figure 1 is targeted toward health-conscious business travelers. What internal data sources can the company use to identify opportunities such as this? To identify problems with a particular part of the service offering such as the health club or pool? How would a marketing intelligence system help Marriott compete against Hilton and other rivals who target the business travel market? If you were designing Marriott's marketing intelligence system, what would you include? Why?Answer: To identify opportunities such as meeting the needs of health-conscious business travelers, Marriott might examine internal data sources such as records of trends in usage of its hotels' swimming pools and other health facilities and sales by room service and hotel restaurants of foods favored by health-conscious consumers; students may suggest additional internal data sources. Internal sources of data about problems with the service offering include written complaints and responses to customer satisfaction surveys; students may suggest additional sources. Marriott might use a marketing intelligence system to find out about changes in its competitors' hotels and service offerings geared toward the business travel market (such as new offers of in-room laptops, 24-hour copy center availability, and so on). Such intelligence would allow Marriott to evaluate rivals' actions and consider suitable responses. Students may have many ideas for what to include in a marketing intelligence system for Marriott. Two ideas: Ask suppliers about unusual or large orders placed by rival hotel chains; listen to competitors' speeches and visit their exhibits at conventions and other industry events.2. Bayer Aspirin, the product featured in this ad, is locked in competitive battle with Tylenol, Advil, and a wide range of other pain-killers. In planning next year's marketing programs, the company wants to estimate future demand. Would a survey of buyers' intentions be appropriate for this product? Would you suggest using past-sales analysis or a direct market test? What effect would the unexpected introduction of a new pain-killing drug from a rival firm—supported by a high-profile, multi-million dollar campaign—be likely to have on Bayer's forecast of future demand?Answer: No, a survey of buyers' intentions would not be appropriate for Bayer aspirin, because consumers are unlikely to plan purchases of aspirin for the months ahead. A past-sales analysis would be more helpful than a direct market test, because past sales can be thoroughly analyzed as a way of projecting future sales. Direct market tests are more useful for new products or products being expanded into additional channels or areas, not for an established product such as Bayer aspirin. The unexpected introduction of a new pain-killing drug from a rival firm, supported by a major promotional campaign, would probably change actual sales results, making Bayer's forecasts of future demand inaccurate and out-dated.Focus on TechnologyEvery year since 1994, the Georgia Institute of Technology has conducted two World Wide Web user surveys to find out who is using the Web, what technology is being used, the problems users are encountering, how much individuals and companies are spending online, and how they are using on-line financial services. To learn more, point your Web browser to Georgia Tech's WWW Survey site (/gvu/user_surveys/). Look through the latest survey results. What limitations should companies bear in mind when using these survey results? What kind of sample does this survey represent,and why should marketers care? How could a company such as United Airlines apply the results of this survey in its efforts to sell more airline tickets on the Web?Answer: Companies using the results of this survey should bear in mind that the data may not be representative of a target population, since the respondents are self-selected. The results of the survey may be biased by the exclusion of people who do not use the Internet or prefer not to answer on-line surveys. This survey is a convenience sample, selecting from among an accessible population of Internet users. Knowing this helps marketers realize that they cannot measure the sampling error in such a sample. United Airlines might use the results of this survey to determine what Internet users like, dislike, want, and do not want when making on-line purchases of goods and services; it will also reveal attitudes toward privacy concerns and other problems that bother Internet users. This survey will help the airline get a sense of the demographics of Internet users for comparison with the company's targeted segments. Students may suggest other uses of this survey.Marketing for the MillenniumPrudential is one of many companies using data mining to target its marketing outreach. Through data mining, the firm has saved money and improved response by more narrowly targeting the mailing lists for specific product offers. Visit Prudential's Web site () and select one type of product, such as life insurance. Identify two ways that data mining could be applied to market life insurance. What potential problems or dangers do you see in using data mining? What additional marketing applications can you foresee for Prudential's use of data mining?Answer: Students may suggest various ways that Prudential could use data mining to market life insurance. Two sample ideas for Prudential: (1) sift its complete customer database to identify consumers who have not yet bought life insurance from Prudential to identify prospects for such products; and (2) search the database to find the average age and other demographics of Prudential's most profitable life insurance customers, then search external databases to find other prospects who match the same profile and send them offers for Prudential life insurance. Some potential problems or dangers of data mining are: consumer concerns about privacy; the need for extensive safeguards to protect such valuable data; concerns about future regulation of databases containing sensitive consumer data; students may identify additional issues. Other marketing applications for data mining within Prudential include the ability to assign sales people only to prospects with the highest potential for purchasing selected products; and the ability to rank customers in order of overall profitability so Prudential can target more profitable customers formore/better service and use less-expensive methods for less-profitable customers (students may also offer other ideas).YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANMarketing information systems, marketing intelligence systems, and marketing research systems are used to gather and analyze data for various parts of the marketing plan. These systems can help marketers examine changes and trends in markets, competition, product usage, and distribution channels, among other areas. They can also turn up evidence of important opportunities and threats that must be addressed.You are continuing as Jane Melody's assistant at Sonic. Referring to Table 3-3 in Chapter 3, answer the following questions about how you can use MIS and marketing research to support the development and implementation of Sonic's marketing plan:∙For which sections will you need secondary data? Primary data? Both? Why do you need the information for each section?∙Where can you find suitable secondary data? Identify two non-Internet sources and two Internet sources, describe what you plan to draw from each source, and indicate how you willuse the data in your marketing planning.∙What surveys, focus groups, observation, behavioral data, and/or experiments will Sonic need to support its marketing strategy, including product management, pricing, distribution, andmarketing communication? Be specific about the questions or issues that Sonic should be ableto resolve using market research.As your instructor directs, enter information about Sonic's use of marketing data and research in the appropriate sections of a written marketing plan or type them in the corresponding sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: Students should review the data about Sonic shown in Chapter 3 and look at their answers to the marketing plan questions in Chapter 3 before answering these questions. Referring to Table 3.3, students will need secondary data as well as primary data as they look at Sonic's current marketing situation, the opportunity and issue analysis, and marketing strategy. This is because they need to collect primary data from internal sources (such as historical sales figures) and from external sources (such as consumer surveys) and gather secondary data (such as competitive product specifications) as background for writing about the marketing situation, analyzing opportunities and issues facing Sonic, and developing a suitable marketing strategy.Students may offer different ideas for sources of appropriate secondary data for this marketing plan. Some sample ideas include: searching printed materials or Internet sites maintained by trade associations to learn about trends in sales of products similar to the Sonic product line; and searching government publications and Internet sites to find out about current and pending regulations that might affect Sonic's ability to buy parts from international suppliers or sell finished products in international markets.In addition, students are likely to offer various answers about surveys, focus groups, observation, behavioral data, and/or experiments Sonic needs to support its marketing strategy decisions. Evaluate their responses on the basis of how well the marketing research they describe will help Sonic answer specific questions and resolve specific issues important to the company's marketing planning process. As one example, the research should help Sonic better describe attractive, profitable market segments to be targeted.。
“鸡尾酒会现象”双耳分听 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
“鸡尾酒会现象”不被注意的信息的命运如果你已经选择性地注意了一个知觉呈现的子集——依赖于你自己的目标或刺激的属性——那么那些没有被你注意的信息会有什么结局呢?想像一下当你正在听一个讲座的时候，你的两边都有人在谈话。
你如何跟上讲座的进程?你会注意到交谈中的什么内容?是不是任何出现在谈话内容中的信息都会把你的注意从讲座上转移开?这些问题最早由布罗德本特(Donald Broadbent) (1958)研究，他把心理看成是一个通讯的通道——像一条电话线或计算机的连线——积极地加工和传播信息。
根据布罗德本特的理论，作为一个通讯的通道，心理只有有限的资源去执行全部的加工。
这个限制要求注意严格调整从感觉到意识的信息流。
注意形成了一个通过认知系统的信息流的瓶颈，把一些信息过滤掉，让另一些信息继续进入。
注意的过滤器理论表明选择发生在加工的早期，在获得输入的意义之前。
为了检验过滤器理论，研究者用双耳分听(dichotic lis- tening)技术，在实验室重建了有多重输入来源的现实场景。
在这种范式中，被试戴着耳机听同时呈现的两种录音信息——不同的信息呈现给不同的耳朵。
被试被要求仅仅把两种信息中的一种重复给实验者，而把另一耳中的信息都忽略掉。
这种程序被称为掩蔽注意信息(见图5．10) 。
研究者发现，当注意已经过滤了所有被忽视的材料使得回忆不可能发生时，有些被试仍能回忆一些信息，这使过滤器理论极端模型受到了挑战(Cherry，1953)。
例如，试想一下你自己的名字。
人们总是报告说在一个喧闹的房间里，即使在聊天的时候也能听到有人喊他们的名字。
这经常被称为鸡尾酒会现象。
图5．10 双耳分听任务被试听到在每只耳朵同时呈现的不同的阿拉伯数字：2(左)，7(右)，6(左)，9(右)，1(左)，和5(右)。
他报告听到正确的数列——261和795。
然而，当要求被试仅仅注意右耳的输入，他报告只听到795。
CH01 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
PART ONE -- UNDERSTANDING MARKETINGMANAGEMENTCHAPTER1--M ARKETING IN THE T WENTY-F IRST C ENTURY OVERVIEWMarketing is the company function charged with defining customer targets and the best way tosatisfy their needs and wants competitively and profitably. Since consumers and business buyersface an abundance of suppliers seeking to satisfy their every need, companies cannot survive today by simply doing a good job. They must do an excellent job if they are to remain in theincreasingly competitive global marketplace. Recent studies have demonstrated that the key toprofitable company performance is knowing and satisfying target customers with competitivelysuperior offers. This process takes place today in an increasingly global, technical andcompetitive environmentMarketing has its origins in the fact that humans have needs and wants. Needs and wants create astate of discomfort in people, which is relieved through acquiring products to satisfy these needs and wants. Since many products can satisfy a given need, product choice is guided by the concepts of value, cost, and satisfaction. These products are obtainable in several ways: self-production, coercion, begging and exchange. Most modern societies work on the principle of exchange, which means that people specialize in producing particular products and trade them for the other things they need. They engage in transactions and relationship-building. A market is a group of people who share a similar need. Marketing encompasses those activities that represent working with markets and attempting to actualize potential exchanges.Marketing management is the conscious effort to achieve desired exchange outcomes with targetmarkets. The marketer's basic skill lies in influencing the level, timing, and composition ofdemand for a product, service, organization, place, person, idea or some form of information. There are five alternative philosophies that can guide organizations in their efforts to carry out their marketing goal(s). The production concept holds that consumers will favor products that are affordable and available, and therefore management's major task is to improve production and distribution efficiency and bring down prices. The product concept holds that consumers favor quality products that are reasonably priced, and therefore little promotional effort is required. The selling concept holds that consumers will not buy enough of the company's products unless they are stimulated through a substantial selling and promotion effort.Heading towards more enlightened views of the role of marketing, the marketing concept holdsthat the main task of the company is to determine the needs, wants, and preferences of a targetgroup of customers and to deliver the desired satisfactions. Its four princ iples are target market, customer needs, integrated marketing, and profitability. The marketing concept places primary focus on the needs and wants of customers who comprise the target market for a particular product. Rather than coax customers into purchasing a product they may not find satisfying, the emphasis is on determining the types of markets to be satisfied, and creating the product thatachieves this satisfaction objective. Choosing target markets and identifying customer needs is no small task; a marketer must dig beyond a customer’s stated needs. Once this is accomplished, a marketer can offer for sale the products that will lead to the highest satisfaction. This encourages customer retention and profit, which is best achieved when all areas/departments of a company become “customer-focused”.Moving beyond the marketing concept, the societal marketing concept holds that the main task of the company is to generate customer satisfaction and long-run consumer and societal well-being as the key to satisfying organizational goals and responsibilities.Interest in marketing is intensifying as more organizations in the business sector, the nonprofit sector, and the global sector recognize how marketing contributes to improved performance in the marketplace. The result is that marketers are re-evaluating various marketing concepts and tools focus on relationships, databases, communications and channels of distribution, as well as marketing outside and inside the organization.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Know why marketing is important to contemporary organizations∙Understand the core concepts of marketing∙Know the basic tasks performed by marketing organizations and managers∙Understand the differences between the various orientations to the marketplace∙Know the components of the marketing concept and why they are critical to successful marketing practice∙Know why marketing has been found to be critical to different types of organizations and in different environments.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.Introduction --- Importance of Marketing in Contemporary Organizations - with rapidchanges come both challenges and opportunities, marketing allows organizations to take advantage of these opportunitiesII.Marketing TasksA.Scope of Marketing -- Involves a broadened View of Marketing - to types ofentities (goods, services, and ideas)1.Products are anything offered for sale or exchange that satisfies a need orwant.2.Products can be goods, services, ideas -- and also people, places,activities, organizations and information.B. A Broadened View of Marketing Tasks - Decisions Marketers Make -1.Consumer Markets and Business Markets - Each requires new tools andcapabilities to better understand and respond to the customer.2.Global Markets, Nonprofit and Governmental Markets - Becoming moresophisticated in recognizing and dealing with marketing challenges anddecisions.III.Marketing Concepts and ToolsA.Defining Marketing1.Marketing Defined - a social and managerial process by whichindividuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating,offering, and exchanging products of value with others.B.Core Marketing Concepts1.Target Markets and Segmentation - Every product or service containsfeatures which a marketer must translate into benefits for a target market.It is these benefits the consumer perceives to be available in a productand directly impacts the perceived ability to meet the consumer need(s)or want(s).2.Marketers and Prospects - a marketer is someone actively seeking one ormore prospects for an exchange of values. A prospect has beenidentified as willing and able to engage in the exchange.3.Needs, Wants, and Demands - to need is to be in a state of feltdeprivation of some basic satisfaction. Wants are desires for specificsatisfiers of needs. Demands are wants for specific products that arebacked by an ability and willingness to buy them.4.Product or offering - Anything offered for sale that satisfies a need orwant. Products consist of three primary components: goods, servicesand ideas. The physical product provides the desired service or action.5.Value and Satisfaction - Value is the consumer’s estimate of theproduct’s overall capacity to satisfy his or her needs determinedaccording to the lowest possible cost of acquisition, ownership and use.6.Exchange and Transactions - exchange means obtaining a desiredproduct by offering something desirable in return. Five conditions mustbe satisfied (p.11) A transaction is the trade of values (involves severaldimensions).7.Relationships and Networks - Relationship marketing seeks long-term,“win-win” transactions between marketers and key parties (suppliers,customers, distributors) The ultimate outcome of relationship marketingis a unique company asset called a marketing network of mutuallyprofitable business relationships.8.Marketing Channels - Reaching the target market is critical. To do thisthe marketer can use two-way communication channels (media-newspapers through the Internet), versus more traditional means. Themarketer also must decide on the distribution channel, trade channels andselling channels (to effect transactions).9.Supply chain - the long channel process that reaches from the rawmaterials and components to the final product / buyers. Perceived as avalue delivery system.petition - Includes actual and potential rival offerings and substitutes.A broad view of competition assists the marketer to recognize the levelsof competition, based on substitutability: brand, industry, form andgeneric.11.Marketing Environment - Includes the task (immediate actors in theproduction, distribution and promotional environments) and the broadenvironments (demographic, economic, natural, technological, political-legal and social-cultural).12.Marketing Mix - the set of marketing tools the firm uses to pursuemarketing objectives with the target market. Involves recognition anduse of the four Ps and the four Cs in the short run and the long run.pany Orientations Toward the MarketplaceA. The Production Concept - Assumes consumers will favor those products that arewidely available and low in cost.B. The Product Concept - Assumes consumers will favor those products that offerthe best combination of quality, performance, or innovative features.C.The Selling Concept - Assumes organizations must undertake aggressive sellingand promotion efforts to enact exchanges with otherwise passive consumers.D.The Marketing Concept _- Assumes:1.The key to achieving organizational goals consists of being moreeffective than competitors in integrating marketing activities towarddetermining and satisfying the needs and wants of target markets.2.Target Market - no company can operate in every market and satisfyevery need.3.Customer Needs - it’s not enough to just find the market; marketers mustalso understand their customer's needs and wants. This is not a simpletask.4.Integrated Marketing - all of a company’s departments must worktogether to serve the customer’s interests. This begins among the variousmarketing functions and carries out into other departments.5.Profitability - the ultimate purpose of marketing is to help organizationsachieve profitability goals.6.Hurdles to Adopting a Marketing Concepta)Organized Resistance - some departments see marketing as athreat to their power in the organizationb)Slow Learning - despite efforts by management, learning comesslowc)Fast Forgetting - there is a strong tendency to forget marketingprinciples7.ProfitabilityE.The Societal Marketing Concept1.Societal Marketing Concept - the organization’s task is to determine theneeds, wants, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desiredsatisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a waythat preserves or enhances the consumer’s and the society’s well-being. V.How Business and Marketing are Changingpany Responses and Adjustments - the focus here is on reengineering thefirm, outsourcing goods and services, e-commerce, benchmarking, alliances(networking), partner-suppliers, market-centered (versus product centered), localand global marketing (versus only local), and decentralization to encourageinnovative thinking and marketing.B.Marketer Responses and Adjustments - Focus on relationship marketing (versustransactional marketing), creation of customer lifetime value orientation, focuson customer share marketing versus only market share, target marketing (versusmass marketing), individualization of marketing messages and offerings,customer databases for data-mining, integrated marketing communications forconsistent images, consideration of channel members as partners, recognition ofevery employee as a marketer, and model and fact-based decision making versusintuition alone.VI.SummaryMARKETING A ND ADVERTISING1. The A ir Canada ad in Figure 1 stresses the time-saving aspect of its flights between the United States and Canada as well as the frequent flier mileage benefits. How do these two elements affect the ratio of benefits to cost in the value equation? Other than advertising lower ticket prices, how else can Air Canada use its advertising to affect the value perceived by customers? Suggest at least two specific value-enhancing approaches Air Canada might take.Answer: By reducing the amount of time needed to fly between the United States and Canada, Air Canada lowers the total costs in the denominator of the value equation, which raises the value ratio. In addition, the frequent flyer benefits add to the numerator of the value equation, again raising the value ratio. Two other ways Air Canada can use its advertising to affect the value perceived by customers are: (1) invite travelers to use specially-equipped Air Canada waiting lounges with office amenities such as e-mail access and fax machines, which boosts the benefits; and (2) invite customers to sign up for a special service that automatically notifies up to three relatives and/or business associates when a customer's plane arrives at its destination, which cuts the psychic costs and adds to the emotional benefits. Students may offer other value-enhancing ideas.2. The marketing network of Dow Chemical Company consists of a wide range of stakeholders, including customers, employees, suppliers, distributors, and volunteers and beneficiaries of nonprofit organizations such as Habitat for Humanity. Why would Dow advertise its support of Habitat for Humanity? What effect does the company expect this ad to have on its relationships with various stakeholders? How can Dow build on strong stakeholder relationships to compete more effectively in the construction industry?Answer: Dow advertises its support of Habitat for Humanity because it believes in the societal marketing concept. Some students may argue that Dow is also enhancing the emotional benefits that customers perceive in its products and enhancing its relationship marketing by creating a stronger social tie with customers and other stakeholders. In addition, Dow is putting a more human face on its corporation and products. Dow expects this ad to encourage customers (both consumers and businesses), suppliers, and other global stakeholders to choose and support Dow products because the company is conscientiously balancing profitability and customer satisfaction with concern for society's well-being.Dow can build on strong stakeholder relationships to compete more effectively in the construction industry in various ways. One suggestion: create specialized programs to attract and retain construction customers that are particularly interested in supporting social causes s uch as Habitat for Humanity. Another suggestion: expand this type of program to include the wholesale and retail companies that carry Dow products, which strengthens channel relationships and motivates channel members to do an even better job of selling Dow construction products. Students are likely to offer other creative ideas.FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGYCharles Schwab, based in San Francisco, is a giant discount brokerage firm offering a wide range of investment and financial services options. When someone visits a Schwab office or calls the company, employees can immediately bring up that customer's online records and talk knowledgeably about investments and services suited to that customer's individual situation. Schwab also invites customers to open accounts, locate financial research, place trades, and track market trends on its Web site. Browse the Schwab Web site (), looking at the offerings and the online demonstration of Schwab capabilities. How does this Web site confirm Schwab's focus on the customer? Why is employee access to complete and current customer records especially important in the brokerage business? What other parts of Schwab must be properly coordinated to ensure integrated marketing for customer satisfaction?Answer: The Schwab Web site can be customized to fit each customer's interests; it also offers a wide range of information, resources, and tools to help customers address their financial needs. In this way, Schwab confirms its focus on the customer. Brokerage employees need access to complete and current customer records because securities trading requires speedy response. Outdated or incomplete information can cost customers money and aggravation—making customers angry and ultimately driving them away.Other parts of Schwab that must be coordinated to ensure integrated marketing for customer satisfaction are: external marketing, with the marketing mix accurately reflecting Schwab's features and benefits; internal marketing, with all employees trained and motivated to provide excellent customer service; all layers of management, ready to assist the front-line people who handle customer transactions and customer service; and all company departments ready to work together to respond to and satisfy Schwab's customers.MARKETING FOR THE MILLENNIUME-commerce is growing exponentially because of its convenience, savings, selection, personalization, and information. Still, figuring out exactly how to reach the right cybercustomers can be challenging for even the largest marketers. Kraft, Kellogg, and other companies are learning to use targeted banner advertisingto reach the customer segments most likely to be interested in their products. These companies boosted online sales significantly by placing banner ads on Peapod, a Internet-based grocery shopping service. Untargeted ad banners, by comparison, are inexpensive but draw less customer response. Visit Peapod's Web site () and type in your zip code, as directed. Then sign in to take the shopping demonstration showing which products are offered and how the service operates. What types of products could potentially benefit from advertising on this site? What kind of information would these marketers want from Peapod in order to determine the value of targeted banner advertising on this site? How might Kellogg use banner advertising on Peapod to support a new cereal product? To support an existing cereal product?Answer: Branded grocery products in particular can potentially benefit from advertising on Peapod's Web site—as long as online customers can purchase these products from Peapod. This Web advertising would reinforce the messages of other marketing communications such as broadcast commercials and print ads, building consumer demand and preference for the branded products. In addition, grocery products that represent impulse purchases (such as snacks) would benefit from advertising on Peapod, because consumers can make an immediate purchase to satisfy the wants generated by these ads.Marketers would want to know how many consumers view Peapod's ads; how many consumers have responded (if this information is available) to previous ads; how many other products in the marketer's category are advertising at the same time on Peapod banners (to gauge competition); ho w long the banner will run; and how fees will be calculated (according to number of clicks, number of times page is accessed, or other method?). Students may suggest other questions, as well.Kellogg can use banner advertising on Peapod to support a new cereal product by starting with a banner that highlights the new cereal's main feature and benefit while clearly identifying the target audience ("Try Cereal X, a good tasting, low-sugar cereal for children," for example). It can also use the banner to remind consumers when to watch for the new product on Peapod's listings; when to watch for commercials andprint ads promoting the new product; when to check for special new-product pricing. Kellogg can use banner advertising on Peapod to support an existing cereal product by reinforcing the name and main feature/benefit ("Special K has all essential vitamins for healthy bodies," for example), reminding consumers to watch for the product's advertising in other media ("See ad in this week's newspaper"), urging consumers to stock up during price specials, and so on. Students will have other creative ideas for ways that Kellogg can use banner advertising on Peapod.。
论广告意识形态 中山大学吴柏林教授,广告心理学,清华大学出版社,绝密资料
识和心理状态的投影 。广告为 向大众消费者推销产
品 ,往往借大 众能接 受 的观念来展 开说服 工作 ,这 种
观念不会是无源之水 、无本之木与脱离现实的想象 ,
而是现实的 图画 。
广告之所以能 够成功地发挥这种意识形态作用 , 使消费者放松兽锡 ,丧失理性 思维能 力 ,甚 至产生对
表层意识形态把持着话语的权 力 ,它总是无所不 知、 一贯正确地 向人们灌输种种教条 ,教导人们该 如 何思想 、 如何生活 ,在智力和道德上似乎拥有凌驾于
知识 、 立场 、 观点 ,往往会被它的产生者 — 特殊的社 会群体有意或无意地普泛化 , 扩大到超 出特定范 围 , 具 有超常的适用性 和正确性 ,简而 言之 ,一种 话语 强
权。
当代广告 无疑 正上演 着这样一场 意 识形 态化 的 戏剧 一开始 ,广告生产着观点 、 知识 、 信仰 、 立场 与价 值 ,后来则借 助媒体帝 国的霸权之手 ,对不设防 的受 众进行天长 日久的渗透和包 围 , 以 图谋一场 精 神的 “ 和平演变 ”最终将某种隶属于特殊集 团的世界观和 ,
本来就 只是物 质世界 的推销 术 ,染指意识 形态 只是广
们消费 ,因此 ,无论广告再怎么天花乱坠 ,或者清静无 为 ,它都始终是为消费服务 ,以消费主义为中心的 。 因
此广告是一种消费文化 ,广告的深 层意识形态从根本 上说 ,其价值 内核就是消费主义 。广告表 层意识形态 的所有观点 、 法 、 说 立场是 以此 为 中心 建构起来 的种 种 “ 言语 ” 而消费主义则是隐藏在所有表 层表达之 , 下 ,生成表 层话语的最根本的深 层结构 。伴随 着以广 告为代表的消费意识形态的耳濡 目染 ,以消费主义为 中心 的意识形态 已经完成对 当代人 的脱胎换骨式 的 改造 ,使之建立起在消费中寻找价值和意义的生活方 式。 人们在 消费 中发现 自我 、 确证社会 身份 、 得社 取 会认 同 ,人们还在 消费 中找寻人生的方 向 ,更 习惯 了 用物质的 占有来标 生命价值的高度和效度 。 在广告 所建立 的物 质神话里 ,现 代人找 到 了安 身立命 、 立心
CH02 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
CHAPTER2--BUILDING CUSTOMER SATISFACTION THROUGHQUALITY,SERVICE AND VALUEOVERVIEWToday's customers face a growing range of choice in the products and services they can buy. They are making their choice on the basis of their perceptions of quality, service, and value. Companies need to understand the determinants of customer value and satisfaction. Customer delivered value is the difference between total customer value and total customer cost. Customers will normally choose the offer that maximizes the delivered value.Customer satisfaction is the outcome felt by buyers who have experienced a company performance that has fulfilled expectations. Customers are satisfied when their expectations are met and delighted when their expectations are exceeded. Satisfied customers remain loyal longer, buy more, are less price sensitive, and talk favorably about the company.A major challenge for high performance companies is that of building and maintaining viable businesses in a rapidly changing marketplace. They must recognize the core elements of the business and how to maintain a viable fit between their stakeholders, processes, resources and organization capabilities and culture. Typically, high performing businesses develop and emphasize cross-functional skills rather than functional skills (overall project management and results versus functional strengths (best engineers, etc.). They also build their resources into core capabilities that become core competencies, distinctive abilities and competitive advantages. This, along with a corporate culture of shared experiences, stories, beliefs and norms unique to the organization, are the keys to their success.To create customer satisfaction, companies must manage their value chain as well as the whole value delivery system in a customer-centered way. The company's goal is not only to get customers but even more importantly, to retain customers. Customer relationship marketing provides the key to retaining customers and involves providing financial and social benefits as well as structural ties to the customers. Companies must decide how much relationship marketing to invest in different market segments and individual customers, from such levels as basic, reactive, accountable, proactive, to full partnership. Much depends on estimating customer lifetime value against the cost stream required to attract and retain these customers.Total quality marketing is seen today as a major approach to providing customer satisfaction and company profitability. Companies must understand how their customers perceive quality and how much quality they expect. Companies must then strive to offer relatively higher quality than their competitors. This involves total management and employee commitment as well as measurement and reward systems. Marketers play an especially critical role in their company's drive toward higher quality.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Know what constitutes customer value and satisfaction∙Know how leading companies organize to produce and deliver high customer value and satisfaction∙Know how companies can retain customers as well as attract customers∙Know how companies can determine customer profitability∙Know how companies can practice total quality marketing strategyCHAPTER OUTLINE:I.IntroductionII.Defining Customer Value and SatisfactionA.Customer Value1.Customer delivered value - the difference between total customer valueand total customer cost, or “profit” to the customer. Total customervalue is the expected bundle of benefits.2.Total customer cost - bundle of costs consumers expect to incur inevaluating, obtaining and using the product or service.3.Customer value assessment - weighing the value against all of the costsB.Customer Satisfaction1.Perceived performance and expectations - contribute to overallsatisfaction2.Methods of tracking and measuring customer satisfaction - see Text. III.The Nature of High-Performance BusinessesA.Stakeholders - customers, employees, suppliers, distributorsB.Processes - work flows through an organization, to achieve cross functional skillsC.Resources - labor, power, materials, machines, information, energy, etc., toachieve core competence, distinctive ability(ies) and competitive advantage.anization and Organizational Culture - structures, policies. Corporate Cultureis the shared experiences, stories, beliefs, and norms that characterize anorganization.IV.Delivering Customer Value and SatisfactionA.Value Chain - used as a tool for identifying ways to create more value. Ninevalue creating activities.B.Value-Delivery Network - to be successful a firm has to look for competitiveadvantages beyond its own operations. Theme that building a better network canbe a highly successful differentiation tactic that leads to greater customersatisfaction.V.Attracting and Retaining Customersputing the Cost of Lost Customers - compute customer defection rate (4-stepprocess)B.The Need for Customer Retention - cost of attracting a new customer is 5 timesthat of retaining a satisfied current customer.C.Relationship Marketing: The Key - there is a process to attracting and retainingcustomers. There are five levels of customer relationship building, and threecustomer-value building approaches:1.Adding Financial Benefits - frequency marketing programs and clubmarketing programs2.Adding Social Benefits- individualize and personalize customerrelationships3.Adding Structural Ties -help customers manage themselves.VI.Customer Profitability: The Ultimate Test - a profitable customer is a person, household, or company that over time yields a revenue stream that exceeds by an acceptable amount the company’s cost stream of attracting, selling, and servicing the customer. A company should not attempt to pursue and satisfy all customers.VII.Implementing Total Quality ManagementA.Total Quality Marketing (TQM) - Most customers will no longer accept ortolerate average quality performance. There is an intimate connection amongproduct and service quality, customer satisfaction and company profitability.B.The role of Marketing now is extended beyond external marketing activities tointernal marketing roles to act as the Customer's watchdog within theorganization.VIII.SummaryMARKETING A ND ADVERTISING1. Toyota, like many automotive manufacturers, emphasizes excellent product quality and high customer satisfaction. But what exactly is quality—and how can Toyota prove that it offers excellent quality? The Toyota ad in Figure 1 shows one approach. What element of quality is the ad stressing, and how does this element satisfy customer needs? Is the ad focusing on performance or conformance quality? What are the implications for customers? For Toyota's marketing strategy?Answer: This Toyota ad is emphasizing performance quality, specifically the ability of the Sienna model to withstand a crash better than any other vehicle ever tested. This element of quality satisfies customers' needs for safety. The implications for customers are that those who worry about accidents can choose the Sienna and feel safer than they would in any other vehicle. The implications for Toyota's marketing strategy are that the company can promote the car to audiences that worry about accidents, including parents with children and anyone else who wants to feel safer when they drive, on the basis of evidence from credible third-party crash tests. This is a powerful competitive edge.2. Roadway Express wants to be the trucking firm of choice for companies that choose to outsource their shipping function, as the ad in Figure 2 indicates. What is Roadway's core competence? Why would Rawlings, the customer featured in the ad, prefer to outsource to Roadway rather than handle its own shipments? What capability does Roadway appear to be emphasizing in this ad?Answer: Roadway's core competence is its exceptional on-time delivery. Rawlings would prefer to outsource shipments because Rawlings's core competence is baseball equipment. Therefore, Rawlings wants to own and nurture its core resources and competence while outsourcing less critical activities such as delivery. Roadway is emphasizing customer linking in this ad; this is clear from its use of the Rawlings testimonial, indicating how happy Rawlings is as a Roadway customer. It is also clear from the insertion of the Rawlings URL at the bottom of the ad—equal in size to the Roadway URL—that Rawlings and Roadway consider themselves partners.FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGYHow can a company use its Web site for cost-effective customer-relationship building? Fuji Film Company maintains an extensive Internet presence for consumers and business customers. Generally, the profit margins in consumer products are too small to allow for expensive outreach beyond basic marketing. Yet Kodak, Fuji's archrival, invites consumers to become members of its Web site. Members receive Kodak information via e-mail and are able to upload their own photo images for inclusion in electronic postcards.Visit the Web sites of Kodak () and Fuji Film (), and examine how each reaches out to consumers. What can Fuji learn from Kodak's membership approach? How can Fuji use its Web site to stay in touch with consumers on a regular basis?Answer: Fuji might want to adapt Kodak's membership approach. This would allow Fuji to learn more about its consumer markets and provide consumers with value-added services that will build and strengthen relationships over the long term. Fuji might also want to use a membership approach to build relationships with the other market segments it serves, including profess ionals and businesses. Fuji can offer contests, weekly or monthly special events, and other inducements to keep consumers coming back to its Web site; this way, Fuji can stay in touch with consumers on a regular basis. Fuji can also periodically e-mail announcements to consumers who become members, another way to stay in touch. Students can use their creativity to develop ways for Fuji to use its Web site to strengthen relationships with individual consumers. MARKETING FOR THE MILLENNIUMLogistix is testing Web Agent software from Aspect Telecommunications that allows an employee and a customer to view the same Web screen simultaneously while they are having a telephone conversation. Web Agent is only one of the products Aspect offers for teleweb applications. Visit Aspect's Web site () and locate its integrated call center solutions. Try an on-line demo of one of the featured products or read the detailed description of Web Agent. How does this Aspect product deliver value to Logistix? What value does it add for the business customer who contacts Logistix through its call center? How can Logistix use this product to build relationships with its business customers? What relationship-building obstacles do you think Logistix might encounter early in the next millennium—and how should the company respond?Answer: The Aspect Web Agent software delivers value to Logistix because the program allows the firm to more conveniently communicate with and service customers who access Internet pages, a process that is more complex without Aspect's specialized software. In turn, this more convenient service and communication adds to customer satisfaction and strengthens customer relationships, ultimately boosting customer retention and slowing customer defect ions for Logistix. It also adds value for business customers who contact Logistix through the call center, because they get immediate assistance with questions or problems without having to log off the Internet, dial up Logistix, and try to put into words exactly what they need.Logistix can use this software to build relationships with business customers by encouraging them to access the company's Web site and simultaneously call the company to discuss any questions or problems they may have with products or information. Over time, business customers are likely to find this system so convenient that they will buy more from Logistix because of the value-added service. One relationship-building obstacle Logistix might encounter early in the next millennium is an evolution in Internet technology that allows every competitor to handle customer calls the way Web Agent does today—but without specialized software. This will erode Logistix's competitive edge in customer service. The company can respond to this obstacle by continuing to explore new communication methods for immediate customer service through multiple channels (Internet, telephone, and others). Students will offer various answers to question of obstacles in the new millennium.。
广告与文化心理 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
杨荣刚等现代广告全书辽宁人民出版社沈阳：1994.9第十一章广告与文化心理每个消费者都在一定的文化环境中成长，并在一定的文化环境中生活着，其思想意识必然打上了深深的文化烙印。
因此，广告制作者必须十分重视对文化心理的研究，要了解社会文化对消费行为的影响，制定出合适的广告策略，以达到促销的目的。
否则，即使产品质量再好，广告宣传投资再多，也难免要遭冷落。
其原因之一是，商品和广告没有体现或者甚至违背了当地的风俗、习惯、信仰、价值观、语言文字、教育水平以及社会组织情况等因素—社会文化因素。
一、文化与消费行为1．文化及其特点文化一词是用来表达人类生存所积累的一切成就的概括。
有时也指社会意识，包括政治、思想、道德、艺术、语言文字、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观等诸多方面。
各个国家由于民族、历史、地理位置以及物质生活等方面的不同，产生了各自独特的文化。
在不同国家里成长的人，在风俗习惯、崇尚爱好、宗教信仰上都有明显的差异。
人们的饮食爱好，千差万别，中国人吃米饭、馒头，西方人却以面包为主食。
法国人把蜗牛尊为名菜，有些非洲人将蚂蚁奉为美撰。
颜色的爱憎也有很大的差异：我国人民一向认为红色吉利，丹麦人、捷克人和斯洛伐克人也都认为红色代表喜事，是一种积极的色彩；而美国人却认为红色有着许多令人讨厌的意思，如红色表示停止，帐目上叫赤字，是亏本的象征。
又例如，1982年以前，美国大多数人认为黑色是吊丧、晦气的象征，但1982年秋季开始，由于许多商人采用黑色作为商标和产品的主色，黑色一下就流行起来，黑色现在在美国被认为是高贵、典雅和精力旺盛的象征。
可见文化是在发展变化的。
我们这里所说的文化，是指一国中大多数人与消费有关的崇尚爱好和风俗习惯，如风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观、语言文字等，这些文化因素对消费者作出的购买决策会产生巨大的潜在影响。
从上面所举的例子我们可以看出，文化具有这样几个特点：①文化不是先天遗传来的，而是在后天的社会环境中形成的。
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料_KOTLER17
Chapter 17 – Managing the Sales ForceI. Chapter Overview/Objectives/OutlineA. OverviewMost companies use sales representatives, and many companies assign them the pivotal role in the marketing mix. Salespeople are very effective in achieving certain marketing objectives. At the same time, they are very costly. Management must give careful thought to designing and managing its personal-selling resources.Sales force design calls for decisions on objectives, strategy, structure, size, and compensation. Sales force objectives include prospecting, communicating, selling and servicing, information gathering, and allocating. Sales force strategy is a question of what types and mix and selling approaches are most effective (solo selling, team selling, and so on). Sales force structure is a choice between organizing by territory, product, customer, or a hybrid combination, and developing the right territory size and shape. Sales force size involves estimating the total workload and how many sales hours—and hence salespeople—would be needed. Sales force compensation involves deter-mining pay level and components such as salary, commission, bonus, expenses, and fringe benefits.Managing the sales force involves recruiting and selecting sales representatives and training, directing, motivating, and evaluating them. Sales representatives must be recruited and selected carefully to hold down the high costs of hiring the wrong persons. Sales-training programs familiarize new salespeople with the company‘s history, its products and policies, the characteristics of the market and competitors, and the art of selling.Salespeople need direction on such matters as developing customer and prospect targets and call norms and using their time efficiency through computer-aided information, planning and selling systems, and inside support salespeople. Salespeople also need encouragement through economic and personal rewards and recognition because they must make tough decisions and are subject to many frustrations. The key idea is that appropriate sales force motivation will lead to more effort, better performance, higher rewards, higher satisfaction, and therefore still more motivation. The last management step calls for periodically evaluating each salesperson‘s performance to help him or her do a better job.The purpose of the sales force is to produce sales, and this involves the art of personal selling. One aspect is salesmanship, which involves a seven-step process: prospecting and qualifying, pre-approach, approach, presentation and demonstration, overcoming objections, closing, and follow-up and maintenance. Another aspect is negotiation, the art of arriving at transaction terms that satisfy both parties. The third aspect is relationship management, the art of creating a closer working relationship and interdependence between the people in two organizations. The primary variables for the sales force/management effort include the following: (1) Setting Objectives—Objectives can be general rules for guiding salespeople or more specific expectations for behavior. Regardless, the sales objectives should address the relationship between sales, customer satisfaction, and company profit; (2) Designing Strategy—Strategy requires decisions on sales force structure, size, and compensation. Variations in this mixture are appropriate for differing industries, markets and sales objectives; (3) Recruiting andSelecting—Knowing in advance what characteristics will always produce good salespeople is very difficult. Selection procedures should screen candidates for both ability and retention-related issues; (4) Training Salespeople—Issues in training center on skills such as order taking, order getting, and seeing customers as people who require problem solutions; (5) Supervising Salespeople—Supervis ion addresses problems in directing and coordinating salespeople‘s organization, time management, motivation, and customer relationships; and (6) Evaluating Salespeople—Evaluation requires both qualitative and quantitative measures of sales force performance.B. Learning Objectives∙Understand the fundamental principles of personal selling.∙Learn the key factors in designing a sales force.∙Work with and understand some of the tools for successful management of a sales force.C. Chapter OutlineI.Introduction - Various classifications of sales positions ranging from least to mostcreative types of selling (deliverer, order taker, missionary, technician, demand creator, and solution vendor).II.Designing the Sales ForceA.Sales Force Objectives and strategy1.Objectives - Tasks to perform include prospecting, targeting,communicating, selling, servicing, information gathering, and allocating.2.Strategy - Approach can be sales rep to buyer, sales rep to buyer group,sales team to buyer group, and conference selling or seminar selling. Acompany can utilize a direct (company) or contractual (outside) salesforce.B.Sales Force Structure - territorial, product, market, complexC.Sales-Force Size1.Based on number of customers to reach2.Workload approach - Customer volume size classes, call frequencies,total workload, average number of calls, and number of sales repsneeded.D.Sales-Force Compensation - Level and appropriate combination of components(fixed, variable, expense allowances, and benefits).III.Managing the Sales ForceA.Recruiting and Selecting Sales Reps1.What Makes a Good Sales Representative?2.Recruitment Procedures3.Applicant-Rating ProceduresB.Training Sales Reps1.Goals - To know and identify with the company, to know the company‘sproducts, to know the customers‘ and competitors‘ characteristics.2.Other Goals - To know how to make effective sales presentations, and tounderstand field procedures and responsibilities.C.Supervising Sales Reps1.Norms for Customer Calls2.Norms for Prospect Callsing Sales Time Efficientlya)Time and duty analysis/improving productivity.b)Inside sales force(1)Due to rising cost of outside sales force.(2)Rising automation (for inside and outside sales forces).D.Motivating Sales Reps - The higher the salesperson‘s motivation, the greater hisor her effort.1.Sales quotas2.Supplementary Motivators (meetings, contests, etc.)E.Evaluating Sales Representatives1.Sources of Information - Sales reports including activity plans and write-ups of activity reports.2.Formal Evaluation - Current-to-past sales comparisons, customer-satisfaction evaluation, and qualitative evaluation.IV.Principles of Personal SellingA.Professionalism - Major steps involved in any sales presentation.B.Prospecting and Qualifying - Identify and screen out leads.1.Pre-approach - Learning about the prospect.2.Approach - Greeting the prospect.3.Presentation and Demonstration - Tell the product ―story.‖4.Overcoming Objections - Psychological and logical resistance.5.Closing - Asking for the sale.6.Follow-Up and Maintenance - Ensure satisfaction.C.Negotiation - In negotiated exchange, price, and other terms are set viabargaining behavior, in which two or more parties negotiate long-term bindingagreements.1.When to Negotiate - Appropriate whenever a zone of agreement exists.2.Formulating a Negotiation Strategy – Note classic bargaining tactics.D.Relationship Marketing - Based on the premise that important accounts needfocused and continuous attention. Main steps in establishing a relationshipmarketing program include:1.Identify the key customers meriting relationship marketing.2.Assign a skilled relationship manager to each key customer.3.Develop a clear job description for relationship managers.4.Appoint an overall manager to supervise the relationship managers.5.Have relationship managers develop long-range goals and annualcustomer-relationship plans.V.SummaryII. Lecture“The Death and Rebirth of the Salesperson”This discussion focuses on the process of and changes in this important area of marketing. We also consider the role and value of effective sales force policy and strategy in the overall marketing process for the organization. It is useful to update the examples so that students willbe able to identify readily with this concept based on their general knowledge of the companies and products involved in the lecture/discussion.The discussion begins by considering past sales force strategy variables. This leads into a discussion of the implications for the introduction of new strategies for the future, given the substantial technological and other changes sales professionals and firms will encounter in the medium and long run environment.Teaching Objectives∙To stimulate students to think about the critical sales force and policy issues.∙To recognize some of the directional variables in sales force policy.DiscussionI NTRODUCTION—I S THE C USTOMER Y OUR P ARTNER?Today‘s customers want solutions, and companies are remaking their sales forces to satisfy them. Nevertheless, total quality goals and sales quotas still clash. This is the primary theme related to the new enlightened sales force of the future. In the past, sales people would brag that their primary purpose in life was to push metal (IBM) or slam boxes (Xerox). Today, the sales force gauges success as much by customer satisfaction as the units sold. The former is generally a much more rigorous yardstick than the latter. As companies today are finding that if you anticipate what your customers need and then deliver it beyond their expectations, order flow takes care of itself.As more managers awake to the challenge, old stereotypes are fading faster than Willy Loman‘s smile and shoeshine. Forget the mythical lone-wolf salesman; today‘s trend-setting salespeople tend to work in teams. The traditional sample case is more likely to hold spreadsheets than widg ets. Today‘s best salespeople see themselves as problem solvers, not vendors. They gauge success not just by sales volume but also by customer satisfaction. They do not ―sell‖; they ―partner‖ with the customer.Companies that dismiss the new, more collaborative sales methods as a fad are likely to slip behind. Today‘s de manding buyers are running out of patience with mere product pushers, whether at the new-car showroom, on the floor of a department store, or in the corporate conference room. They will tell you that do not want to deal with anyone selling anything unless they can tell the firm exactly how it will help their business.D EVELOPING A N EW A TTITUDE IN S ELLINGIf ever there was a business that cried out for a new way of selling, it is that of moving cars from the showroom floor to the driveways of America. The familiar but widely despised old approach is known among automotive historians as the Hull-Dobbs method, named after Memphis dealers Horace Hull and James Dobbs, who reputedly created it following World War II. In the old Hull-Dobbs drill, customers exist to be manipulated, first by the salesman, who negotiates the ostensibly final price, then by the sales manager and finance manager, who each in succession try to bump you to a higher price.Car buyers are fed up. A recent survey by J.D. Power & Associates found that only 35 percent felt well treated by their dealers, down from 40 percent a decade ago. In 1983, 26 percent of buyers rated the integrity of their dealers excellent or very good; by 2001, that figure haddropped to under 20 percent. ―People feel beaten up by the process,‖ says the owner of 13 import and domestic franchises in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. ―You think you got a good deal until you walk out the door. The salesmen are inside doing high fives, and the customer is lying out on the street.‖This is where Saturn came into the car game a few years back and presented its original, no-argument, guaranteed lowest price sticker system. The price you pay for a Saturn is the one on the sticker (between $9,995 and $18,675, depending on model and features). However, that is only part of the package. Buy a Saturn and you buy the company‘s commitment to your satisfaction. Their contact with and to the customer may appear corny, but consistently Saturn has scored high in the J.D. Power customer satisfaction study, just behind or above Lexus and Infiniti, vehicles that cost up to five times as much. Maybe it is corny, but it works. The philosophy of ―new economy‖ car deale rs, following the Saturn model, is to exceed customer expectations.Saturn reformed their sales methods to exploit an obvious market opportunity; the same is true for the reformed IBM sales force, which is only half the size it was in 1990. Those who survived are part of a new operation that is a cross between a consulting business and a conventional sales operation. Big Blue now encourages buyers to shop for salesmen before they shop for products.Consultants obviously need a more sophisticated set of skills than metal pushers, and in their new role, as purveyors of solu tions rather than products, IBM‘s sales teams do not always recommend Big Blue‘s merchandise. About a third of the equip ment IBM installs are made by DEC and other competitors.One aspect of managing a sales team has not changed much: How you motivate flesh-and-blood salespeople. It remains the same idiosyncratic bleed of financial incentive, inspiration, and cajolery. As the sales pros will say: ―There is nothing magical about sales. You want to be truthful and present a credible story so people will want to do business with you now and in the future. To sell effectively, you need to present the facts, list your supporting arguments, and learn all the nonverbal cues your customer give s while you‘re making your presentation.‖With one element of sales motivation, how they pay their salespeople, many companies believe they can improve on tradition. IBM, for example, is following a growing trend to base compensation partly on customer satisfaction. For some of the new wave salespeople, 45 percent of the variable component of a paycheck depends on how customers rate the salesperson. In addition, usually this depends on how well the salesperson has done in helping the customer meet their business objectives. Result: the salesperson can make a lot more or a lot less.W E‘RE A LL S ALESPEOPLE—O FFICIALLY OR U NOFFICIALLYWhat does it take to be a truly outstanding salesperson? As is always the case, there are no simple answers. Moreover, achieving excellence in one type of sales endeavor, say selling personal insurance, undoubtedly requires somewhat different aptitudes and skills than achieving excellence when selling sophisticated information systems to corporate buyers. High-performing salespeople generally differ from other salespeople in terms of some general attitudes they have about the job and the manner in which they conduct their business. High-performing salespeople:∙Represent the interests of their companies and their clients simultaneously to achieve two-way advocacy.∙Exemplify professionalism in the way they perform the sales job.∙Are committed to selling and the sales process because they believe the sales process is in the customer‘s best interest.∙Actively plan and develop strategies that will lead to programs benefiting the customer.III. Background ArticleIssue: The Biggest Problem in SalesSource: Erin Strout, ―To Tell the Truth,‖ Sales & Marketing Management,July 2002, pp. 40-48.To tell the truth, call it what you like: a fib, an untruth, or a fabrication. A new SMM survey reveals that nearly half of all salespeople may lie to clients. Are U.S. firms creating a culture that promotes deception?Every fat commission check has a price tag. For Matt Cooper (sales person‘s name ha s been changed for this case) the cost of earning up to $150,000 per sale was spending every day lying to his customers. It was the promise of huge bonus checks—not his $40,000 base salary—that lured him to join the sales force of a large, well-known Internet company two years ago. In his early twenties, hungry, and aggressive, Cooper fit the dot-com‘s sales culture mold, but what he didn‘t realize was that dishonesty was the price of admission.The New York-based start-up formed a big-deals team, a group that sold multimillion-dollar advertising campaigns to some of the world‘s largest companies. The sales force‘s key strategy? Do whatever it took to close those deals. Almost 100 percent of the time that meant lying to the client. ―If you didn‘t lie you were fired,‖ Cooper says. ―It always came down to careful wording and fudging numbers.‖ Among various other deceptive tactics, the Internet company‘s salespeople would book $2 million deals, promising a certain amount of impressions on the client‘s banner ad s for the first million and guaranteeing a certain amount of sales for the second million dollars. ―We‘d almost always be able to deliver the impressions, but you really can never guarantee somebody sales,‖ Cooper says. ―Back then you could base deals on the industry standard by taking the impression rate, comparing it to the industry standard, and using the conversion rate to determine a sales projection.‖Renewals were, of course, out of the question, which might explain the eventual demise of this and thousands of other dot-coms. The boiler-room culture began to take its toll on Cooper, especially after he had to begin screening his calls to avoid irate customers. ―Some of them had just spent two million dollars on an online campaign and got completely s crewed,‖ he says.One particularly incensed client who had spent more than $1 million on a campaign that failed to produce the results Cooper had promised began pelting him with voice-mail messages that became increasingly hostile. Then came the death thr eats. ―He left a message saying, ‗I knowyou‘re there. I‘m going to find out where you live and blow up your house.‘ I never spoke to the customer again—I just told the company about it so that it was out of my hands,‖ Cooper says. ―This kind of thing actually happened a few times.‖Finally Cooper couldn‘t take it anymore. ―I started selling only what I knew worked, because I couldn‘t lie anymore—so my managers told me to either close more deals or find another job,‖ he says. ―It was the kind of culture wh ere they broke you down and rebuilt you to be an animal.‖A reformed liar, Cooper quit and now works at another start-up in New York, but one that holds him to a higher ethical standard. Though this dot-com is still struggling through more rounds of funding, Cooper is finding that building relationships with clients is a better long-term sales strategy—not only for his own financial, well-being, but for the long-term financial health of the company. Unfortunately, not all salespeople learn that lesson so early in their careers. A new SMM/Equation Research survey of 316 sales and marketing executives reveals that 47 percent of managers suspect that their salespeople have lied on sales calls—only 16.5 percent have never heard one of their reps make an unrealistic promise to a customer.But don‘t be too quick to blame your salespeople for their deceptive behavior. What drives sales and marketing professionals to lie is often a combination of factors—not the least of which can be the way they are managed.Back in the dot-com heyday one of the most commonly used tactics in the industry included selling advertising space that didn‘t exist. Telling clients that they had about a one-in-300,000 chance of actually seeing their banner ad appear on a page of the site, salespeople would sell a $500,000 ad, cut and paste it onto a page using Photoshop software, print it, and fax it to the customer to ―prove‖ that the banner appeared as promised.―We might have sold all of our telecommunications inventory, but then anothe r company would call to say they wanted to spend $50,000 on a campaign,‖ one rep at a New York dot-com says. ―What would we do? Book it, even though all the space had already been sold. When the numbers didn‘t come back as high as the customer expected, we‘d just chalk it up to a bad campaign. We‘d take anybody who was willing to spend a dime.‖Internet advertising isn‘t the only industry that has sold fictitious products. As California is painfully aware, Enron and other energy companies allegedly made a fortune by selling electricity that didn‘t exist, rewarding traders for coming up with new schemes, and lying about how much energy the company had in its supply. As more details emerge about Enron, regulators are requiring traders to disclose full details of all energy sales starting this month. ―Examples like Enron show that greed is really a U.S. phenomenon,‖ says Andy Zoltners, a marketing professor at Northwestern University‘s Kellogg School of Management. ―Some companies do whatever it takes to make m oney.‖Such deception may be more common than we think. In the SMM survey, 36 percent of respondents said salespeople now conduct business in a less ethical manner than they did five years ago, and 36 percent believe there‘s been no change at all. What ki nd of fabrications do salespeople resort to? The survey shows that 45 percent of managers have heard their reps lying about promised delivery times, 20 percent have overheard their team members give false information about the company‘s service, and nearly78 percent of managers have caught a competitor lying about their company‘s products or services. ―It appears thatmisrepresentation of products or services is prevalent among salespeople,‖ Zoltners says. ―This is a losing strategy, and this kind of behav ior is not what the best sales-people do.‖In the short term, unethical sales tactics may prove lucrative, but in the long term every executive should worry about resorting to such strategies. Dishonesty, experts say, eventually ensures a company will have zero customer loyalty. Unfortunately lying is what some of the most profitable salespeople resort to—and experts do not necessarily blame the behavior on the individual. ―There are probably three participants in this—the customer, the salesperson, and th e company,‖ Zoltners says. ―They are all a part of the pressure to make money and the combination can make a rep succumb to it.‖For top salespeople the pressure, especially in this rocky economy, is almost palpable. More than a quarter of the respondents in the SMM survey said that the recession is causing their salespeople to become more dishonest. In tough economic times the quotas are as high as the stakes, and sometimes it‘s enough to make even the most reputable salesperson resort to unethical strategies.―Where I worked, all of the reps were in this big room, standing up, pitching to clients over the phone,‖ Cooper says. ―People might hold their phones out so everybody could hear them closing a big deal. Making a three-percent commission off of a multimillion-dollar deal makes you willing to lie.‖In fact, the majority of U.S. salespeople are dependent on commission-based pay plans. Experts say this is part of the problem. ―If salespeople have to eat what they hunt, it puts stress on them and motiva tes them toward bad behavior,‖ Zoltners says. ―If you look at some of the companies that are in big trouble, you see that they give negative incentives, such as demanding that reps make quota or be fired. That does not create the best sales forces. You hav e to create fair rewards for people.‖Brett Villeneuve, operations manager at Go Daddy Software, in Scottsdale, Arizona, says he purposely hires reps who are less money-driven and more relationship-oriented. ―Quotas, in general, are usually set too high,‖he says. ―We increase base pay and make realistic sales quotas that are challenging, but attainable. We don‘t want our people to run around scared of losing their jobs—that makes them lose focus on what needs to be done.‖Villeneuve might be on to something. The SMM report indicates that quotas may inhibit salespeople more than motivate them. Seventy-four percent of respondents admitted the drive to achieve sales targets encourages salespeople to lose focus on what the customer really needs.Though Villeneuve tries to run a tight ship when it comes to business ethics, he has experienced a few situations where salespeople have crossed the line. ―I just had to fire one of our better sellers after I received a complaint from a customer,‖ he says. ―In two day s I got four calls that a rep had put charges on clients‘ accounts that he wasn‘t supposed to. It made his sales look great, but that‘s not how we do business.‖Another team leader at Go Daddy decided to boost his team‘s sales with an underhanded tactic—o ne that caused him to get fired. ―A client would call in with a problem and his team would refund the order that the client had placed with another sales team, then put the reorder on his team‘s credit,‖ Villeneuve says. ―It made their sales look really go od. Even though hewasn‘t really lying to the customer, that kind of behavior isn‘t tolerated. When you fire somebody because of it, the message you send internally is really strong.‖That message is key to instilling an ethical standard in the corporate culture. Some managers do this by giving employees a means of questioning behavior they may observe. According to the SMM survey 56 percent of respondents have a process in place that enables salespeople to alert managers to ethical breaches. Executives at Go Daddy use the company‘s intranet to help employees bring up any questions or concerns. An anonymous section allows for executives to read and respond to e-mails written by co-workers who observe others lying, cheating, stealing, or otherwise behaving b adly. ―Initially we were scared that it might turn into minor bickering and tattling but so far it‘s helped keep us aware of legitimate concerns,‖ Villeneuve says.Though the intranet tool is still new to Go Daddy, executives say the most common type of anonymous notifications relate to customer treatment by individual salespeople. Other examples include reporting a coworker‘s uncontrollable attitude or anger with a client, and the failure of another salesperson to follow procedures in place to assure proper customer care. ―We have zero tolerance for this kind of behavior here and our salespeople know it,‖ says Bonnie Leedy, public relations director at Go Daddy. ―Everybody is trained to understand that customers come to us with all levels of technical understanding, and no one should ever be treated with disrespect.‖The key driver of a sound sales strategy is that the leaders of the organization exhibit the values that they want employees to follow, says Steve Walker, president of Walker Communications, a stakeholder research and measurement firm in Indianapolis. ―Most people want to do the right thing, but when bad situations arise it‘s usually when the leadership has created an environment that tolerates it,‖ he says. ―Until boards of directors want to s niff it out, the scheming will stay in the hallways.‖Walker Communications offers clients products that determine whether a company‘s employees are telling lies, abusing drugs, or otherwise violating the rules. It‘s been a tough sell. ―Offering these kinds of products in a litigious society is difficult,‖ he says. ―Executives actually don‘t want information that may indicate that there‘s a problem. They don‘t want to officially know that their sales force is lying.‖Sometimes it‘s the executives themselv es who promote deception. Take VeriSign Inc., a domain registration and Internet security provider. The marketing team sent out domain expiration notices to their competitors‘ customers, designed to look like the notices were coming from the company they currently used for their Internet domain registration. The hope was that the notices, which stated that owners would lose control of their domain name if they did not return the form and $29 by May 15, 2002, would get people to transfer or renew their domain names with VeriSign, in some cases at three-times the price they were paying.A U.S. court ordered the company to cease the direct-mail campaign in May, saying it was misleading to consumers. VeriSign would not comment on the litigation, but a spokesperson said the company is complying with the court order. ―The industry is plagued with unethical marketing and sales tactics,‖ Leedy says (Go Daddy is a VeriSign competitor).Some executives have their priorities focused solely on profits, thereby placing rewards on the wrong behavior. ―I came from a sales organization where the culture was bottom-line。
CH08 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Suppliers (Supplier power)
Industry Competitors (Segment rivalry)
Buyers (Buyer power)
2000 Prentice Hall
Substitutes (Threats of substitutes)
Group C Moderate line Medium mfg. cost Medium service Medium price Group D Broad line Medium mfg. cost Low service Low price
Low
High
2000 Prentice Hall
Low
Objectives
Identifying Competitors Evaluating Competitors Competitive Intelligence Systems Competitive Strategies Customer vs. Competitor Orientation
2000 Prentice Hall
Vertical Integration
Analyzing Competitors
Objectives Strategies Competitor Actions
Reaction Patterns
Strengths & Weaknesses
2000 Prentice Hall
Competitor’s Expansion Plans
Market leader Market challenger Market nicher Market follower
消费者的注意和理解 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
Frank.R.Kardes．消费者行为与管理决策．北京：清华大学出版社．2003.6第二章消费者的注意和理解导言从直接经验获取产品知识从间接经验获取产品知识注意力限制在日常生活中，消费者可能遇到很多直接和间接信息，太多的信息使他们不可能逐个处理或思考所有与产品相关的数据。
如果消费者不得不仔细思考每一个广告、每一个包装的标签以及他们看到或听到的每一个市场营销方面的信息，那么他们就几乎不会有时间来处理其他事情。
这也就是说，消费者具有注意力限制（limits of attention）。
对于市场上提供的营销信息，他们仅对他们遇到的很少一部分信息注意。
准确地讲，人们能够处理多少信息？根据哈佛大学心理学家George Miller（1956）的理论，人们可以同时注意7个（加或减2个）单位的信息。
一个信息单位可以很小——例如单个数字、字母、词汇或概念，也可以很大——例如一连串的数字、字母、词汇或概念（Newell，Simon，1972）。
信息单位的大小取决于一个人的知识水平或经验水平：当知识增加的时候，信息单位也随之增加（Newell，Simon，1972）。
所以，与新手相比，专家注意并思考更大单位的信息。
由于人们只能同时注意7个左右单位的信息，太多的信息很容易使人们不知所措。
例如，杂货店可能销售12种或更多不同品牌的洗碟用清洁剂，而且清洁剂的包装可以是大包装（如32盎司）、中等包装（如16盎司）和小包装（如8盎司）。
如果这12种不同品牌的清洁剂都有大中小3种包装，消费者就会面对36种不同的选择。
将这36种选择尽其可能进行成对比较，消费者将不得不进行1 200多次比较[361／（36—2）!＝1 260]!大多数消费者是不愿意花费如此多的时间和精力，从36种可选商品中选出其中的一种晶牌。
但是，如果信息是以一种容易比较的方式提供，那么，对36种不同品牌的洗碟用清洁剂进行比较就会非常容易。
例如，可以将36种选择列成“汇总表”，最好的商品排在开始，较好的商品排在其后，接着排列第三好的商品，如此等等（Russo，1977；Russo，Staelin，Nolan，Russell，Metcalf，1986）。
CH17E 中山大学吴柏林教授,Kotler营销管理(第11版),绝密资料
Part V—MANAGING AND DELIVERING MARKETING PROGRAMSChapter 17—Designing and Managing Value Networks and Marketing ChannelsOverviewValue network and marketing channel decisions are among the most complex and challenging decisions facing the firm. Each channel system creates a different level of sales and costs. Once a particular marketing channel is chosen, the firm usually must adhere to it for a substantial period. The chosen value network or channel will significantly affect and be affected by the other elements in the marketing mix.Middlemen typically are able to perform channel functions more efficiently than the manufacturers. The most important channel functions and flows are information, promotion, negotiation, ordering, financing, risk taking, physical possession, payment and title. These marketing functions are more basic than the particular retail and wholesale institutions that may exist at any time, and when a channel member no longer provides value-added service it can and often is replaced by another channel member or a new means of distribution.Manufacturers face many channel alternatives for reaching a market. They can choose selling direct or using one, two, three or more intermediary channel levels. Channel design calls for determining the service outputs (lot size, waiting time, spatial convenience, and product variety), establishing the channel objectives and constraints, identifying the major channel alternatives (types and number of intermediaries, specifically intensive, exclusive, or selective distribution), and the channel terms and responsibilities. Each channel alternative has to be evaluated according to economic, control, and adaptive criteria.Channel management calls for selecting particular middlemen and motivating them with acost-effective trade relations mix. The aim is to build a “partnership” feeling and joint distribution programming. Individual channel members must be periodically evaluated against their own past sales and other channel members’ sales. Channel modification must be performed periodically because of the continuously changing marketing environment. The company has to evaluate adding or dropping individual middlemen or individual channels and possibly modifying the whole channel system.Marketing channels are characterized by continuous and sometimes dramatic change, especially with the changes brought by the growth of the Internet as a major marketing tool and channel of distribution. For example, the new competition in retailing no longer involves competition between individual firms but rather between retail systems. Three of the most significant trends are the growth of vertical, horizontal, and multichannel marketing systems. All channel systems have a potential for vertical, horizontal, and multichannel conflict stemming from such sources as goal incompatibility, unclear roles and rights, differences in perception, and high dependence. Managing these conflicts can be sought through superordinate goals, exchange of persons, co-optation, joint membership in trade associations, diplomacy, mediation, and arbitration. Marketers should continue to explore and respond to the legal and moral issues involved in channel development decisions.Learning ObjectivesAfter reading the chapter the student should understand:∙The role and function of intermediaries∙The issue of channel levels∙How service outputs determine channel design∙How to evaluate channel alternatives∙What are the major channel management decisions∙Channel dynamicsChapter OutlineI.Introduction—notes the emergence of the value network view of the individualbusinesses. Deals with all the upstream (suppliers) and downstream (customers) variables II.What is a value network and marketing-channel systemA.Value network—a system of partnerships and alliances that a firm creates tosource, augment and deliver its offerings1.Firm decision regarding emphasis upstream versus downstream2.Makes firm more aware of where problems can occur3.Encourages more online development with business partnersB.Marketing channels1.Interdependent organizations2.Making product or service available for use or consumption3.More use today of “hybrid” channels (direct, online, indirect)4.Customers expect more channel integration (buy from any of the hybridchannels and obtain from any of the others)III.What work is performed by marketing channels?1.Smooth the flows of goods and services2.Save manufacturer money, time and specialized effortB.Channel functions and flowsrmation2.Promotion3.Negotiation4.Ordering5.Financing6.Risk taking7.Physical possession8.Payment9.TitleC.Channel levels—zero to three levels, can be longerD.Service sector channels—focus on location and minimizing levelsrmation highway channels (information industry)1.Expansion of bandwidth, internet, extranets, intranetspanies to provide this: content (Disney); consumer devices (Palm,etc.), components (Lucent); conduit (AT&T)IV.Channel-design decisionsA.Analyze customers’ desired service output levels (lot size, waiting time, spatialconvenience, product variety, and service backup)B.Establish objectives and constraints—based on:1.Product characteristics2.Strengths and weaknesses of intermediariespetition’s channels4.Environmental changesC.Identify major channel alternatives1.Types of intermediaries2.Number of intermediariesa)Exclusive distribution—one or a select fewb)Selective distribution—more than a few, less than allc)Intensive distribution—as many outlets as possible3.Terms and responsibilities of channel membersD.Evaluate the major alternatives1.Economic criteria—sales versus costs2.Control and adaptive criteria—degree of intermediary commitmentV.Channel-management decisionsA.Selecting channel members—evaluate experience, number of lines carried,growth and profit record, solvency, cooperativeness, and reputationB.Training channel members—prepare the channel member employees to performmore effectively and efficientlyC.Motivating channel members—coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, or referentpower1.More sophisticated companies try to form partnerships2.Can evolve into long-term distribution programmingD.Evaluating channel members—sales quota attainment, average inventory levels,customer delivery time, treatment of damaged and lost goods, and cooperation inpromotional and training programsE.Modifying channel arrangements—system will require periodic modification tomeet new conditions in the marketplaceVI.Channel dynamicsA.Vertical marketing systems1.Corporate and administered VMS—corporate (under single ownership),administered (one member emerges as dominant in channel)2.Contractual VMS—program integrationa)Wholesaler-sponsored voluntary chainsb)Retailer cooperativesc)Franchise organizationsd)Manufacturer-sponsored retailer franchise (Ford dealers) ormanufacturer-sponsored wholesaler franchise (Coca Colabottlers)3.The new competition in retailing—between systems, not individualsB.Horizontal marketing systems1.Two or more unrelated firms put together resources or programs.2.Each firm lacks the capital, technology, marketing resources or othervariables to take on the venture alone3.Can be permanent or temporaryC.Multichannel marketing systems1.Multichannel marketing—single firm uses two or more marketingchannels to reach one or more customer segments—advantages:increased coverage, lower cost, customized selling2.Planning channel architecture (companies thinking through their channelarchitecture—which are efficient and not, and developing new means)3.Roles of individual firms in a multichannel system: (insiders, strivers,complementers, transients, outside innovators)D. Conflict, cooperation, and competition1.Types of conflict and competitiona)Vertical channel conflictb)Horizontal channel conflictc)Multichannel conflict2.Causes of channel conflicta)Goal incompatibilityb)Unclear roles and rightsc)Differences in perceptiond)“Over” dependence3.Managing channel conflict (responses)a)Adoption of superordinate goalsb)Exchange of people between channel levelsc)Co-optation—winning support at different levelsd)Joint membership in and between trade associationse)Diplomacy, mediation, arbitrationE.Legal and ethical issues in channel relations1.Exclusive dealing2.Exclusive territories3.Tying agreements4.Dealers’ rightsVII.SummaryLecture—Measuring Channel PerformanceThis lecture provides a discussion of distribution/channel strategy in the contemporary marketing setting and the role and value of effective channel strategy in the overall marketing process and strategy. It is useful to update the examples utilized so that students will be able to identify readily with this concept, based on their general knowledge of the companies and products involved in the lecture/discussion.Teaching Objectives∙To stimulate students to think about the critical issues, pro and con, for a firm when it develops or modifies its channel strategy∙Points to consider in proceeding with a modification of the distribution strategy∙Role of various channel and distribution strategies and policies in helping the firm achieve a balanced position vis ávis the customer and the competitionDiscussionBackgroundOne of the more important functions in today’s complicated marketing environment is how to measure the performance of channel members. Whether the analysis involves an independent or vertical marketing environment, the problem is similar. There are means for following and measuring the results of this activity, and this discussion will focus on one such method. Before beginning the formal evaluation of the channel, there are several considerations.∙Degree of manufacturer control over the channel members. If there is a strong contractual relationship there will be a much greater expectation for information onperformance.∙Importance of channel members. If the manufacturer uses many intermediaries, the evaluation will be more comprehensive versus those using fewer intermediaries. Forexample, major appliance dealers receive much more comprehensive analysis frommanufacturers largely due to the number and degree of service and support involved,versus a tire dealer. Major tire dealers in the past tended to be company stores, so thecompanies did less analysis on the independents.∙Nature of the product. Obviously, the more complex the product, the more the evaluation.Because complexity can usually mean more after sale services, the criteria tend to befocused more on issues of target market satisfaction.∙The number of channel members. Intensive distribution normally involves cursory examination, but for selective distribution the analysis tends to be much morecomprehensive.Performance EvaluationPerformance evaluation clearly will be more comprehensive than day-to-day monitoring efforts. Accordingly, there are typically three levels in developing a performance audit vehicle:∙Develop measurement criteria∙Evaluate channel members against the criteria∙Take corrective actions, as neededThe measurement criteria for the channel member should include the following:∙Sales performance: This critical measurement includes both sales to the channel member and member sales to its customers. This may or may not be a reliable measure, depending on the perishability of the product. For example, convenience stores tend to get a greatdeal of information from its franchisees. The key variables here are current versushistorical sales, comparisons to quotas, and cross comparisons to other channel members.The 80/20 rule is important in the last measure.∙Inventory maintained: This major indicator provides information on the degree to which the member maintains stock or meets stocking requirements as specified in anyagreements between the manufacturer and the channel member. It is important tounderstand whether this agreement is formal or informal. Also, although this is an areawhich often is difficult to perform, there are six key questions that can help with themeasurement:1.Total inventory level2.Breakdown by units/types/pricesparisons between the member estimates and purchases of related andcompetitive lines4.Condition of the inventory holding facilities5.Quality of inventory control and record-keeping6.Selling capabilities—it is worthwhile to evaluate the abilities of the channelmember by appraising their salespeople. One way to do this is to cross-check thisinformation with other members of the channel. You should check the number ofsalespeople working with the manufacturer’s line, the technical knowledge andcompetence of the sales people and the level of interest the salespeople have inthe manufacturer’s products.∙Attitudes of the channel member: Usually this is not done until there is a drop in performance. The best way to handle it is to survey the attitudes through face-to-facecontact and also solicit feedback from the member’s clients, salespeople, the competition and related sources.∙Competition faced by the member: This refers to competition from other intermediaries and from other product lines carried by the manufacturer’s direct channel members. Thequestions might include how does the member do against the competition. Then, the issue is of more support required from the manufacturer. To probe this issue further, it wouldbe appropriate to ask for names of the competitors and how they rank them. This willhelp you determine the degree to which the member understands the competitive arena. ∙General growth prospects for the channel member: This measurement provides you with an awareness of how knowledgeable and sophisticated the member is regarding thegeneral and area economies and the potential growth in each of them.∙Other criteria : Includes financial status, character, reputation and quality of services. Applying these performance criteria involves three different approaches:1.First, there is a separate performance evaluation, utilized primarily when there isintensive distribution and a limited sales, inventory and selling capability. The goal hereis easy and fast, but it offers little insight into the operations of the business.2.Second, the multiple criteria are combined informally. The goal here is to combine thecriteria into an overall judgment. There are, however, some pros and cons:a.One advantage of this approach is that it is not only still fairly informal but alsoflexible in use and applicationb.This measure adds in the element of experience, but it can be arbitrary when themember does well in one area but not so well in other areasc.In addition, it is tough to use the same comparisons between channel members,and there is no one quantitative index to show overall performance3.The third measure is the multiple criteria combined informally. The steps here are:plete all criteria operational measuresb.Assign weights in terms of importancec.Evaluate on the basis of a scale of 1 to 10d.Multiply the score times the weight to achieve a product for each factore.Sum the factors to obtain an overall statusThe advantage of the third method is that it provides weights and measures to provide an explicit and overall quantitative index. Although this may be viewed as a bit artificial in some ways, it also is easier to rely on a number to start with and then develop ameliorating qualitative data to make a final conclusion.Marketing and Advertising1. Ford has introduced a certification program to identify dealerships that are among thebest in customer satisfaction. This ad alerts car and truck buyers to look for the bluethumbprint symbol at their local Ford dealerships.a. What type of vertical marketing system does the Blue Oval Certified FordDealership program represent?b. How might the Blue Oval certification program affect Ford’s channel dynamics?c. Over time, how might Ford establish and apply criteria to evaluate its channelmembers?Answera. The Blue Oval Certified Ford Dealership program is a form of manufacturer-sponsored retailer franchise. Each dealer is independent but must meet Ford’sspecifications.b. This certification program might divide Ford’s dealer base into two distinctgroups: those with certification and those without. Consumers might thenperceive that dealers without the certification are not as good as those with thecertification, which could change the sales volume at both dealer groups.Students may offer other reactions, as well.c. Ford could develop a certain set of criteria to evaluate channel membersaccording to sales, customer satisfaction levels, cooperation, and so on. Then itwould evaluate all dealers at least once per year based on these criteria,communicate the results to the dealers, and plan to either upgrade the activities oflow-scoring dealers or drop the low-scorers. Ask students to discuss theimplications of warning and dropping dealers.Online Marketing Today—Peoples BankAs mentioned earlier, Peoples Bank, based in Connecticut, uses its Web site as a key channel for reaching individuals, business customers, and prospects. Not only can customers e-mail the bank with questions, they can click on a link to have a bank representative call them with further information or choose another link if they want to chat online. In addition, prospects can open new accounts online, print out and fax account applications, and even order printed checks with a few keystrokes. Now the company has expanded its financial services offerings by adding insurance products for consumers and businesses.Visit the Peoples Web site (). After looking at the home page, follow the linkto read about Online Services and click for a demonstration of People’s Online. Next, follow the Insurance link and dig deeper by clicking on Auto, Home, and Other Personal Insurance. What role is playing in the distribution of these insurance products? What is the length of the channel the bank uses to distribute its own checking account products? How would you describe the channel positioning of People’s Bank?Answer is not the provider of the insurance products featured on its Web site, merely a distributor in the channel. On the other hand, it is the provider of the checking account products it offers directly to consumers and businesses, which means a zero-level channel. The channel positioning of People’s Bank can be described using words such as convenient and value-added. Ask students to discuss a possible People’s Bank positioning statement based on their perceptions of what the bank is trying to accomplish with its Web site.You’re the Marketer: Sonic PDA Marketing PlanManufacturers need to pay close attention to their value networks and marketing channels. By planning the design, management, evaluation, and modification of their marketing channels, manufacturers can ensure that their products are available when and where customers want to buy.At Sonic, you have been asked to develop a channel strategy for the company’s new personal digital assistant (PDA). Based on the information you previously gathered and the decisions you have already made about the target market, the product, and the pricing, answer the following questions about your marketing channels:∙What forward and backward channel flows should Sonic plan for?∙How many levels would be appropriate for the consumer and business markets you are targeting?∙In determining the number of channel members, should you use exclusive, selective, or intensive distribution? Why?∙What levels of service output do Sonic customers desire? How do these levels affect Sonic’s channel strategy?∙How should Sonic support its channel members?After you have answered the questions, document your recommendations about marketing channels and strategy in a written marketing plan. Alternatively, type them into the Marketing Mix and the Channels sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.AnswerSonic must plan forward channels to allow consumers and business customers to buy its PDAs from suitable dealers and retailers. It must also plan backward channels to allow for the return flow of defective or broken PDAs and unsold merchandise being returned by dealers. Sonic may have to use two levels (wholesalers and retailers) to reach the consumer and business markets; it may also have to sell directly to business markets that buy in volume, such as large corporations. Sonic should plan for selective distribution, because—as a new company entering an established product category—it may not be able to sign up all the distributors it would like. Also, Sonic will want to use only channel members who are knowledgeable about PDAs, can offer the right levels of service, and who reach the targeted customer segments.In terms of service output levels, consumers would like to buy in lots of one (or two), although business customers may require larger lot sizes. Customers will generally want to avoid delays in receiving their purchased items, and they will want easily accessible locations for buying the PDA (spatial convenience). Service backup, particularly availability of service and credit, will also be important. These are all considerations that Sonic must bear in mind when selecting and evaluating channel members. Finally, students will have various suggestions for ways that Sonic can support its channel members. Some sample ideas: motivating channel members through allowances and sales contests; driving traffic to channel members through advertising. Marketing Spotlight: Disney Licensed ProductsThe Walt Disney Company is routinely recognized as having one of the strongest brands in the world. Much of its success lies in its flourishing television, movie, theme park, and other entertainment ventures. These different vehicles have created a host of well-loved characters and a reputation for quality entertainment. Disney promotes in name and its characters with Disney Consumer Products, a division comprising seven business areas that sell Disney-themed products through a variety of channels.The Disney Store: Bringing the Disney magic to premium shopping centers in the United States and overseasMerchandising licensing: Selectively authoring the use of Disney characters on high- quality merchandisePublishing. Telling the Disney story in books, magazines, comics, and artMusic and audio: Playing favorite Disney songs and stories on tape and compact disc Computer software. Programming Disney “fun” into home computers and computer game systemsEducational production: Casting the characters in award-winning films for schools and libraries Catalog marketing: Offering Disney products via top catalogsDisney licensed products are available at retail locations such as booksellers, music stores, newsstands, and grocery and convenience stores. Disney offers a vast range of items on its online shopping site, , and on many other e-commerce Web sites. Products can also be found at Disney Store locations and at gift shops in Disney theme parks. Numerous catalogs, for both home and education buyers, also sell Disney licensed products. The pervasiveness of the product offerings is staggering—all in all, there are over 3 billion entertainment-based impressions of Mickey Mouse received by children in total every year, equivalent to 10 million impressions a day.Disney started licensing its characters for toys made by Mattel in the 1950s. Disney Licensing is now responsible for more than 3,000 contracts and for 16,000 products with top manufacturers worldwide. Disney licenses its standard characters (i.e., Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Goofy, and Pluto) and filmed entertainment (i.e., theatrical releases such as “Aladdin,”“Lion King,” and “Toy Story,” and TV properties such as “Duck Tales” and “Madeline”). To capitalize on the popularity of these characters, Disney developed a family of brands for Disney licensed products. Each brand was created for a specific age group and distribution channel. Baby Mickey & Co., targeting infants, and Mickey & Co., targeting kids and adults, are sold at department and specialty gift stores. Disney Babies, targeting infants, Mickey’s Stuff for Kids, targeting boys and girls, and Mickey Unlimited, targeting teens and adults, are sold through mass-market channels. Disney combined the names and characters into a specially designed logo. Each could be used in a wide range of product categories, including apparel and accessories, toys, home furnishings, social expressions and novelties, sporting goods, and gifts.One of Disney’s most successful licensed characters is Winnie the Pooh. Pooh products, which existed since Disney’s 1966 animated short “Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree,” have recently become a virtual goldmine. Between 1995 and 1998, the total licensing market for Winnie the Pooh grew from $390 million to $3.3 billion. By 2000, Pooh products generated an estimated $6 billion in sales for Disney. By comparison, Disney’s other core characters—Mickey, Minnie, Goofy, Donald Duck, and Pluto—grew only 20 percent over the same period.In 2000, retail sales for Disney licensed products totaled $13 billion, which amounted to 70 percent of revenue for Disney Consumer Products. Andrew P. Mooney, president of Disney Consumer Products, thinks this figure can eventually reach $75 billion, or 1 percent of the global retail market. A first step toward this goal was to partner with AmeriKid Foods to develop co-branded packaged goods products based on core Disney properties, rather than short-term promotions based around current movie releases. This partnership was designed to change the fact that as of 2001, Disney had no larger than a 3 percent share in any of the food and beverage categories in which it had licensed products. The addition of the AmeriKid Foods partnership gave Disney more products in the grocery and convenience channel.Sources: Bruce Orwall. “Disney’s Magic Transformation?” Wall Street Journal, October 4, 2000, p. B1; Stephanie Thompson. “The Mouse in the Food Aisle.”Advertising Age, September 10, 2001, p. 71.Questions1.Are there any downside associations with the AmeriKids program? Is product licensingan unlimited situation? Can it be overdone?2.Consider other products where the co-branding concept has a similar potential.3.What marketing strategy changes should Disney consider andor make if it intends toreach the $75 billion level, given the fact that others are now moving into the arena? Isthere evidence that Disney is reaching some branding and distribution limits? Suggested Responses1.Any brand that is well developed and controlled has to be careful that it does notoverextend the brand franchise to the point that takes on a generic aura. To do so,especially in an era of fast paced competition and competitors, can be dangerous. Product licensing may be carried on indefinitely if the appeal is either universal or classic, and the image it presents keeps up with the times (Betty Crocker, Brawny, etc.). It can beoverdone, however, if it spreads the name and image into products and/or services thatseem to have no relationship.2.There are many possible good answers here, but the best answers likely would emphasizeproducts that present the highest potential in terms of carryover to and with children who can associate the value of one product with the other.3.One meaningful strategy would be to seek out areas of activity that reinforce the currentsuccesses and bring in new demographic and psychographic targets. In addition,developing the international market, using the same proven strategies, adapted locally,would be useful.Since 1996, Disney failed to match its stellar growth of the 1980s and early 1990s.During 2000 and 2001 advertising revenues in its TV operations, in particular its national network ABC, were hit, theme park attendance fell off, the line-up of movie releases was passable (though none did especially well) and Disney stores and retail sales weremediocre at best.Disney closed more than 100 of the 400-odd Disney stores, applied shorter hours to the theme parks, laid-off 4,000 employees and conducted cost cutting in movie production. A near full-on retreat from the Internet also is underway. Finally, it has been clear to many in the media and elsewhere that with Disney’s almost monopoly position (brand image, not absolute economics), the goal is to dominate every market they have and charge the maximum price (according to Larry Gerbrandt, chief content officer at Kagan World Media, a media research and consulting firm, Associated Press, March 10, 2002).Analytical Tools for Marketing Management: New Product PlanningP roblemsCreate a three-year payout plan based on the following information:1.The number of cases sold in the market for year one is estimated at 8,000,000. Estimatesindicate that the market will grow at a rate of 10 percent per year.2.The average share estimated for year one is 10 percent, for year two it is estimated at 12percent, and for year three, 20 percent.。
schiffman16_im 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)”绝密资料
CHAPTER 16Consumer Decision Making and BeyondLEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter studying this chapter students should be able to:1.Describe a decision.2.Enumerate the three levels of consumer decision making.3.Explain the four models of consumer decision making discussed in the text.4.Outline a model of consumer decision-making.5.Discuss the three stages of consumer decision making in the process component of thedecision-making model.6.Outline the rules consumers use in decision making.7.Discuss purchase and postpurchase behavior as part of the consumer decision process.8.Explain consumer gifting behavior.9.Describe the elements of the consuming and possessing process.10.Explain the importance of relationship marketing.SUMMARYThe consumer’s decision to purchase or not to purchase a product or service is an important moment for most marketers. It can signify whether a marketing strategy has been wise, insightful, and effective, or whether it was poorly planned and missed the mark. Thus, marketers are particularly interested in the consumer’s decision-making process. For a consumer to make a decision, more than one alternative must be available. (The decision not to buy is also an alternative.)Theories of consumer decision making vary, depending on the researcher’s assumptions about the nature of humankind. The various models of consumers (economic view, passive view, cognitive view, and emotional view) depict consumers and their decision-making processes in distinctly different ways.An overview consumer decision-making model ties together the psychological, social, and cultural concepts examined in Parts II and III into an easily understood framework. This decision model has three sets of variables: input variables, process variables, and output variables.Input variables that affect the decision-making process include commercial marketing efforts, as well as noncommercial influences from the consumer’s sociocultural environment. The decision process variables are influenced by the consumer’s psychological field, including the evoked set (or the brands in a particular product category considered in making a purchase choice). Taken as a whole, the psychological field influences the consumer’s recognition of a need, prepurchase search for information, and evaluation of alternatives.The output phase of the model includes the actual purchase (either trial or repeat purchase) and postpurchase evaluation. Both prepurchase and postpurchase evaluation feed back in the form of experience into the consumer’s psychological field, and serve to influence future decision processing.The process of gift exchange is an important part of consumer behavior. Various gift-giving and gift-receiving relationships are captured by the following five specific gifting classification scheme: (1) intergroup gifting (a group gives a gift to another group); (2) intercategory gifting (an individual gives a gift to a group or a group gives a gift to an individual); (3) intragroup gifting (a group gives a gift to itself or its members), (4) interpersonal gifting (an individual gives a gift to another individual), and (5) intrapersonal gifting (a self-gift).Consumer behavior is not just making a purchase decision or the act of purchasing; it also includes the full range of experiences associated with using or consuming products and services. It also includes the sense of pleasure and satisfaction derived from possessing or collecting “things.” The outputs of consumption are changes in feelings, moods, or attitudes; reinforcement of lifestyles; an enhanced sense of self, satisfaction of a consumer-related need: belonging to groups; and expressing and entertaining oneself.Among other things, consuming includes the simple utility of using a superior product, the stress reduction of a vacation, the sense of having a “sacred” possession, and the pleasures of a hobby or a collection. Some possessions serve to assist consumers in their effort to create “personal meaning” and to maintain a sense of the past.Relationship marketing impacts consumers’ decisions and their consumption satisfaction. Firms establish relationship marketing programs (sometimes called loyalty programs) to foster usage loyalty and a commitment to their products and services. At its heart, relationship marketing is all about building trust(between the firm and its customers), and keeping promises made to consumers. Therefore, the emphasis in relationship marketing is almost always on developing long-term bonds with customers by making them feel special and by providing them with personalized services.CHAPTER OUTLINEINTRODUCTION1.This chapter takes a broader perspective and examines consumer decision making in thecontext of all types of consumption choices, ranging from the consumption of new products to the use of old and established products.2.It also considers consumers’ decisions not as the end point, but rather as the beginning pointof a consumption process.WHAT IS A DECISION?1.In the most general terms, a decision is the selection of an option from two or morealternative choices.2.If the consumer has no alternatives from which to choose and is literally forced to make aparticular purchase or take a particular action (e.g., use a prescribed medication), then this does not constitute a decision and is commonly referred to as a “Hobson’s choice.”b)In actuality, no-choice purchase or consumption situations are fairly rare.LEVELS OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.Not all consumer decisions receive or require the same amount of effort in the informationsearch.2.Researchers have identified three specific levels of consumer decision making: extensiveproblem solving, limited problem solving, and routinized response behavior.Extensive Problem Solving1.When consumers have no established criteria for evaluating a product, or have not narrowedtheir choices, then they are in extensive problem solving.2.At this level, the consumer needs a great deal of information to establish a set of criteria onwhich to judge specific brands and a correspondingly large amount of information concerning each of the brands to be considered.Limited Problem Solving1.At this level consumers have already established the basic criteria for evaluating the productcategory but haven’t established preferr ed categories.2.Their search for additional information is more like “fine-tuning;”they must gatheradditional brand information to discriminate among the various brands.Routinized Response Behavior1.At this level, consumers have some experience with the product category and a well-established set of criteria with which to evaluate the brands they are considering.a)They may search for a small amount of additional information.2.Just how extensive a consumer’s problem-solving task is depends on how well establishedhis or her criteria for selection are, how much information he or she has about each brand being considered, and how narrow the set of brands is from which the choice will be made.3.Routinized response behavior implies little need for additional information.MODELS OF CONSUMERS: FOUR VIEWS OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.The term models of consumers refer to a general view or perspective as to how and whyindividuals behave as they do.2.Four views will be examined:a)An economic view.b) A passive view.c) A cognitive view.d)An emotional view.An Economic View1.The consumer has often been characterized as making rational decisions.a)This model, called the economic man theory, has been criticized by consumerresearchers for a number of reasons.b)To behave rationally in the economic sense, a consumer would have to:i)Be aware of all available product alternatives.ii)Be capable of correctly ranking each alternative in terms of its benefits and its disadvantages.iii)Be able to identify the one best alternative.c)This perspective is unrealistic because:i)People are limited by their existing skills, habits, and reflexes.ii)People are limited by their existing values and goals.iii)People are limited by the extent of their knowledge.2.Consumers operate in an imperfect world, therefore the economic view is often rejected astoo idealistic and simplistic.A Passive View1.The opposite of the economic view is the view of the consumer as basically submissive to theself-serving interests and promotional efforts of marketers (i.e., the passive view).2.Consumers are perceived as impulsive and irrational purchasers, ready to yield to the armsand aims of marketers.3.The principal limitation of this model is that it fails to recognize that the consumer plays anequal, if not dominant, role in many buying situations by seeking information about product alternatives and selecting the product that appears to offer the greatest satisfaction.4.This view is largely unrealistic.A Cognitive View1.This view portrays the consumer as a thinking problem solver.2.The cognitive model focuses on the processes by which consumers seek and evaluateinformation about selected brands and retail outlets.3.Consumers are viewed as information processors, and this leads to the formulation ofpreferences, and ultimately, purchase intentions.4.In contrast to the economic view, this view recognizes that the consumer is unlikely to seekall possible information, but will only seek information until he/she has what is perceived as sufficient information to make a satisfactory decision.5.Consumers are presumed to use heuristics—short-cut decision rules to facilitate decisionmaking.a)They also use decision rules when exposed to too much information—informationoverload.6.This model depicts a consumer who does not have complete knowledge, and therefore cannotmake perfect decisions, but who actively seeks information and attempts to make satisfactory decisions.An Emotional View1.Although aware of the emotional or impulsive side of consumer decision making, marketershave preferred the economic or passive models.2.In reality, when is comes to certain purchases or possessions, deep feelings or emotions arelikely to be highly involved.3.Possessions may also serve to preserve a sense of the past and help with transitions in timesof change.4.When a consumer makes what is basically an emotional purchase decision, less emphasistends to be placed on searching for prepurchase information and more on the current mood or feelings.5.Unlike an emotion, which is a response to a particular environment, a mood is more typicallyan unfocused, pre-existing state—already present at the time a consumer “experiences”an advertisement, a retail environment, a brand, or a product.6.Mood is important to consumer decision making in that it impacts when consumers shop,where they shop, and whether they shop alone or with others.a)Some retailers attempt to create a mood for shoppers.b)Individuals in a positive mood recall more information about a product than those in anegative mood.A MODEL OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.The model looks at cognitive processes, problem solving, and to some degree, the emotionalaspects of consumer decision making as well.2.This is not an exhaustive review but a synthesis and coordination of relevant concepts into awhole.Input1.The input component draws on external influences that provide information or influence aconsumer’s product-related values, attitudes, and behavior.Marketing Inputs1.The firm’s marketing activities are a direct attempt to reach, inform, and persuade consumersto buy and use its products.2.The impact of a firm’s marketing efforts is governed by the consumer’s perception of theseefforts.3.Marketers should be alert to consumer perceptions by sponsoring consumer research, ratherthan to rely on the intended impact of their marketing messages.Sociocultural Inputs1.Sociocultural inputs consist of a wide range of noncommercial influences—comments of afriend, an editorial in the newspaper, a family member, and direct noncommercial sources of information.2.The unwritten codes of conduct communicated by culture indicate right and wrongconsumption behavior.3.The cumulative impact of each firm’s marketing efforts, the influence of family, friends, andneighbors, and society’s existing code of behavior are all likely to affect the how and what of consumer purchases.Process1.The process component of the model is concerned with how consumers make decisions.2.Psychological field—represents the internal influences—motivation, perception, learning,personality, and attitudes—that affect consumers’ decision-making processes.3.The consumer decision consists of three states: need recognition, prepurchase search, andevaluation of alternatives.Need Recognition1.Recognition of a need occurs when a consumer is faced with a problem.2.Among consumers there seem to be two different problem recognition styles.a)Actual state types—consumers who perceive that they have a problem when a productfails to perform satisfactorily.b)Desired state types—the desire for something new may trigger the decision process.Prepurchase Search1.Prepurchase search begins when a consumer perceives a need that might be satisfied by thepurchase and consumption of a product.a)The consumer usually searches his or her memory first.b)If no experience is present then he/she may engage in an extensive search of the outsideenvironment.c)Past experience is considered an internal source of information.i)The greater the relevance of past experience, the less of an external search.ii)The degree of perceived risk can also influence this stage.iii)High risk situations will lead to complex information gathering, low-risk, simple search and evaluation.2.The act of “shopping” is an important form of external information.a)According to a recent consumer study there is a big difference between men and womenin terms of their response to shopping.b)In addition to gender differences, research reveals that price considerations can alsoplay a role in determining the extent of the search process.3.An examination of the external search effort associated with the purchase of different productcategories (e.g., TVs, VCRs, or personal computers) found that, as the amount of total search effort increased, consumer attitudes toward shopping became more positive, and more time was made available for shopping.a)The less consumers know about a product category and the more important the purchaseis to them, the more time they will make available and the more extensive their prepurchase search activity is likely to be.4.The Internet has had a great impact on prepurchase search.a)Web sites can provide consumers with much of the information they need about theproducts and services they are considering.5.How much information a consumer will gather also depends on various situational factors.Evaluation of Alternatives1.When evaluating potential alternatives, consumers tend to use two types of information:a) A “list” of brands (the evoked set).b)The criteria they will use to evaluate each brand.2.Evoked set—evoked set refers to the specific brands the consumer considers in making apurchase in a particular product category.a)The inept set consists of brands the consumer excludes from purchase consideration asunacceptable.b)The inert set is those brands to which the consumer is indifferent because they areperceived as having no advantage.c)The evoked set consists of the small number of brands the consumer is familiar with,remembers, and finds acceptable.3.The five terminal positions in the model that do not end in purchase would appear to haveperceptual problems. For example:a)Brands may be unknown because of the consumer’s selective exposure to advertisingmedia and selective perception of advertising stimuli.b)Brands may be unacceptable because of poor qualities or attributes or inappropriatepositioning in either advertising or product characteristics.c)Brands may be perceived as not having any special benefits and are regardedindifferently by the consumer.d)Brands may be overlooked because they have not been clearly positioned or sharplytargeted at the consumer market segment under study.e)Brands may not be selected because they are perceived by consumers as unable tosatisfy perceived needs as fully as the brand that is chosen.4.The implication for marketers is that promotional techniques should be designed to impart amore favorable, perhaps more relevant product image to the target consumer.5.Criteria used for evaluation brands—the criteria consumers’ use for evaluating brands areusually expressed in terms of important product attributes.a)When a company knows that consumers will be evaluating alternatives, they sometimesadvertise in a way that recommends the criteria that consumers should use in assessing product or service options.b)Research shows that when consumers discuss such “right products,” there is little or nomention of price; brand names are not often top-of-mind; items often reflect personality characteristics or childhood experiences; and it is often “love at first sight.”6.Consumer decision rules—consumer decision rules are referred to as heuristics, decisionstrategies, and information-processing strategies, and are procedures used by consumers to facilitate brand choices.a)These rules reduce the burden of decision making.b)Compensatory decision rules—a consumer evaluates brand options in terms of eachrelevant attribute and computes a weighted or summated score for each brand.i)The computed score reflects the brand’s relative merit as a potential purchasechoice.ii)The assumption is that the consumer will choose the brand with the highest score.iii) A unique feature of a compensatory decision rule is that it allows a positive evaluation of a brand on one attribute to balance out a negative evaluation on someother attribute.c)Noncompensatory decision rules do not allow consumers to balance positiveevaluations of a brand on one attribute against a negative evaluation on some other attribute. Forms include:i)Conjunctive decision rule—the consumer establishes a minimally acceptable levelthat is established as a cutoff point for each attribute.a)If any particular brand falls below the cutoff point on any one attribute, thebrand is eliminated from consideration.ii)Disjunctive rule—this rule mirrors the conjunctive rule.a)The consumer establishes a minimally acceptable level as a cutoff point foreach attribute.b)In this case if a brand alternative meets or exceeds the cutoff established forany one attribute, however, it is accepted.iii)Lexicographic decision rule—the consumer first ranks the attributes in terms of perceived relevance or importance.a)The consumer then compares the various brand alternatives in terms of thesingle attribute that is considered most important.b)If one brand scores sufficiently high on this top-ranked attribute, it isselected, and the process ends.c)The highest-ranked attribute may reveal something about the individu al’sconsumer orientation.7. A variety of decision rules appear common. Nine out of ten shoppers who go to the store forfrequently purchased items have a specific shopping strategy for saving money.a)Practical loyalists—look for ways to save on those brands and products that they wouldbuy anyway.b)Bottom-Line Price Shoppers—buy the lowest-priced item, with little or no regard forbrand.c)Opportunistic Switchers—use coupons or sales to decide among brands and productsthat fall within their evoked set.d)Deal Hunters—look for the best “bargain” and are not brand-loyal.8. A synthesized decision rule, the affect referral decision rule, is the simplest, and is theconsumer remembering past evaluations from his/her evoked set and selecting the brand with the highest perceived overall rating.9.Going online to secure assistance in decision making—for the past several years researchershave been examining how using the Internet has impacted the way consumers make decisions.a)Three factors that have been researched are:i)Task complexity(number of alternatives and amount of information available foreach alternative).ii)Information organization (presentation, format, and content).iii)Time constraint (more or less time to decide).10.Lifestyles as a consumer decision strategy—a n individual’s or family’s decisions to becommitted to a particular lifestyle impacts their consumer behavior.a)Research suggests that 15 percent of Baby Boomers will be seeking a simpler lifestyle.11.Incomplete information and noncomparable alternatives—in many situations consumers faceincomplete information. They cope with this missing information in a number of ways.a)They may delay decision making until the missing information is available.b)They may ignore the missing information and work with available information.c)Consumers may change their decision-making strategy to accommodate the missinginformation.d)Consumers may infer or construct the missing information.e)Consumers may conclude that none of their choices offer sufficient benefits to warrantpurchase.f)Sometimes consumers use decision rules to compare dissimilar alternatives.12.A series of decisions—a purchase can involve a number of decisions rather than a singledecision.13.Decision rules and marketing strategy—an understanding of which decision rules consumersapply in selecting a particular product or service is useful to marketers concerned with formulating a promotional program.14.Consumption vision—a study found the attitudes and search behavior of a vision, “a mentalpicture or visual image of specific usage outcomes and/or consumption consequences.”a)Such visions allow consumers to imagine or vicariously participate in the consumptionof the product or service prior to making an actual decision.OUTPUT1.The output portion of the consumer decision-making model concerns two closely associatedkinds of postdecision activity: purchase behavior and postpurchase evaluation.2.The objective of both activities is to increase the consumer’s satisfaction with his or herpurchase.Purchase Behavior1.Consumers make three types of purchases: trial purchases, repeat purchases, and long-termcommitment purchases.a)Trial is the exploratory phase of purchase behavior in which consumers attempt toevaluate a product through direct use.i)When a trial is satisfactory, consumers are likely to repeat the purchase.b)Repeat purchase behavior is similar to brand loyalty.i) A repeat purchase usually signifies that the product meets with the consumer’sapproval and that the consumer is willing to use it again and in larger quantities.ii)This form is closely related to brand loyalty.c)Trial is not always feasible, such as with big-ticket items and durable goods. In that casethe consumer moves from evaluation directly to long-term commitment.Postpurchase Evaluation1.As consumers use a product, they evaluate its performance in light of their own expectations.2.There are three possible outcomes of such evaluation.a)Actual performance matches the standard, leading to a neutral feeling.b)Positive disconfirmation when the performance exceeds the standard.c)Negative disconfirmation when the performance is below the standard.3.An important aspect of the purchase process is reducing postpurchase cognitive dissonance,when consumers try to reassure themselves that their choice was a wise one.4.The degree of postpurchase analysis relates to the importance of the product decision and theexperience acquired in using the product.5.The consumer’s postpurchase evaluation feeds back as experience to the consumer’spsychological field and serves to influence future related decisions.CONSUMER GIFTING BEHAVIOR1.The amount of money spent and feelings generated by gifts make them an interesting part ofconsumer behavior.2.Gifting behavior is the process of gift exchange that takes place between a giver and receiver.a)It includes gifts given to (and received from) others and gifts to oneself, or self-gifts.3.Gifting is symbolic communication with implicit and explicit meanings.4.One of the models of gifting reveals the following five gifting subdivisions:a)Intergroup gifting.b)Intercategory gifting.c)Intragroup gifting.d)Interpersonal gifting.e)Intrapersonal gifting.5.Intergroup gifting occurs when one group exchanges gifts with another.6.Intercategory gifting is an individual giving a group a gift, or a group giving an individual agift.7.An intragroup gift is a gift that a group gives itself.8.Interpersonal gifts occur between two individuals.9.An intrapersonal gift is a self-gift.BEYOND THE DECISION: CONSUMING AND POSSESSING1.Historically consumer behavior studies have focused on the product, service, or brandchoices.2.We now see that the experience of possessing, collecting, or consuming things contributes toconsumer satisfaction and overall quality of life.3.Consumer choices might be viewed at the beginning of the consumption process rather thanat the end.a)The choice or purchase decision is the input of the process.b)The input stage includes a consumption set and a consumption style.c)The process stage consists of using, possessing, collecting, and disposing of things andexperiences.d)The output stage would include changes in feelings, attitudes, and behaviors, as well asreinforcement of a lifestyle.Products Have Special Meaning and Memories1.Consuming is a diverse and complex process.2.It includes utility of a product, the psychological use of the product, memories, etc.3.As a consequence, some possessions create personal meaning for consumers and/or helpthem maintain a sense of the past.4.Some people maintain their identity after major changes in their life by linking to their past.Relationship Marketing1.Many firms are pursuing relationship marketing in order to build loyal usage and acommitment to their company’s products and services.a)It is built on trust that grows from keeping promises.2.The goal of relationship marketing is to build strong, lasting relationships with a core groupof customers.3.The emphasis is on developing long-term bonds, making consumers feel good about thecompany, and giving the consumer some kind of personal connection to the business.4. A review of the composition of 66 consumer relationship marketing programs revealed threeelements shared by more than 50 percent of the programs.a)Fostering ongoing communication with customers (73 percent of the programs).b)Furnishing loyalty by building extras like upgrades and other perks (68 percent of theprograms).c)Stimulating a sense of belonging by providing a “club membership” format (50 percentof the programs).5.Like personal relationships between individuals who are willing to do favors for each other,“relationship”marketers offer loyal customers special services, discounts, increased communications, and attention beyond the core product or service, without expecting an immediate payback.a) A new form of relationship marketing has resulted as Internet usage has increased. Theterm used on the Internet is “permission marketing.”6.Although direct marketing, sales promotion, and general advertising may be used as part of arelationship marketing strategy, relationship marketing stresses long-term commitment to the individual customer.7.Ultimately, it is to a firm's advantage to develop long-term relationships with existingcustomers, because it is easier and less expensive to make an additional sale to an existing customer than to make a new sale to a new consumer.8.Research indicates that consumers today are less loyal than in the past, due to six majorforces:a)The abundance of choice.b)Availability of information.c)Entitlement (consumers repeatedly ask “What have you done for me lately?”).d)Commoditization (most products/services appear to be similar—nothing stands out).e)Insecurity (consumer financial problems reduce loyalty).f)Time scarcity (not enough time to be loyal).DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Compare and contrast the economic, passive, cognitive, and emotional models ofconsumer decision making.The economic view portrays consumers as making rational decisions. Clearly, this model is not characteristic of most consumption situations because consumers are rarely aware and knowledgeable of all the product alternatives in any given situation, and of all the features and benefits of the product offerings they can choose from. Thus, they are often unable to make rational decisions. The passive view depicts the consumer as basically submissive to the self-serving interests and promotional efforts of marketers. Consumers are perceived as impulsive and irrational purchasers, ready to yield to the arms and aims of marketers. The cognitive view depicts consumers as problem solvers where they cognitively process information, seek out products and services that fulfill their needs, form preferences, make choices, and engage in postpurchase evaluations of their selections. Such decision making is characteristic of consumption situations where consumers are highly involved with purchases and experience high levels of perceived risk. The emotional view states that consumers often have deep emotions or feelings regarding many purchases. This is typical of consumption situations where consumers place more emphasis on their current moods and feelings and less emphasis on prepurchase information. In such cases, a product is bought on an impulse。
CH11 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
C HAPTER 11--D EVELOPING N EW M ARKET O FFERINGSOVERVIEW:Most firms recognize the necessity for and advantages of regularly developing new products and services. Mature and declining products eventually must be replaced with newer products. New product development strategy thus is one of the most important activities for any firm in the contemporary marketplace. If the firm does not obsolete its own products, sooner or later someone else will, and all firms should remember that a good idea may not be a good investment. New products can fail, and the risks of innovation are as great as the rewards. The key to successful innovation lies in developing better organizational arrangements for handling new product ideas and developing sound research and decision procedures at each stage of the new-product-development process.The new-product-development process consists of eight stages: idea generation, idea screening, concept development and testing, marketing strategy development, business analysis, product development, market testing, and commercialization. The purpose of each stage is to decide whether the idea should be further developed or dropped. The company should minimize thechances that poor ideas will move forward and good ideas will be rejected.With regard to the adoption of new products, consumers and/or organizations respond at different rates, depending on their characteristics and the product's characteristics. Manufacturers try to bring their new products to the attention of potential early adopters, particularly those with opinion leader characteristics.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading the chapter the student should understand:∙The main risks in developing new products.∙The organizational structures used in managing new-product development.∙The new-product-development process.∙The consumer-adoption process.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.IntroductionII.Challenges in New-Product Development - companies that fail to develop new products put themselves at risk; at the same time new product development is risky.III.Effective Organizational Arrangements - successful new-product development requires top management commitment and planning.IV.Managing the New-Product Development Process - eight stage processA.Idea Generation - ideas come from a variety of sources. Idea generatingtechniques include: attribute listing. forced relationships, morphological analysis,need/problem identification, brainstorming, and synectics.B.Idea Screening - not all ideas can be pursued, but must be sent to a committeewhere they are considered either: promising, marginal, or a reject. In this stagethe company runs the risk of either accepting a bad idea or rejecting a good one. V.Managing the Development Process: Concept to StrategyA.Concept Development and Testing - attractive ideas must be refined into testableproduct concepts.1.Concept Development- A product concept is an elaborate version of theidea expressed in meaningful consumer terms.2.Concept Testing - product concepts should be presented to an appropriategroup of target consumers to gauge their reactions. Customer-drivenengineering is an engineering effort that attaches high importance toincorporating customer preferences in the final design. Consumerpreferences can be measured through conjoint analysis.B.Marketing-Strategy DevelopmentC.Business Analysis - Performing sales, cost and profit projections on the proposedproduct to determine satisfaction of company objectives.1.Estimating Sales - sum of three different types of sales (first-time,replacement, repeat) Must yield a satisfactory profit.2.Estimating Costs and Profits - Illustrated in the Text.VI.Managing the Development Process: Development to CommercializtionA.Product Development - represents a substantial jump in investment. Productcontinues to move through functional and consumer tests.1.Techniques for measuring consumer preferences - simple rank-ordermethod, paired comparison, and monadic-ratingB.Market TestingC.Consumer-Goods Market Testing - least costly to most costly1.Sales-wave research - consumers who initially try the product at no costare reoffered the product, or a competitor’s product, at slightly reducedprices.2.Simulated store technique - consumers are questioned about brandfamiliarity and preferences, shown advertisements, given a small amountof money and sent to a mock store where there purchases are recordedand analyzed.3.Controlled test marketing - organizations work with a panel of storeswilling to test market a product for a fee.4.Test markets - organizations choose entire market areas in which tointroduce their products.D.Business-Goods Market Testing - testing also offers benefits. Examples oftesting are alpha, beta and trade show.mercialization1.When (Timing) - first entry, late entry, parallel entry2.Where (Geographical Strategy), single market, many markets, national3.To Whom (Target-Market Prospects) - identifying prime prospects4.How (Introductory Market Strategy) - involves many activitiesVII.The Consumer-Adoption Process - How do potential customers learn about new products, try them, and adopt or reject them? Followed by a consumer-loyalty process.A.Stages in the Adoption Process (awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption)B.Factors Influencing the Adoption Process1.People differ markedly in their readiness to try new products2.Personal influence plays a large role in the adoption of new products3.The characteristics of the innovation affect its rate of adoption4.Like people, organizations vary in their readiness to adopt an innovation VIII.SummaryMarketing and Advertising1. Orville Redenbacher markets a number of popcorn products for consumers. The firm recently introduced Double Feature microwave popcorn, shown in the ad in Figure2. How could this idea have been described as a product concept during the product development process? Suggest an appropriate concept statement. What forms of consumer testing would be appropriate for this popcorn product? Why? Would you have used controlled test marketing or test markets to gauge consumer reaction prior to launching this product? Explain your answer.Answer: One way this product concept might have been described during the product development process is "Double Feature microwave popcorn comes with extra-large kernels and extra sauce with real butter. The packet goes into the microwave for three minutes, then you pour the butter sauce over the kernels. This product comes in a carton of three packets priced at $2.89 per box." (Students may offer other concept statements.)The company should have consumers test the product, in a test kitchen or in their homes, by following all the directions and then eating the popcorn. This will help Orville Redenbacher determine whether the product is attractive and appealing to the target market. Students who argue for controlled test marketing may say that this approach allows the company to try out different marketing mixes in a limited way, without the expense and risks of a full test market approach. Students who argue in favor of test markets may say that this is the best way to test consumer and trade ma rketing mixes and forecast future sales more reliably.Focus on TechnologyDuring the new-product-development process, marketers can use conjoint analysi s to analyze offers, identify the most appealing, and learn how customers see the relative importance of each attribute. Because the most appealing offer is not necessarily the most profitable, marketers must also estimate the potential market share and profits to be gained from the top alternatives. Because of the complexity of this technique, marketers use sophisticated software to score the results.For a hands-on demonstration of how conjoint analysis looks from the respondents' perspective, point your Web browser to SurveySite (/), the home page of an online market research firm. Click on "demos" to locate the conjoint analysis sample. After you have completed this sample, click on the explanation of conjoint analysis. Based on this sample conjoint analysis, what attributes are being tested?Why would the automaker want to test these attributes? Which of the product concepts do you think would prove most appealing to those being surveyed? Why?Answer: Attributes being tested in the sample include: model look; price; transmission options; warranty options; audio options; safety options; and interior features. An automaker would test these attributes to find out which combination of attributes would most appeal to the segment being targeted for a particular car. Students' answers about the most appealing product concept will vary, depending on personal preferencesMarketing for the MillenniumAt the start of the new millennium, turbulent business environments and extreme competitive pressures are everyday phenomena for companies with a pres ence on the Web. To stay ahead of the curve, these marketers are taking the new product development process two steps at a time, overlapping concept development and implementation as they continue to gather information on the fly.To see new product development on the fast track, look at Microsoft, which has a special place on its Web site () for program previews (translation: beta versions of soon-to-be-released software). Months before its Office 2000 software was introduced, the company offered preview versions for the bargain price of $19.95. A disclaimer noted the beta version "is not at the level of performance and compatibility of the final, generally available, product offering." The entire r isk of the use or results of the use of this software remains with the user, and Microsoft Corporation makes no warranties, either express or implied." Why would users want to participate in this beta testing—and pay for the privilege? What does Microsoft stand to gain? How early in the development process should Microsoft start beta testing? Answer: Users would participate in beta testing of Office 2000 and similar products because they want to offer their feedback about the program and have a chance to evaluate it before they consider buying the completed product at a considerably higher price. Students may identify additional reasons, as well. Microsoft, for its part, gains input from a large pool of potential purchasers; this input will help the company fix problems and add features before the actual commercial release. Microsoft should start beta testing after the program is fully functional but well in advance of the actual release date, so there is sufficient time to find and fix problems.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANProduct strategy is based on the choices companies make as they segment their markets, identify target audiences and research their needs, and create an appropriate market positioning. With this foundation, marketers are ready to plan for new-product development and management.Now you are considering Sonic's new-product-development options. Look back at the company's situational analysis and the parts of the marketing plan you have developed so far. Then answer these questions (noting the need for additional research where necessary):∙What kinds of new products would help Sonic achieve its goals and compete more effectively in the marketplace—while meeting the needs of its targeted segments? Be specific.∙Working alone or with other students, generate four or five ideas for new products, and indicate how you can screen these ideas.∙Develop the most promising idea into a product concept and indicate how you plan to test this concept. What dimensions must be tested?∙Assuming that this idea has tested well, develop a marketing strategy for the introduction of the new product. Include a description of the target market; your positioning for the product;the estimated sales, profit, and market-share goals for the first two years; your price strategy;your channel strategy; and the marketing budget you will set for this new product introduction. As your instructor directs, summarize your product-development and management ideas in a written marketing plan or type them into the Product Development/Management section of the Marketing Plan Prosoftware. Be sure to include long-range estimates of sales, profits, and budget requirements for each new product you plan to introduce.Answer: Students may suggest various new products to help Sonic meet its sales goals and compete more effectively. For example, they may suggest developing new systems with s maller but more powerful speakers, to improve product performance and fit with customers' need for space-saving systems. New product ideas can be screened through an idea committee and by rating against preset criteria. Students may say that new product concepts can be tested by asking consumers in the targeted segment to read a description, look at a picture, handle a prototype, or even through virtual reality. Conjoint analysis might also be used. Dimensions to be tested include: communicability and believability; need level; gap level; perceived value; purchase intention; and user targets, purchase occasions, purchasing frequency. The marketing strategy suggested by students should fit with the overall goals and ideas proposed in their marketing plans.。
CH07 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
CHAPTER7--A NAL YZING B USINESS M ARKETS AND B USINESS B UYINGB EHAVIOROVERVIEW:Business markets consist of individuals and organizations that buy goods for purposes of furtherproduction, resale, or redistribution. Businesses (including government and nonprofitorganizations) are a market for raw and manufactured materials and parts, installations, accessory equipment, and supplies and services. The variables impacting the business buyer are similar tothose of the consumer buyer in some ways but very different in others. In general, the businessbuyer is generally much more technical, price-oriented, educated for the job, and risk averse thanthe consumer buyer. Also, with the business buying environment there is more concern for thestatus and power of potential vendors, and persuasiveness and empathy play relatively lower roles. The industrial market buys goods and services for the purpose of increasing sales, cutting costs,or meeting social and legal requirements. Compared with the consumer market, the industrialmarket consists of: fewer buyers, larger buyers, close supplier/customer relationships,geographically concentrated buyers, derived demand that is relatively inelastic and fluctuating;professional purchasing with several more buying influences involved, direct purchasing,reciprocity, and leasing. Industrial buyers make decisions that vary with the buying situation orbuyclass. Buyclasses comprise three types: straight rebuys, modified rebuys, and new tasks. Thedecision-making unit of a buying organization, the buying center, consists of persons who playany of seven roles: initiators, users, influencers, deciders, approvers, buyers and gatekeepers.The industrial marketer needs to know: Who are the major participants? In what decisions do theyexercise influence? What is their relative degree of influence? And what evaluation criteria doeseach decision participant use? The industrial marketer also needs to understand the majorenvironmental, organizational, interpersonal, and individual influences operating in the buyingprocess. The buying process itself consists of eight stages called buyphases: problem recognition,general need description, product specification, supplier search, proposal solicitation, supplier selection, order-routine specification, and performance review. As industrial buyers become more sophisticated, industrial marketers must upgrade their marketing capabilities.The institutional and government market shares many practices with the business market and hassome additional characteristics. Institutional buyers are less concerned with profit than with otherconsiderations when they define the products and services to buy for the people under their care.Government buyers tend to require many forms and favor open bidding and their own nationalswhen they choose their suppliers. Suppliers must be prepared to adapt their offers to the special needs and procedures found in institutional and government markets.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Know the who, what, and how of the business market∙Know the who, what, and how of the institutional and government markets CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.IntroductionII.What is Organizational Buying?A.The Business Market versus the Consumer Market. Characterized by:1.Fewer buyersrger buyers3.Close supplier-customer relationship4.Geographically concentrated buyers5.Derived demand6.Inelastic demand7.Fluctuating demand8.Professional purchasing9.Several buying influences10.Direct purchasing11.Reciprocity12.LeasingB.Buying Situations - Straight rebuy (reorder on a routine basis), Modified rebuy(product specs, prices, delivery requirements, or other terms may be modified),New task (a purchaser buys a product or service for the first time with majorsubdecisions involved in the buying decision)C.Systems Buying and Selling - many purchasers prefer to buy a total solution totheir problem from one seller.D.Participants in the Business Buying Process - initiators, users, influencers,deciders, approvers, buyers, gatekeepersE.Major Influences on Business Buyers1.Environmental factors - level of demand, economic outlook, interest rateanizational factors - objectives, policies, procedures, structures,systems. There are several organizational trends about which businessmarketers should know.3.Interpersonal factors - everyone in the buying center has differinginterests, authority, status, empathy, and persuasiveness.4.Individual factors - every business buyer is an individualF.The Purchasing/Procurement Process1.Problem recognition2.General need description3.Product specifications - search for ways to lower costs4.Supplier search - seek the most appropriate bidders5.Proposal solicitation - Request for Proposal (RFP)6.Supplier selection - each bidder rated on specified criteria7.Order routine specification - final negotiations8.Performance review - through both internal and external methodsIII.Institutional and Government Markets - institutions tend to have low budgets and captive clienteles. Government is also a major buyer of goods and services. Decision topurchase is usually based on cost. Paperwork is considerable.IV.SummaryMARKETING A ND ADVERTISING1. Marketers of milk and other products can choose between a number of materials for use in containers and other packaging. This American Plastics Council ad describes the latest advances that make plastic containers a better choice. Where should the industry group place ads like this? What other methods might the industry group use to convince its markets of the value of using plastic for packaging food s and other products?Answer: The market for this American Plastics Council ad includes beverage marketers such as Hood (milk), Evian (water); supermarket chains that sell private label beverages; and supermarket chains that buy plastic grocery bags. Therefore, this ad should be placed in publications that reach the target audience, such as Supermarket News, as well as in general business publications such as Business Week that reach executives in these business organizations. Other methods the council might use to convince its markets of the value of using plastic include: making speeches to meetings of the target audience, such as supermarket executives; preparing press releases with information about the cost-benefits of using plastic packaging and bags; hosting exhibits at trade shows attended by the targeted groups; sending out periodic newsletters to educate members of the target audience about the benefits of using plastic; posting detailed information and studies on the council's Web site; mounting a consumer campaign as a "pull" strategy to encourage marketers and retailers to use more plastic packaging. Students may suggest additional methods.2. This Kinko's ad targets businesses of all sizes. Is the information in this ad geared toward a straight rebuy, a modified rebuy, or a new task? Would buyers, approvers, or initiators be most likely to respond to this ad? How does the ad relate to problem recognition and supplier selection in the business purchasing process? What kind of performance review might a business buyer apply to its purchasing of Kinko's color duplication services?Answer: This Kinko's ad is probably geared toward a modified rebuy, since the ad copy refers to previously created "dull, dingy business materials" that need brightening. Initiators would be most likely to respond to this ad, since they would recognize the need for brighter, more colorful business materials. In this case, the initiators would often be the users of the color materials, which is why they are aware that better color would give the company's materials more impact. A business buyer might review the performance of the purchase of Kinko's color copying services by contacting the end users to ask for their evaluations. If the users believe that Kinko's color materials are making the company look better and having other positive effects, the buyer will give Kinko's performance a good rating and continue to buy.FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGYTechnology is changing the way government organizations buy goods and services. For e xample, the city of Fort Collins, Colorado buys all kinds of products, such as computers and flooring. These days, the purchasing agent announces the city's needs and requests for proposals on a special page on its Web site (/CITY_HA LL/PURCHASING/bidlist.htm). Another page (/CITY_HA LL/PURCHASING/index.htm) explains the city's purchasing process and offers standard documents for downloading by suppliers.Visit both of these pages and see what Fort Collins requires of its suppliers. How does this technology benefit the city? How does it benefit suppliers who want to provide goods and services to the city? What other information about the city's purchasing process might a supplier want to see on these pages? Answer: Fort Collins benefits in several ways from the use of Internet technology to post and solicit proposals for purchasing goods and services:∙Lower costs due to less paper and postage and fewer personnel needed to handle the solicitation and processing of proposals and bids;∙Ability to efficiently reach suppliers of all sizes and types, which widens the pool of potential bidders;∙Higher productivity due to use of standardized forms downloaded from the Web site. Suppliers who want to provide goods and services to the city also benefit in several ways: ∙Lower costs due to less paper and postage and fewer personnel needed to handle the preparation and submission of proposals and bids;∙Ability to quickly and efficiently identify opportunities to submit proposals and bid for purchases made by Fort Collins;∙Ability to compete more effectively with suppliers of any size for purchases made by Fort Collins.A supplier reviewing the Fort Collins Web site might want to see additional information about the city's purchasing process, such as: supplier selection criteria; decision and notification dates for projects up for bid; and any prerequisites for successful bidders, such as performance bonds. Students may have other suggestions, as well.MARKETING FOR THE MILLENNIUMThe "cyberbuying bazaar" is busier than ever before as more businesses go online in search of MRO (maintenance, repair, and operations) materials. Business-to-business electronic commerce can streamline the purchasing process for MRO items, saving time and money for both parties.GE Information Services (GEIS) is a leader in helping businesses use the Internet to buy from and sell to other businesses. Visit the Electronic Marketplaces page on the GEIS Web site(/html/emindx..html), where you will see various products for business-to-business buying and selling. Then click on the link to TPN Register Buyer Services, a service specifically designed for MRO items. Why would a business buyer want to access information about suppliers usin g the Thomas Register Classification System? Why is reducing cycle time important for MRO items? Why would a supplier want to participate in this service? What potential disadvantages can you see for suppliers? Answer: The Thomas Register Classification System shows information about a large number of suppliers in a given classification, widening the potential pool of sellers from whom the buyer can purchase goods and services. Reducing cycle time for MRO items allows companies to maintain lower inventory levels of these fairly routine purchases and avoid delays in delivery that can disrupt operations. Suppliers would want to participate because they will be introduced to a wider market of potential customers. Two potential disadvantages for suppliers are:∙Lower loyalty on the part of purchasers, who can more easily locate competing suppliers; and ∙More competition from competing suppliers who are listed in the system. (Students may cite additional disadvantages, as well.)YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLA NLike consumer marketers, business-to-business marketers need to understand their markets and the behavior of members of the buying center in order to develop appropriate marketing plans.At Sonic, you have decided to investigate the business market for the company's shelf stereo systems, such as small restaurants and stores that want to play music for their customers. Given Sonic's current situation and your knowledge of business marketing, answer the following questions:∙In addition to restaurants and stores, what other types of businesses might want to buy a shelf stereo system?∙How can you find out the overall size of business markets such as small restaurants? (Check the U.S. Census Web site listing of businesses by SIC—eating places are SIC 5812, forexample—at /epcd/cbp/view/us94.txt; also check state Web sites for morestati stics, as well as other sources.)∙What specific needs could Sonic's product address for these businesses?∙What type of purchase would a Sonic system represent for these businesses? Who would participate in and influence this type of purchase? What are the implications for yourmarketing strategy?Think about the opportunities, threats, and issues represented by the business markets you have researched. Summarize your findings and conclusions in a written marketing plan or type them into the Marketing Situation, SWOT/Issue Analysis, and Target Markets/Positioning sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: How students draft the business-to-business part of Sonic's marketing plan depends on the results of the research they conduct. Looking up all retail establishments on the U.S. Census Web site, for example, they will find under the 52 SIC for retail trade: 1.56 million total retail stores, 1.32 million stores with 1-19 employees, 216,800 stores with 20-99 employees, 25,376 stores with 100-499 employees, and 738 stores with 499+ employees. Under SIC 5400 food stores, they will find 182,512 total stores, 149,648 stores with 1-19 employees, 25,720 stores with 20-99 employees, 7,128 stores with 100-499 employees, and 25 with 499+ employees. In addition, under SIC 5812 eating places, students will find 367,205 total restaurants, 252,954 with 1-19 employees, 110,332 with 20-99 employees, 3,872 with 100-499 employees, and 47 with 499+ employees.In addition, students may choose to target businesses state by state, researching the market on the Internet by accessing state Web sites. On the Connecticut Web site, for example, the Research Division of the Department of Economic and Community Development (/ecd/research/) contains links to statewide retail statistics and other data, as well as details about consumer markets.At first glance, the statistics seem to indicate a sizable business market for shelf stereo systems. However, not every store or restaurant is likely to be interested in such products. Larger establishments may already have sound systems or may be part of chains that use a central purchasing process. Smaller establishments, on the other hand, may be a better—and potentially larger—market if Sonic can reach them with an appropriate marketing strategy.Students should identify the specific needs that shelf stereos will address for such businesses. These might include: providing background music throughout the establishment during business hours to make the shopping or dining experience more pleasant for consumers and providing background music for workersin non-public areas, which can enhance productivity. More research may be needed to ascertain whether these businesses are interested in shelf stereos and exactly how the buying process works in these establishments.Buying a Sonic sound system would be a new task buying situation, because these establishments have probably never purchased a stereo system before. Research will reveal the role of owners or managers, who are likely to be deciders and buyers (and may play other roles, as well). Sonic should consider the behavior and attitudes of these key buying center members when developing targeting and marketing mix strategies for the business market.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Selection criteria are publicized Various selection procedures are used to evaluate candidates
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 11 in Chapter 17
Managing the Sales Force
Evaluating the Sales Force
Personal Selling Principles
Major Aspects
Sales professionalism Negotiation Relationship marketing
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Sales-oriented approach
– Stresses high pressure techniques
Slide 6 in Chapter 17
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Managing the Sales Force
Steps in Sales Force Management
Recruitment and selection Training Supervising Motivating Evaluating
Objectives
Reviewesigning a sales force. Learn how companies recruit, select, train, supervise, motivate, and evaluate a sales force. Understand how salespeople improve their selling, negotiation, and relationship-building skills.
Designing the Sales Force
Steps in Process
Objectives and strategy Structure Sales force size Compensation
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Types of sales force structures:
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Slide 7 in Chapter 17
Managing the Sales Force
Recruiting begins with the development of selection criteria
Steps in Process
Objectives and strategy Structure Sales force size Compensation
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Workload approach:
– Group customers by volume – Establish call frequencies – Calculate total yearly sales call workload – Calculate average number of calls/year – Calculate number of sales representatives
Deliverer Order taker Missionary
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Technician Demand creator Solution vendor
Slide 2 in Chapter 17
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 10 in Chapter 17
Managing the Sales Force
Motivating the Sales Force
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Four components of compensation:
– – – – Fixed amount Variable amount Expense allowances Benefits
Compensation plans
– Straight salary – Straight commission – Combination
Personal Selling Principles
Steps in Industrial Selling Process
Prospecting and qualifying Preapproach Approach Presentation and demonstration
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 8 in Chapter 17
Managing the Sales Force
Training topics include:
Designing the Sales Force
Steps in Process
Objectives and strategy Structure Sales force size Compensation
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
Objectives
– Sales volume and profitability – Customer satisfaction
Strategy
– Account manager
Type of sales force
– Direct (company) or contractual
Slide 3 in Chapter 17
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
– Sources of information
Sales or call reports, personal observation, customer letters and complaints, customer surveys, other representatives
– Formal evaluation
– Company background, products – Customer characteristics – Competitors’ products – Sales presentation techniques – Procedures and responsibilities
Training time needed and training method used vary with task complexity
– Most valued rewards
Pay, promotion, personal growth, sense of accomplishment
– Least valued rewards
Liking and respect, security, recognition
– Sales quotas as motivation tools – Supplementary motivators
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 1 in Chapter 17
Designing the Sales Force
Types of Sales Representatives
– Territorial – Product – Market – Complex
Key accounts
Slide 4 in Chapter 17
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Designing the Sales Force
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 9 in Chapter 17
Managing the Sales Force
Successful firms have procedures to aid in evaluating the sales force:
Customer-oriented approach
– Stresses customer problem solving
Steps in industrial selling process
Slide 13 in Chapter 17