水利水电工程毕业设计英文翻译,混凝土重力坝
水利水电专业毕业论文 文献翻译 坝(可编辑)
水利水电专业毕业论文文献翻译坝（可编辑）水利水电专业毕业论文文献翻译坝Dam The first dam for which there are reliable records was build or the Nile River sometime before 4000 B.C. It was used to divert the Nile and provide a site for the ancient city of Memphis .The oldest dam still in use is the Almanza Dam in Spain, which was constructed in the sixteenth century. With the passage of time,materials and methods of construction have improved. Making possible the erection of such large dams as the Nurek Dam, which is being constructed in the U.S.S.R. on the vaksh River near the border of Afghanistan. This dam will be 1017ft333m high, of earth and rock fill. The failure of a dam may cause serious loss of life and property; consequently, the design and maintenance of dams are commonly under government surveillance. In the United States over 30,000 dams are under the control of state authorities. The 1972 Federal Dams Safety Act PL92-367requires periodic inspections of dams by qualified experts. The failure of the Teton Dam in Idaho in June 1976 added to the concern for dam safety in the United States.1 Type of DamsDams are classified on the type and materials of construction, as gravity, arch, buttress ,and earth .The first three types are usually constructed of concrete. A gravity dam depends on its own weight for stability and it usually straight in plan although sometimes slightly curved. Arch dams transmit most of the horizontal thrust of the waterbehind them to the abutments by arch action and have thinner cross sections than comparable gravity dams. Arch dams can be used only in narrow canyons where the walls are capable of withstanding the thrust produced by the arch action. The simplest of the many types of buttress dams is the slab type, which consists of sloping flat slabs supported at intervals by buttresses. Earth dams are embankments of rock or earth with provision for controlling seepage by means of dam may be includedin a single structure. Curved dams may combine both gravity and arch action to achieve stability. Long dams often have a concrete river section containing spillway and sluice gates and earth or rock-fill wing dams for the remainder of their length The selection of the best type of dam for a given site is a problem in both engineering feasibility and cost. Feasibility is governed by topography, geology and climate. For example, because concrete spalls when subjected to alternate freezing and thawing, arch and buttress dams with thin concrete section are sometimes avoided in areas subject to extreme cold. The relative cost of the various types of dams depends mainly on the availability of construction materials near the site and the accessibility of transportation facilities. Dams are sometimes built in stages with the second or late stages constructed adecade or longer after the first stage The height of a dam isdefined as the difference in elevation between the roadway, or spillway crest, and the lowest part of the excavated foundation. However, figures quoted for heights of dams are often determined in other ways.Frequently the height is taken as the net height is taken as the net height above the old riverbed.2.Forced on dams A dam must be relatively impervious to water and capable of resisting the forces acting on it. The most important of these forces are gravity weight of dam , hydrostatic pressure, uplift, ice pressure, and earthquake forces are transmitted to the foundation and abutments of the dam, which react against the dam with an equal and opposite force, the foundation reaction. The effect of hydrostatic forces caused by water flowing over the dam may require consideration in special cases The weight of a dam is the product of its volume and the specific weight of the material. The line of action of dynamic force passes through the center of mass of the cross section. Hydrostatic force may act on both the upstream and downstream faces of the dam. The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force is the force or unit width of dam it is Where r is the specific weight of water and h is the depth of water .The line of action of this force is h/3 above the base of the dam .The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is equal to the weigh of water vertically above the face of the dam and passes through the center ofgravity of this volume of water Water under pressure inevitablyfinds its way between the dam And its foundation and creates uplift pressures. The magnitude of the uplift force depends on the character of the foundation and the construction methods. It is often assumed that the uplift pressure varies linearly from full hydrostatic pressure atthe upstream face heelto full tail-water pressure at the downstream face toe.For this assumption the uplift force U is Urh1+h2t/2Where t is the base thickness of the dam and h1and h2 are the water depths at the heel and toe of the dam,respectively. The uplift force will act through the center of area of the pressure trapezoid Actual measurements on dams indicate that the uplift force is much less than that given byEq.2Various assumption have been made regarding the distribution ofuplift pressures.The ////0>. of Reclamation sometimes assumes that the uplift pressure on gravity dams varies linearly from two-thirds of full uplift at the heel to zero at the toe. Drains are usually provided near the heel of the dam to permit the escape of seepage water and relieve uplift译文:坝据可靠记载,世界上第一座坝是公元前4000年以前在尼罗河上修建的。
毕业设计水利水电工程英文文献翻译
毕业设计水利水电工程英文文献翻译外文文献：hydraulicturbines and hydro-electric powerAbstractPower may be developed from water by three fundamental processes : by action of its weight, of its pressure, or of its velocity, or by a combination of any or all three. In modern practice the Pelton or impulse wheel is the only type which obtains power by a single process the action of one or more high-velocity jets. This type of wheel is usually found in high-head developments. Faraday had shown that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field electricity is generated. Thus, in order to produce electrical energy, it is necessary that we should produce mechanical energy, which can be used to rotate the ‘coil’. The mechanical energy is produced by running a prime mover (known as turbine ) by the energy of fuels or flowing water. This mechanical power is converted into electrical power by electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of turbine and is thus run by turbine. The electrical power, which is consequently obtained at the terminals of thegenerator, is then transited to the area where it is to be used for doing work.he plant or machinery which is required to produce electricity (i.e. prime mover +electric generator) is collectively known as power plant. The building, in which the entire machinery along with other auxiliary units is installed, is known as power house.Keywords hydraulic turbines hydro-electric power classification of hydel plantshead schemeThere has been practically no increase in the efficiency of hydraulic turbines since about 1925, when maximum efficiencies reached 93% or more. As far as maximum efficiency is concerned, the hydraulic turbine has about reached the practicable limit of development. Nevertheless, in recent years, there has been a rapid and marked increase in the physical size and horsepower capacity of individual units.In addition, there has been considerable research into the cause and prevention of cavitation, which allows the advantages of higher specific speeds to be obtainedat higher heads than formerly were considered advisable. The net effect of this progress with larger units, higher specific speed, and simplification and improvements in design has been to retain for the hydraulic turbine the important place which it has long held at one of the most important prime movers.1. types of hydraulic turbinesHydraulic turbines may be grouped in two general classes: the impulse type which utilizes the kinetic energy of a high-velocity jet which acts upon only a small part of the circumference at any instant, and the reaction type which develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water that completely fills the runner and water passages. The reaction group is divided into two general types: the Francis, sometimes called the reaction type, and the propeller type. The propeller class is also further subdivided into the fixed-blade propeller type, and the adjustable-blade type of which the Kaplan is representative.1.1 impulse wheelsWith the impulse wheel the potential energy of thewater in the penstock is transformed into kinetic energy in a jet issuing from the orifice of a nozzle. This jet discharge freely into the atmosphere inside the wheel housing and strikes against the bowl-shaped buckets of the runner. At each revolution the bucket enters, passes through, and passes out of the jet, during which time it receives the full impact force of the jet. This produces a rapid hammer blow upon the bucket. At the same time the bucket is subjected to the centrifugal force tending to separate the bucket from its disk. On account of the stresses so produced and also the scouring effects of the water flowing over the working surface of the bowl, material of high quality of resistance against hydraulic wear and fatigue is required. Only for very low heads can cast iron be employed. Bronze and annealed cast steel are normally used.1.2 Francis runnersWith the Francis type the water enters from a casing or flume with a relatively low velocity, passes through guide vanes or gates located around the circumstance, and flows through the runner, from which it discharges into a draft tube sealed below the tail-water level. All therunner passages are completely filled with water, which acts upon the whole circumference of the runner. Only a portion of the power is derived from the dynamic action due to the velocity of the water, a large part of the power being obtained from the difference in pressure acting on the front and back of the runner buckets. The draft tube allows maximum utilization of the available head, both because of the suction created below the runner by the vertical column of water and because the outlet of he draft tube is larger than the throat just below the runner, thus utilizing a part of the kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner blades.1.3 propeller runnersnherently suitable for low-head developments, the propeller-type unit has effected marked economics within the range of head to which it is adapted. The higher speed of this type of turbine results in a lower-cost generator and somewhat smaller powerhouse substructure and superstructure. Propeller-type runners for low heads and small outputs are sometimes constructed of cast iron. For heads above 20 ft, they are made of cast steel, a much more reliable material. Large-diameter propellers。
08水利专业混凝土重力坝毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献 (1)
混凝土重力坝中英文资料外文翻译文献混凝土重力坝基础流体力学行为分析摘要：一个在新的和现有的混凝土重力坝的滑动稳定性评价的关键要求是对孔隙压力和基础关节和剪切强度不连续分布的预测。
本文列出评价建立在岩石节理上的混凝土重力坝流体力学行为的方法。
该方法包括通过水库典型周期建立一个观察大坝行为的数据库，并用离散元法（DEM）数值模式模拟该行为。
一旦模型进行验证，包括岩性主要参数的变化，地应力，和联合几何共同的特点都要纳入分析。
斯威土地，Albigna 大坝坐落在花岗岩上，进行了一个典型的水库周期的特定地点的模拟，来评估岩基上的水流体系的性质和评价滑动面相对于其他大坝岩界面的发展的潜力。
目前大坝基础内的各种不同几何的岩石的滑动因素，是用德国马克也评价模型与常规的分析方法的。
裂纹扩展模式和相应扬压力和抗滑安全系数的估计沿坝岩接口与数字高程模型进行了比较得出，由目前在工程实践中使用的简化程序。
结果发现，在岩石节理，估计裂缝发展后的基础隆起从目前所得到的设计准则过于保守以及导致的安全性过低，不符合观察到的行为因素。
关键词：流体力学，岩石节理，流量，水库设计。
简介：评估抗滑混凝土重力坝的安全要求的理解是，岩基和他们上面的结构是一个互动的系统，其行为是通过具体的材料和岩石基础的力学性能和液压控制。
大约一个世纪前，Boozy大坝的失败提示工程师开始考虑由内部产生渗漏大坝坝基系统的扬压力的影响，并探讨如何尽量减少其影响。
今天，随着现代计算资源和更多的先例，确定沿断面孔隙压力分布，以及评估相关的压力和评估安全系数仍然是最具挑战性的。
我们认为，观察和监测以及映射对大型水坝的行为和充分的仪表可以是我们更好地理解在混凝土重力坝基础上的缝张开度，裂纹扩展，和孔隙压力的发展。
图.1流体力学行为：（一）机械;（二）液压。
本文介绍了在过去20个来自Albigna大坝，瑞士，多年收集的水库运行周期行为的代表的监测数据，描述了一系列的数值分析结果及评估了其基础流体力学行为。
水利水电专业毕业设计外文翻译
毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目水库及电力系统简介专业水利水电工程班级2007级四班学生陈剑锋指导教师杨忠超重庆交通大学2011 年RESERVOIRSWhen a barrier is constructed across some river in the form of a dam, water gets stored up on the upstream side of the barrier, forming a pool of water, generally called a reservoir.Broadly speaking, any water collected in a pool or a lake may be termed as a reservoir. The water stored in reservoir may be used for various purposes. Depending upon the purposes served, the reservoirs may be classified as follows: Storage or Conservation Reservoirs.Flood Control Reservoirs.Distribution Reservoirs.Multipurpose reservoirs.(1) Storage or Conservation Reservoirs. A city water supply, irrigation water supply or a hydroelectric project drawing water directly from a river or a stream may fail to satisfy the consumers’ demands during extremely low flows, while during high flows; it may become difficult to carry out their operation due to devastating floods. A storage or a conservation reservoir can retain such excess supplies during periods of peak flows and can release them gradually during low flows as and when the need arise.Incidentally, in addition to conserving water for later use, the storage of flood water may also reduce flood damage below the reservoir. Hence, a reservoir can be used for controlling floods either solely or in addition to other purposes. In the former case, it is known as ‘Flood Control Reservoir’or ‘Single Purpose Flood Control Reservoir’, and in the later case, it is called a ‘Multipurpose Reservoir’.(2) Flood Control Reservoirs A flood control reservoir or generally called flood-mitigation reservoir, stores a portion of the flood flows in such a way as to minimize the flood peaks at the areas to be protected downstream. To accomplish this, the entire inflow entering the reservoir is discharge till the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. The inflow in excess of this rate is stored in stored in the reservoir, which is then gradually released so as to recover the storage capacity for next flood.The flood peaks at the points just downstream of the reservoir are thus reduced by an amount AB. A flood control reservoir differs from a conservation reservoir only in its need for a large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid drawdown before or after a flood.Types of flood control reservoirs. There are tow basic types of flood-mitigation reservoir.Storage Reservoir or Detention basins.Retarding basins or retarding reservoirs.A reservoir with gates and valves installation at the spillway and at the sluice outlets is known as a storage-reservoir, while on the other hand, a reservoir with ungated outlet is known as a retarding basin.Functioning and advantages of a retarding basin:A retarding basin is usually provided with an uncontrolled spillway and anuncontrolled orifice type sluiceway. The automatic regulation of outflow depending upon the availability of water takes place from such a reservoir. The maximum discharging capacity of such a reservoir should be equal to the maximum safe carrying capacity of the channel downstream. As flood occurs, the reservoir gets filled and discharges through sluiceways. As the reservoir elevation increases, outflow discharge increases. The water level goes on rising until the flood has subsided and the inflow becomes equal to or less than the outflow. After this, water gets automatically withdrawn from the reservoir until the stored water is completely discharged. The advantages of a retarding basin over a gate controlled detention basin are:①Cost of gate installations is save.②There are no fates and hence, the possibility of human error and negligence in their operation is eliminated.Since such a reservoir is not always filled, much of land below the maximum reservoir level will be submerged only temporarily and occasionally and can be successfully used for agriculture, although no permanent habitation can be allowed on this land.Functioning and advantages of a storage reservoir:A storage reservoir with gated spillway and gated sluiceway, provides more flexibility of operation, and thus gives us better control and increased usefulness of the reservoir. Storage reservoirs are, therefore, preferred on large rivers which require batter controlled and regulated properly so as not to cause their coincidence. This is the biggest advantage of such a reservoir and outweighs its disadvantages of being costly and involving risk of human error in installation and operation of gates.(3) Distribution Reservoirs A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir constructed within a city water supply system. Such a reservoir can be filled by pumping water at a certain rate and can be used to supply water even at rates higher than the inflow rate during periods of maximum demands (called critical periods of demand). Such reservoirs are, therefore, helpful in permitting the pumps or water treatment plants to work at a uniform rate, and they store water during the hours of no demand or less demand and supply water from their ‘storage’ during the critical periods of maximum demand.(4) Multipurpose Reservoirs A reservoir planned and constructed to serve not only one purpose but various purposes together is called a multipurpose reservoir. Reservoir, designed for one purpose, incidentally serving other purpose, shall not be called a multipurpose reservoir, but will be called so, only if designed to serve those purposes also in addition to its main purpose. Hence, a reservoir designed to protect the downstream areas from floods and also to conserve water for water supply, irrigation, industrial needs, hydroelectric purposes, etc. shall be called a multipurpose reservoir.水库拦河筑一条像坝的障碍时，水就被拦蓄在障碍物的上游并形成水塘．通常称之为水库。
华北水利水电大学水利水电工程毕业设计外文翻译
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF A HIGH ROCKFILL DAMNAM NGUM 2 CFRD, LAO PDRRuedi Straubaar1, Eva van Gunsteren2 and Stephen Moll31Geotechnical and Dam Engineering Expert, Pöyry Energy Ltd. (formerly Electrowatt Engineering Ltd.)Hardturmstrasse 161, CH-8037 Zurich, SwitzerlandE-mail: ruedi.straubhaar@2 Project Engineer and Assistant Project Manager for Nam Ngum 2, Pöyry Energy Ltd. (formerly Electrowatt Engineering Ltd.) Hardturmstrasse 161, CH-8037 Zurich, SwitzerlandE-mail: eva.van-gunsteren@3 Dam Engineer, Pöyry Energy Ltd. (formerly Electrowatt Engineering Ltd.) Hardturmstrasse 161,CH-8037 Zurich, SwitzerlandE-mail: stephen.moll@Abstract: Nam Ngum 2 dam, a large concrete face rock fill dam (CFRD) of 182 m height, is under construction and impounding is scheduled to start at beginning of April 2010. The dam is situated in a narrow valley and founded on sedimentary rock of variable strength.Dam design principles comprising dam zoning, face slab design and instrumentation are outlined. Foundation treatment including groutingand measures below the plinth are presented. The properties of the available rockfill materials and their influence on the dam zoning are discussed.Emphasis is given to the rockfill properties and placement procedures which influence dam behaviour during construction, impounding and operation.Key words: CFRD, Rockfill, Face Slab, Instrumentation1Nam Ngum 2 Hydropower SchemeThe Nam Ngum 2 (NN2) hydropower scheme is located on the Nam Ngum river in Lao PDR, about90 km north of the capital city of Vientiane and some 35 km upstream of the existing Nam Ngum 1dam and powerhouse. With an installed capacity of 615 MW, the project will produce energy for the Thai electricity grid. A significant component of the scheme is the 182 m high concrete face rock fill dam, with a volume of 9.5 M m3 and a crest length of 500 m. The dam will impound a reservoir with a volume of approximately 4.2 M m3.Construction of the NN2 Project commenced in late 2005 and is scheduled for completion in the second half of 2010. Rock fill placement in the dam body commenced in January 2008, and will be finished in early November 2009. Face slab construction, which is divided into an upper and lower stage, commenced in December 2008 and will becompleted by beginning of April 2010, when impounding will begin. The reservoir will fill during one rainy season, enabling commissioning to take place during the second half of 2010.2Considerations with respect to dam deformationsConcrete face rock fill dams are considered inherently safe for a wide range of weak and strong rock fill (Cooke 1991) and deformation of the rock fill is often assumed not being a governing concern provided the dam is well engineered and the dam foundation is of adequate quality. It is often assumed that dam settlements are a simple function of the dam height and that they are not likely to exceed 1 % of the compacted fill height with horizontal deformations less than 50 % of the settlements. Predictions are also often made based on laboratory tests and dam deformation analyses.2.1 Rock fill testing performed for NN2 CFRDFor the construction of the NN2 dam quarried rock of sedimentary formations are available. The source material, consisting basically of sandstone and siltstone, has been investigated by drilling, quarry trials, laboratory testing and trial embankment construction. The essential tests are index property tests, compressive strength and basic friction angle tests. Tests were also performed on saturated specimen, which normally gives more representative lower values.Of particular interest are always large scale triaxial and compressibility tests, which have been carried out for NN2 by the IWHR1 in China.2.2 Dam analyses and zoning of NN2 CFRDTest results from the IWHR as well as results from the AIT2 and site laboratories were used as basis for dam analyses. Stability as well as 2D and 3D deformation analyses were carried out by the IWHR. Based on the results of the analyses and also based on visual observation which indicated a very high desintegration potential of the siltstone, it had to be concluded that only sandstone is suitable as rock fill for the construction of the high embankment. By using only sandstone for rock fill it was concluded that the dam deformation will be within acceptable and normal limits.During construction it was observed that also fine grained sandstone, porous or weathered sandstone of moderate quality is being obtained from quarrying which can not always completely be separated and wasted. Therefore the dam zoning was adjusted to permit also placement of lower quality rock fill in the central part of the dam embankment. The adjusted dam zoning is shown in Figure 2.3 Observed deformations on constructed damsOften it is assumed that for strong rock fills the settlements are small,less than about 1% of the fill height. It is further commonly assumed that the settlements develop essentially during construction.Although these assumptions were correct for many dams, a few dams did show much more settlements (Kjaernsli et al. 1992). More recent data of observed crest settlements are presented in Figure 3.For the 165 m high Atatürk dam in Turkey high post construction settlements developed. The post construction settlement rate of 0.02 % per year, which can be considered as maximum acceptable creeping pace after impounding, is even 10 years after completion of construction still exceeded.It has to be taken as a fact that deformations often exceed common values and are not always predictable. Laboratory tests are restricted to small maximum particle sizes and do not always reflect the behaviour of large size rock fill.4 Factors influencing the deformations of rock fill damsFactors influencing the magnitude of settlements are discussed in the following. Some information are taken from an unpublished research by Victor Milligan and Lisa Coyne “Review of factors influencing the settlement of rock fill dams”.4.1 Particle size and shapeThere is evidence that the modulus of deformation increases withincreasing particle size. Tests by Marachi et al. (1969) indicated that compressibility is highest for 150 mm particle size and least for 12 mm particle size. It has to be assumed that for particle sizes exceeding 150 mm the compressibility will further increase. A similar effect has to be assumed for the shear strength of rock fill. Increasing particle size somewhat reduces the shear strength depending on the basic characteristics of the source rock.The effect of particle shape on compressibility is well known. McDowell et al. (2004) stated that the “particle shape seems to have a greater effect (on compressibility) than mineralogy”. There is a pronounced reduction in modulus as the particle shape changes from rounded to angular.4.2 Gradation and state of packingIt is well known that uniformly graded rock fill is much more compressible than broadly graded rock fill. In general a uniformity coefficient of 30 is desired to obtain a reasonable gradation.Gradation and density have an essential effect on the state of packing.4.3 Wetting and compactionThe method of rock fill placement has a considerable influence on the compressibility of the rock fill.Water added to the rock fill weakens the rock and induces breakage and crushing of the rock particles, inparticular if the rock fill particles have a relatively high porosity. This will in general cause increased settlement and result in an increase of the long term stiffness of the fill. It is also well known that with smaller lift thicknesses and increased compaction energy the dam deformations are reduced.4.4 Effects of degradationDegradation depends on the stress level and the strength of the rock particles. Under a given stress level, the breakage of rounded particles is much less than that of angular particles. Well graded rounded particles have more contact points and thus experience less stress at contact points. In contrast uniform and sharply shaped particles experience much higher stresses at contact points with an increasing potential for particle breakage and creep.4.5 Predicted versus observed settlementsAlthough the various factors affecting the compressibility of rockfill are well known, it is not always possible to predict the dam deformation with the desired reliability. Laboratory testing and analytical modeling may not be sufficient to conclude on the dam behaviour, in particular the long term creeping of the structure. It is a fact that the observed deformation can exceed the predicted ones.Some of the factors influencing the compressibility can be controlledby the construction methodology. Other factors as the particle shape and strength can not be influenced, they are rather given by the rock type.Important is an adequate instrumentation of the dam and to compare the observed behaviour of the dam with the predictions and observations.4.6 Rock fill used at NN2For NN2, the conditions of the rock fill are as follows:- The particle size of the rock fill is relatively large and the particle shape is quite angular.- The gradation of the rock fill is often uniform and gap-graded, with a lack of rock fragments of gravel size.- The densities obtained after placement are adequate, although segregated areas observed may lead to increased post construction settlements.- Due to the gap grading and the high sand content, wetting of the fill leads to the development of a mud layer on the rock fill surface, which needs to be removed.- The amount of water effectively added to the fill is around 100-150 l/m3 which is considerably lower than the initially foreseen amount of 250 l/m3.The currently available information from settlement monitoring data indicate that there is a significant increase of settlements at higher stresslevels and also a tendency of quite pronounced creep settlements. The modulus of deformation during construction has decreased from initial values as high as 150 to 200 MPa to currently quite low to moderate values of around 30 to 70 MPa.5 Foundation TreatmentThe geological formations at the dam site consist of medium bedded to massive cliff-forming sandstone and interbedded thin to thick bedded siltstone. Three easterly trending folds whose axes are nearly perpendicular to the Nam Ngum river are present at the dam site. The cliff-forming sandstone is generally slightly jointed to massive, whereas the interbedded siltstone is moderately to closely jointed. The quality of the foundation rock varies within the following limits:- Sandstone: fresh, hard and slightly fractured to weathered and heavily fractured.- Siltstone: fresh and hard to weathered, soft and slaking.The foundation treatment at Nam Ngum 2 mainly aims on:- Positive control of seepage below the plinth.- Providing a stable and non-erodible foundation beneath and around the plinth.- Protection of foundation rock susceptible to erosion.- Levelling of abrupt irregularities in the dam foundation and very steep abutment slopes to reduce differential settlements.With respect to foundation treatment requirements the embankment foundation is divided into three areas. The foundation for the plinth is considered separately since it has more stringent requirements for rock quality and preparation.The upstream third of the embankment is founded on fresh to slightly weathered rock. The central part of the embankment is founded on slightly to moderately weathered rock. The requirements for the downstream third are less rigorous, and the foundation on moderately weathered rock is acceptable. At the riverbed the present dense alluvium of maximum 15 m thickness was left in place only in the central part of the dam body.Particular attention is paid to areas where the foundation of the dam consists of siltstone or highly weathered or intensively fractured sandstone. Such foundation rock is susceptible to erosion requires special protection. For this purpose a 100 mm wire mesh reinforced shotcrete blanket, covered by filters, is provided to cover the erodible rock within the foundation downstream of the plinth up to a distance of 0.3 H (H = reservoir head) from the plinth. In addition, and within the entire dam foundation area up to the downstream slope erodible foundation rock is。
毕业设计重力坝外文
The Kurpsai hydroelectric station is being constructed on the Naryn River 40 km downstream from the Toktogul hydrostation. The structure was designed by the Central Asian Branch of the All-Union Planning, Surveying, and Scientific-Research Institute (Gidroproekt). The concrete gravity dam of the hydrostation is located in a trapezoidal canyon with a slope steepness of about 450. With consideration of the cut made for dam the bottom width of the canyon is 80 m and at the crest level -- 365 m. The dam height is 113 m, the upstream face is vertical, the slope of the downstream face of four channel sections is 0.7, of the leftbank sections 0.75, and of the right-bank 0.8 (Fig. I). The floor and walls of the canyon are composed of sandstones and argillites forming thin alternating layers steeply dipping toward the upper pool. Three zones are distinguished with respect to the degree of preservation of the rocks: zone Ii of severely weathered rock with fractures filled with weathering products; zone Is, within which the fractures are relatively clean; deep zone II of relatively preserved rocks. Fracturing of the rock is represented by four joint systems, of which only the bedding joints aresufficiently clearly expressed with respect to length. According to the results of field experiments the calculated characteristics of the shear strength of the rock are taken equal to C = 0.3 MPa, tan =0.9. Deformation of the rock is characterized by a modulus of deformation El = 2 5 0 0 MPa for the near-surface zone Is and E2 = 7000 MPa for zone II of preserved rocks at a depth of 10-35 m from the surface of the cut. Since the region of the structure belongs to a zone of possible intensity 9 earthquakes, a special combination of loads, including seismic, is the main design case for the dam. Maximum simplification of construction works, which makes it possible not only to reduce the cost but also to shorten the construction, was adopted as the principal factor of increasing the technical and economic indices of the structure in the design. The bulk of the technical--economic effect was achieved due to the following technical decisions. Preparation of the supporting surface of the dam consisted in removing the most weathered rock of zone I~ with fractures filled with weathering products without organizing horizontal support areas under the bank sections of the dam. Under conditions of the mountain canyon such a decision was exceptionally effective, making it possible not only to reduce the amount of rock excavation to a minimum but also to simplify construction works. The dam is being constructed in layers 0.75-1 m thick uniformly over the entire dam without the use of pipe cooling. The temperature regime of the concrete masonry during the construction period is being regulated by surface watering of the blocks with river water starting a day after concreting the layer and before covering it with the next layer. The dimensions of the concreting blocks coincide in plan with the dimensions of the sections (Fig. i). The vertical joints between sections are formed during "face-to-face" concreting of adjacent sections with the use of permanent reinforced-concrete formwork. The joints, having vertical offsets with a depth of 0.8 m, are separated by waterbars into grouting segments and are equipped with reusable grouting outlets for conducting periodic grouting as the dam cools and the joints open. The concrete mix is delivered from the Toktogul concrete plant located in the city of Karakul. To reduce the volume of concrete, the design profile was selected with consideration of the effect of an increase of stability of a gravity dam under conditions of a narrow mountain canyon.* *See Yu. P. Kornev, "The Kurpsai hydroelectric station on the Naryn River," Gidrotekh. Stroit., No. ii (1981). Translated from Gidrotekhnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo, No. i, pp. 7-11, January, 1982. 0018-8220/82/1601-0001507.50 9 1982 Plenum Publishing Corporation
毕业设计水利水电工程英文文献翻译
外文文献：hydraulicturbines and hydro—electric powerAbstractPower may be developed from water by three fundamental processes ：by action of its weight, of its pressure，or of its velocity，or by a combination of any or all three。
In modern practice the Pelton or impulse wheel is the only type which obtains power by a single process the action of one or more high-velocity jets. This type of wheel is usually found in high—head developments. Faraday had shown that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field electricity is generated. Thus, in order to produce electrical energy, it is necessary that we should produce mechanical energy，which can be used to rotate the ‘coil’。
The mechanical energy is produced by running a prime mover （known as turbine ）by the energy of fuels or flowing water. This mechanical power is converted into electrical power by electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of turbine and is thus run by turbine. The electrical power, which is consequently obtained at the terminals of the generator，is then transited to the area where it is to be used for doing work.he plant or machinery which is required to produce electricity (i.e。
水利水电工程毕业设计英语翻译
外文资料翻译学院(直属系):能源与环境学院年级、专业: 2009级水利水电工程学生姓名:李巧龙学号: 3120指导教师:杨耀完成时间: 2013年 5 月 27 日hydraulic turbines1 introductionPower may be developed from water by three fundamental processes : by action of its weight, of its pressure, or of its velocity, or by a combination of any or all three. In modern practice the Pelton or impulse wheel is the only type which obtains power by a single process the action of one or more high-velocity jets. This type of wheel is usually found in high-head developments.There has been practically no increase in the efficiency of hydraulic turbines since about 1925, when maximum efficiencies reached 93% or more. As far as maximum efficiency is concerned, the hydraulic turbine has about reached the practicable limit of development. Nevertheless, in recent years, there has been a rapid and marked increase in the physical size and horsepower capacity of individual units.In addition, there has been considerable research into the cause and prevention of cavitation, which allows the advantages of higher specific speeds to be obtained at higher heads than formerly were considered advisable. The net effect of this progress with larger units, higher specific speed, and simplification and improvements in design has been to retain for the hydraulic turbine the important place which it has long held at one of the most important prime movers.2 types of hydraulic turbinesHydraulic turbines may be grouped in two general classes: the impulse type which utilizes the kinetic energy of a high-velocity jet which acts upon only a small part of the circumference at any instant, and the reaction type which develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water that completely fills the runner and water passages. The reaction group is divided into two general types: the Francis, sometimes called the reaction type, and the propeller type. The propeller class is also further subdivided into the fixed-blade propeller type, and the adjustable-blade type of which the Kaplan is representative.2.1 impulse wheelsWith the impulse wheel the potential energy of the water in the penstock is transformed into kinetic energy in a jet issuing from the orifice of a nozzle. This jet discharge freely into the atmosphere inside the wheel housing and strikes against the bowl-shaped buckets of the runner. At each revolution the bucket enters, passes through, and passes out of the jet, during which time it receives the full impact force of the jet. This produces a rapid hammer blow upon the bucket. At the same time the bucket is subjected to the centrifugal force tending to separate the bucket from its disk. On account of the stresses so produced and also the scouring effects of the waterflowing over the working surface of the bowl, material of high quality of resistance against hydraulic wear and fatigue is required. Only for very low heads can cast iron be employed. Bronze and annealed cast steel are normally used.2.2 Francis runnersWith the Francis type the water enters from a casing or flume with a relatively low velocity, passes through guide vanes or gates located around the circumstance, and flows through the runner, from which it discharges into a draft tube sealed below the tail-water level. All the runner passages are completely filled with water, which acts upon the whole circumference of the runner. Only a portion of the power is derived from the dynamic action due to the velocity of the water, a large part of the power being obtained from the difference in pressure acting on the front and back of the runner buckets. The draft tube allows maximum utilization of the available head, both because of the suction created below the runner by the vertical column of water and because the outlet of he draft tube is larger than the throat just below the runner, thus utilizing a part of the kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner blades.2.3 propeller runnersnherently suitable for low-head developments, the propeller-type unit has effected marked economics within the range of head to which it is adapted. The higher speed of this type of turbine results in a lower-cost generator and somewhat smaller powerhouse substructure and superstructure. Propeller-type runners for low heads and small outputs are sometimes constructed of cast iron. For heads above 20 ft, they are made of cast steel, a much more reliable material. Large-diameter propellers may have individual blades fastened to the hub.2.4 adjustable-blade runnersThe adjustable-blade propeller type is a development from the fixed-blade propeller wheel. One of the best-known units of this type is the Kaplan unit, in which the blades may be rotated to the most efficient angle by a hydraulic servomotor. A cam on the governor is used to cause the blade angle to change with the gate position so that high efficiency is always obtained at almost any percentage of full load.By reason of its high efficiency at all gate openings, the adjustable-blade propeller-type unit is particularly applicable to low-head developments where conditions are such that the units must be operated at varying load and varying head. Capital cost and maintenance for such units are necessarily higher than for fixed-blade propeller-type units operated at the point of maximum efficiency.hydro-electric powerFaraday had shown that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field electricity is generated. Thus, in order to produce electrical energy, it is necessary that we should prod uce mechanical energy, which can be used to rotate the ‘coil’. The mechanical energy is produced by running a prime mover (known as turbine ) by the energy of fuels or flowing water. This mechanical power is converted into electrical power by electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of turbine and is thus run by turbine. The electrical power, which is consequently obtained at the terminals of the generator, is then transited to the area where it is to be used for doing work.he plant or machinery which is required to produce electricity (i.e. prime mover +electric generator) is collectively known as power plant. The building, in which the entire machinery along with other auxiliary units is installed, is known as power house.1 thermal and hydropowerAs stated earlier, the turbine blades can be made to run by the energy of fuels or flowing water. When fuel is used to produce steam for running the steam turbine, then the power generated is known as thermal power. The fuel which is to be used for generating steam may either be an ordinary fuel such as coal, fuel oil, etc., or atomic fuel or nuclear fuel. Coal is simply burnt to produce steam from water and is the simplest and oldest type of fuel. Diesel oil, etc. may also be used as fuels for producing steam. Atomic fuels such as uranium or thorium may also be used to produce steam. When conventional type of fuels such s coal, oil, etc. (called fossils ) is used to produce steam for running the turbines, the power house is generally called an Ordinary thermal power station or Thermal power station. But when atomic fuel is used to produce steam, the power station, which is essentially a thermal power station, is called an atomic power station or nuclear power station. In an ordinary thermal power station, steam is produced in a water boiler, while in the atomic power station; the boiler is replaced y a nuclear reactor and steam generator for raising steam. The electric power generated in both these cases is known as thermal power and the scheme is called thermal power scheme.But, when the energy of the flowing water is used to run the turbines, then the electricity generated is called hydroelectric power. This scheme is known as hydro scheme, and the power house is known as hydel power station or hydroelectric power station. In a hydro scheme, a certain quantity of water at a certain potential head is essentially made to flow through the turbines. The head causing flow runs the turbine blades, and thus producing electricity from the generator coupled to turbine. In this chapter, we are concerned with hydel scheme only.2 classification of hydel plantsHydro-plants may be classified on the basis of hydraulic characteristics as follow: ①run-off river plants ; ②storage plants ; ③pumped storage plants ; ④tidal plants. they are described below:(1)Run-off river plants.These plants are those which utilize the minimum flow in a river having no appreciable pondage on its upstream side. A weir or a barrage is sometimes constructed across a river simply to raise and maintain the water level at apre-determined level within narrow limits of fluctuations, either solely for the power plants or for some other purpose where the power plant may be incidental. Such a scheme is essentially a low head scheme and may be suitable only on a perennial river having sufficient dry weather flow of such a magnitude as to make the development worthwhile.Run-off river plants generally have a very limited storage capacity, and can use water only when it comes. This small storage capacity is provided for meeting the hourly fluctuations of load. When the available discharge at site is more than the demand (during off-peak hours ) the excess water is temporarily stored in the pond on the upstream side of the barrage, which is then utilized during the peak hours.he various examples of run-off the river pant are: Ganguwal and Kolta power houses located on Nangal Hydel Channel, Mohammad Pur and Pathri power houses on Ganga Canal and Sarda power house on Sarda Canal.The various stations constructed on irrigation channels at the sites of falls, also fall under this category of plants.(2) Storage plantsA storage plant is essentially having an upstream storage reservoir of sufficient size so as to permit, sufficient carryover storage from the monsoon season to the dry summer season, and thus to develop a firm flow substantially more than minimum natural flow. In this scheme, a dam is constructed across the river and the power house may be located at the foot of the dam such as in Bhakra, Hirakud, Rihand projects etc. the power house may sometimes be located much away from the dam (on the downstream side). In such a case, the power house is located at the end of tunnels which carry water from the reservoir. The tunnels are connected to the power house machines by means of pressure pen-stocks which may either be underground (as in Mainthon and Koyna projects) or may be kept exposed (as in Kundah project).When the power house is located near the dam, as is generally done in the low head installations ; it is known as concentrated fall hydroelectric development. But when the water is carried to the power house at a considerable distance from the dam through a canal, tunnel, or pen-stock; it is known as a divided fall development.(3) Pumped storage plants.A pumped storage plant generates power during peak hours, but during theoff-peak hours, water is pumped back from the tail water pool to the headwater pool for future use. The pumps are run by some secondary power from some other plant in the system. The plant is thus primarily meant for assisting an existing thermal plant or some other hydel plant.During peak hours, the water flows from the reservoir to the turbine and electricity is generated. During off-peak hours, the excess power is available from some other plant, and is utilized for pumping water from the tail pool to the head pool, this minor plant thus supplements the power of another major plant. In such a scheme, the same water is utilized again and again and no water is wasted.For heads varying between 15m to 90m, reservoir pump turbines have been devised, which can function both as a turbine as well as a pump. Such reversible turbines can work at relatively high efficiencies and can help in reducing the cost of such a plant. Similarly, the same electrical machine can be used both as a generator as well as a motor by reversing the poles. The provision of such a scheme helps considerably in improving the load factor of the power system.(4) Tidal plantsTidal plants for generation of electric power are the recent and modern advancements, and essentially work on the principle that there is a rise in seawater during high tide period and a fall during the low ebb period. The water rises and falls twice a day; each fall cycle occupying about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The advantage of this rise and fall of water is taken in a tidal plant. In other words, the tidal range, i.e. the difference between high and low tide levels is utilized to generate power. This is accomplished by constructing a basin separated from the ocean by a partition wall and installing turbines in opening through this wall.Water passes from the ocean to the basin during high tides, and thus running the turbines and generating electric power. During low tide, the water from the basin runs back to ocean, which can also be utilized to generate electric power, provided special turbines which can generate power for either direction of flow are installed. Such plants are useful at places where tidal range is high. Rance power station in France is an example of this type of power station. The tidal range at this place is of the order of 11 meters. This power house contains 9 units of 38,000 kW.Hydro-plants or hydroelectric schemes may be classified on the basis of operating head on turbines as follows: ①low head scheme (head<15m); ②medium head scheme (head varies between 15m to 60 m) ③high head scheme (head>60m). They are described below:(1) Low head scheme.A low head scheme is one which uses water head of less than 15 meters or so. A run off river plant is essentially a low head scheme, a weir or a barrage is constructedto raise the water level, and the power house is constructed either in continuation with the barrage or at some distance downstream of the barrage, where water is taken to the power house through an intake canal.(2) Medium head schemeA medium head scheme is one which used water head varying between 15 to 60 meters or so. This scheme is thus essentially a dam reservoir scheme, although the dam height is mediocre. This scheme is having features somewhere between low had scheme and high head scheme.(3) High head scheme.A high head scheme is one which uses water head of more than 60m or so. A dam of sufficient height is, therefore, required to be constructed, so as to store water on the upstream side and to utilize this water throughout the year. High head schemes up to heights of 1,800 meters have been developed. The common examples of such a scheme are: Bhakra dam in (Punjab), Rihand dam in (U.P.), and Hoover dam in (U.S.A), etc.The naturally available high falls can also be developed for generating electric power. The common examples of such power developments are: Jog Falls in India, and Niagara Falls in U.S.A.水轮机1.概述水的能量可以通过三种基本方法来获得：利用水的重力作用、水的压力作用或水的流速作用，或者其中任意两种或全部三种作用的组合。
水利工程毕业设计外文翻译--三峡水利枢纽工程
附录一：外文翻译The Three Gorges ProjectsFirst. The dam site and basic pivot disposalThe Three Gorges Projects is select to be fixed on San Dou Ping in Yichang, located inabout 40 kilometers of the upper reaches of key water control project of Ge Zhou Ba which was built. River valley, district of dam site, is widen, slope, the two sidesof the bank is relatively gentlely. In the central plains have one island (island, fort of China,), possess the good phased construction water conservancy diversion condition. The foundation of pivot building is the hard and intact body of granite. Have built Yichang and gone to stride bridge that place of 4 kilometers in the about 28 -km-long special-purpose expressway of building site and dam low reaches --West Yangtze Bridge of imperial tomb. Have also built the quay of district of a batch of dams. The dam district possesses the good traffic condition.Two. Important water conservancy project buildings1. damThe dam is a concrete gravity dam, which is 2309 meters long, it’s height is 185 meters , the dam is 181 meters high the most. Release floodwater dam section lie riverbed, 483 of the total length, consist of 22 form hole and 23 release floodwater in the deep hole, among them deep hole is imported 90 meters , the mouth size of hole is 7*9 meters; Form hole mouth is 8 meter wide, overflow weir is 158 meters, form hole and deep hole adopt nose bank choose, flow way go on and can disappear. Dam section lies in and releases floodwater on a section of both sides of the dam in the hydropower station, there are hydropower stations that enter water mouth. Enter water mouth baseplate height 108 meters. Pressure input water pipeline for carry person who in charge of, interior diameter 12.40, adopt the armored concrete to receive the strength structure. Make and let out flow of 102500 cubic meters per second the most largely in the dam site while checking the flood.2. power stationsThe power stations adopt the type after the dam to assign the scheme, consist oftwo groups of factory buildings on left, right and underground factory building altogether. Install 32 sets of hydroelectric generating set together, 14 factory buildings of left bank among them, 12 factory buildings of right bank, 6 underground factory buildings. The hydraulic turbine, in order to mix the flowing type, the specified capacity of the unit of the unit is 700,000 kilowatts.3. open up to navigation buildingThe open up to navigation buildings include permanent lock and ship lift (of the the technological public relations, the steel cable that plans to be replaced with spiral pole technology in the original plan promotes technology), lie in the left bank. Permanent lock double-line five continuous chain of locks. Single grades of floodgate room effective size for 280*34*5, can pass the 10,000 ton-class fleet. The promoting type for single track first grade vertically of the ship lift is designed, it is 120*18*3.5 meters to bear the effective size of design of railway carriage or compartment of ship, can pass a combination vessel of 3000 tons once. Total weight is 11800 tons to bear the design of railway carriage or compartment of ship when operating, it is 6000 newtons to always promote strength.Three.The major project amount and arranges in time limit The subject building of the project and major project amount of the water conservancy diversion project are: Excavate 102,830,000 cubic meters in cubic metre of earth and stone, fill out and build 31,980,000 cubic meters in cubic metre of earth and stone, concrete builds 27,940,000 cubic meters, 463,000 tons of reinforcing bars, make and fit 32 with hydroelectric generating set. All project construction tasks were divided into three stages and finished, all time limit was 17 years. The first stage (1993-1997 year) is preparation of construction and the first stage of the project, it takes 5 years to construct, regard realizing damming in the great river as the sign. The second stage (1998-2003 year) is the second stage, it takes 6 years to construct, lock as initial conservation storage of the reservoir, the first batch of aircrews generate electricity and is open up to navigation with the permanent lock as. The third stage (2004-2009 year) is the third stage of the project, it takes 6 years to construct, regard realizing the sign all aircrews generate electricity and finish building with all of multi-purpose project as. One, two project finish as scheduled already, the third stageof the project in inside the plan to construct too, ship lift tackle key problems of not going on intensely.Four. Enormous benefit of the Three Gorges Projects The Three Gorges Projects is the greatest water control project in China ,also in the world , it is the key project in controlling and developing the Changjiang River. The normal water storage level of the Three Gorges Projects reservoir is 175 meters, installed capacity is 39,300 million cubic meters; The total length of the reservoir is more than 600 kilometers, width is 1.1 kilometers on average; The area of the reservoir is 1084 sq. km.. It has enormous comprehensive benefits such as preventing flood, generating electricity, shipping,etc..1. prevent floodPrimary goal of building the Three Gorges Projects is to prevent flood . The key water control project in Sanxia is the key project that the midstream and downstream of the Changjiang River prevent flood in the system. Regulated and stored by the reservoir of Sanxia, form the capacity of reservoir in the upper reaches as river type reservoir of 39,300 million cubic meters, can regulate storage capacity and reach 22,150 million cubic meters, can intercept the flood came above of Yichang effectively, cut down flood crest flow greatly, make Jingjiang section prevent flood standard meet, improve from at present a about over ten years to once-in-a-hundred-year. Meet millennium first special great flood that meet, can cooperate with Jingjiang flood diversion partition application of flood storage project, the crushing calamity of preventing the occurrence of both sides of section of Jingjiang and bursting in the main dike, lighten midstream and downstream losing and flood threat to Wuhan of big flood, and can create conditions for administration of Dongting Hu district.2. generates electricityThe most direct economic benefits of the Three Gorges Projects is to generate electricity . Equilibrate the contradiction that contemporary China develops economic and serious energy shortage at a high speed, the hydroelectric resources that a clean one can be regenerated are undoubtedly optimum choices. The total installed capacity of power station of Sanxia is 18,200,000 kilowatts, annual average generation is84,680 million kilowatt hours. It will offer the reliable, cheap, clean regenerated energy for areas such as East China, Central China and South China of economic development, energy deficiency,etc.It play a great role in economic development and environmental pollution of reducing.Electric power resource that the Three Gorges Projects offers, if given a workforce of electricity generation by thermal power, mean building 10 more thermal power plants of 1,800,000 kilowatts, excavate more 50 million tons of raw coals every year on average. Besides environment of influencing of the waste residue, it will also discharge a large number of carbon dioxide which form the global greenhouse effects every year, cause the sulfur dioxide of acid rain, poisonous gas carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide. At the same time, it will also produce a large amount of floating dust, dustfall,etc… Thermal power plant and abandon dreg field extensive occupation of land seize more land from East China, Central China area that have a large population and a few land just originally this. This not only makes China bear the pressure that greater environment brings in the future, cause unfavorable influence on the global environment too.3. shippingSanxia reservoir improve Yichang go to Chongqing channel of the Changjiang River of 660 kilometers notably, the 10,000 ton-class fleet can go to the harbour of Chongqing directly. The channel can rise to 50 million tons from about 10 million tons at present through ability in one-way year, transporting the cost can be reduced by 35-37%. Unless until reservoir regulate, Yichang low water flows minimum seasons downstream,whose name is can since at present 3000 cubic meters /second improve until 5000 cubic meters per above second, the shipping condition get greater improvement too to enable the Changjiang River in low water season of midstream and downstream.Five.The questions in building the Three Gorges Projects1. silt issuethe Changjiang River Yichang Duan Nian amount of sand failed 530 million tons, silt the reservoir of Sanxia up. The reservoir blocks water level is 175 meters high, installed capacity is 39,300 millionm3 normally,its die water level is 145 meters, theminimum capacity of a reservoir is 17,200 million m3, storage capacity 22,100 million m3, the conservation storage regulates the capacity of reservoir 16,500 million m3. The operation scheme of the reservoir is: Limit height is 145 meters of water level, in flood season, meet flood adjust big under 56700m3 per second, and power station smooth to let out through deep hole over 3 years, can reduce the sand of the reservoir to deposit. Great flood comes, the reservoir is adjusted bigly, still put and let out 56700m3per second; Deposit towards the reservoir after the flood. The reservoir begins conservation storage, between about two months and normal water storage level 175 meters high in September. The water level of the storehouse is dropped to 155 meters high before the flood next year, utilize conservation storage to generate electricity. In 155 meters water level, can keep the river shipping of Sichuan. By flood season, the water level was dropped to 145 meters water level again, because the flow was large at that time, could keep the river shipping of Sichuan. This is a reservoir operation scheme of innovation.2. question that the slope comes down by the bank of reservoir areaThe question that the slope comes down is through detailed geological survey by 2 reservoir area banks, there is several to come down potentially on water bank of Kuku of Sanxia, the big one can be up to millions of m3. But closest to dam site potential landslide, too far on 26kilometers, such as happen, come down, shock wave that evoke get dam disappear, reduce 2-3meters to to be high, it is safe not to influence the dam. In addition, if the slippery wave happens in the bank of the storehouse, because the reservoir is wide and deep, will not influence shipping.3. engineering question of the pivotThe pivotof Three Gorges is 185 meters high concrete gravity dampivots and 18,200,000kW, the project amount is large, but all regular projects after all, our country has more experience. The stability problem of some foundation can meet the safe requirement through dealing with. 700,000kW hydroelectric generating set, imported from foreign countries in the first batch, was made by oneself at home later. The more complicated one is lock of five grades of Line two, deep-cut in the rock bank, slope reaches 170 meters at the supreme side, the underpart floodgate room vertical 60 meters, high rock slope stability worries about. But the meticulousresearch of engineer and constructors is designed, blown up and the anchor is firm and excavating, the rock slope is steady in a long-term. There is ship lift of 3000t passenger steamer, it is the biggest in the world, in course of designing and studying, and repair the test and use the ship lift first.4.ecological environment problemThe respect useful to ecological environment of the Three Gorges Projects is: Prevent and cure downstream land and cities and towns to flood, reduce the air pollution of electricity generation by thermal power, improve some climate, the reservoir can breed fish etc.. The respect disadvantageous to ecology is: Flood more than 300,000 mu of cultivated land, ground of fruit is more than 200,000 mu, immigrants reach the highland by the storehouse, will destroy the ecological environment, the still water weakens the sewage self-purification ability, worsen water quality, influence reproduction of the wild animal,etc. in the reservoir. So is both advantageous and disadvantageous, do not hinder building the Three Gorges Projects. Should reduce being unfavorable to minimum extent, it is mainly that reservoir immigrants want to plant trees and grass, build the terraced fields, ecological environment protection, does not require the self-sufficiency of grain. Accomplish these, want making a great effort and fund. Control blowdown such as Chongqing, Fuling, Wan County, carry on sewage disposal, protect the water quality of the reservoir, protect the wild animal, set up the protection zone. Although ecological environment protection is difficult, must solve and can solve. As for the scenery of Sanxia, because the high near kilometer of rock bank, and Sanxia dam is only in fact higher than the river surface 110 meters. The scenery basically remains unchanged, the high gorge produces Pinghu, increase even more beautifully.Six. Immigrant's question in the reservoir areaThe reservoir of Sanxia will flood 632 sq. km. of land area, will involve Chongqing, 20 county (market) of Hubei. The reservoir of Sanxia floods and involves 2 cities, 11 county towns, 116 market towns; Flood or flood 1599 of industrial and mining enterprises that influence, reservoir flood line there are 24,500 hectares of cultivated land in all; Flood 824.25 kilometers of highways, 92,200 kilowatts of power stations; The area of house of flooding area is 34,596,000 square meters, totalpopulation of living in the flooding area is 844,100 people (agricultural population 361,500 people among them). Consider population growth and other factors of moving etc. two times during construction, the total population of trends of reservoir immigration allocation of Sanxia will be up to 1,130,000 people. The task is arduous, but must find a room for good immigrants, make its life improve to some extent, help immigrants to create the working condition, live plainly and struggle hard through 20 years, grow rich. Most immigrants retreat to the highland, it is nonlocal that some immigrants get. The reservoir of Sanxia will flood 632 sq. km. of land area, will involve Chongqing, 20 county (market) of Hubei. The reservoir of Sanxia floods and involves 2 cities, 11 county towns, 116 market towns; Flood or flood 1599 of industrial and mining enterprises that influence, reservoir flood line own cultivated land (suck the ground of mandarin orange) 24,500 hectares in common; Flood 824.25 kilometers of highways, 92,200 kilowatts of power stations; The area of house of flooding area is 34,596,000 square meters, The total population of living in the flooding area is 844,100 people (agricultural population 361,500 people among them). Consider population growth and other factors of moving etc. two times during construction, the total population of trends of reservoir immigration allocation of Sanxia will be up to 1,130,000 people.1.exploration and opening of the immigrants in SanxiaThe exploration of an immigrant in Sanxia and open country are in the engineering construction of Sanxia, implement immigrant's policy of the exploration, relevant people's governments organize and lead immigrants to arrange work, use immigrant's funds in a unified manner, exploit natural resources rationally, based on agriculture, the agriculture,industry and commerce combine, through many channel, many industries, multi-form, many method find a room for immigrants properly, immigrants' living standard reach or exceed originally and competently, and create the condition for long-term economic development and improvement of immigrant's living standard of reservoir area of Three Gorges. Immigrant's policy of the exploration, is a great reform of the reservoir immigrants of our country. Policy this, and reservoir area of Three Gorges immigrant put forward at the foundation of pilot project eight year in experience and lessons that immigrant work since new China setup of summarizing. At the beginning of reservoir immigrants in Sanxia, carry out exploration immigrants' principles and policies, insist the country supports, the policy is favourable, each side supports, principle of relying on one's own efforts, appeared by the government, develop local resources in a planned way, expand the capacity of placing, help, offer service of forming a complete set, wide to open up, produce the life way, make it reach " take out offing, goal that so steady as to live, can get rich progressively ". Meanwhile, the country approves reservoir area of Three Gorges as " the open economic region of Sanxia ", enjoy some special policies opening to the outside world in the coastal area, call the immigrants in Sanxia of the developed coordinated cooperation of province and city, immigrant's enterprises and relevant The factor of production has been pushed to the broader large market. The governments at all levels of reservoir area of Three Gorges have issued some development coordinated cooperation, favourable measure inviting outside investment too. Reservoir area immigrant demonstrate with open to urge, develop, in order to develop, urge benign situation that place.2. reorganization and expansion of the immigrants in SanxiaThe reorganization of immigrants in Sanxia and the expansion immigrants in Sanxia are that one involve undertaking that the society of reservoir area reconstruct, resources are recombinated, the recombinating is one of the prominent characteristics of the immigrants in Sanxia, move the fundamental difference duplicated with traditional simple compensation immigrants, former state too. Implement immigrant's policy of the exploration, must demand to combine immigrants to move, reconfigure the factor of production, thus improve the disposition efficiency of resources, form new productivity. Expand while being what is called, expansion of scale, improvement of structure even more, function strengthen improvement of quality. Look with the view of development economics and implement the course of exploration immigrants, it is the course of economic expansion of reservoir area. Exploration immigrants begin from expanding, and ending at realizing expanding, the course that the whole immigrant move and rebuild one's home is running through economic expansion, full of to the yearning that expands in the future. Certainly, in actual operation, should set out from immigrant's reality to pay attention to all, insistreason is expanded.Seven. Investment and benefit questionInvests 90,090 million yuan (1993 price) in investment and the Three Gorges Projects static behavior of benefit question, invests more than about 200 billion yuan dynamically while finishing in project. The investment source of the Three Gorges Projects is as follows, state loan, state-run hydropower station each of price of electricity raise the price 0.4-0.7 fen, power station electric rate income of Ge Zhou Ba, the electric rate income after the power station of Sanxia generates electricity wait for, the country has this financial resources to guarantee to invest in putting in place. About benefit, it is estimated it in ten years after the Three Gorges Projects is built up, total project investment principal and interest, unless including project fee and fee for immigration, can have repaid with electric rate income,it prevent flood, shipping,etc. share make the investment. And the Three Gorges Projects prevent flood, generate electricity, shipping,etc. benefit long-term, and enormous social benefit. Therefore, benefit of the Three Gorges Projects is very great, there is increase slightly to even make the investment, it is very rational too to repay service life to slightly lengthen.三峡水利枢纽工程一、坝址及基本枢纽布置三峡工程大坝坝址选定在宜昌市三斗坪，在已建成的葛洲坝水利枢纽上游约40km处。
水利水电外文翻译2
The roller-compacted concrete gravity dam(1)The synopsis of the roller—compacted concrete gravity damThe concrete gravity dam shares with the embankment the central attributes of simplicity of concept and adaptability, but conventional mass concrete construction rates, unlike those for embankment construction ,remain essentially as they were m the 1950s. the volume instability of mass concrete due to thermal effects imposes severe limitations on the size and rate of concret pour, causing delay and disruption through the need to provide contraction joints and similar design features. Progressive reductions in cement content and partial replacement of cement with PFA have served only to contain the problem. Mass concrete construction remains a semi-continuous and labour- intensive operation of low overall productivity and efficiency.In some circumstances the technical merits of the gravity dam and the embankment may be evenly balanced. selection resting on estimated construction cost. Economic advantage will almost invariably favour the embankment. particularly if constructed in compacted rockfill. In some instances ,however, factors such as locating a spillway of sufficient capacity etc. may indicate the concrete gravity dam as being a preferable design solution. provided that the cost differential lies within acceptable limits.Despite advances in embankment dam engineering, therefore, there remains a strong incentive to develop a cheaper concrete gravity dam.The problem of optimizing concrete dam construction and reducing costs can be approached in several ways. In the absence of progress towards an ideal cement and a dimensionally stable concrete the most promising lines of approach may be classified as follows:1. A reappraisal of design criteria, particularly with regard to accepting modest tensile stresses;2.The development of improved mass concretes through the use ofadmixtures to enhance tensile strength and to modify stress-strain response. and/or the use of modified cements with reduced thermal activity;3. The development of rapid continuous construction techniques based on the use of special concrete.Neither of the first two approaches is capable of offering other than a token reduction in cost. the third option offers the greatest potential through financial benefits associated with a shortening of construction period by up to 35% combined with a lower-cost variant of concrete.The concept of dam construction using roller-compacted concrete (RCC), first developed in the 1970s, is based primarily on approach 3.Several variants of RCC have now been developed and offer the prospect of significantly faster and cheaper construction. particularly for large.gravity dams.(2) developments in roller-compacted concrete dam constructionThe RCC dam has developed rapidly since construction of the earliest examples in the early 1980s. and in excess of 200 large dams had been completed in RCC by 2000.the majority of RCC dams have Been gravity structures, but the RCC technique has been extended to a number of archgravity and thick arch dams As confidence has grown RCC has been used for progressively larger dams, and RCC is being employed for the major part of the 7. 6 x 106m3 volume and 217m high longtan gravity dam, under construction in China. In a number of recent instances the RCC gravity dam option has been selected in preference to initial proposals for the construction of a rockfill embankment.The early RCC dam were noted for problems associated with relatively high seepage and leakage through the more permeable RCC. and for a degree of uncontrolled cracking (Hollingworth and Geringer. 1992). A rela -tively low interlayer bond strength also prompted some concern. particularly in the context of seismic loading .the philosophy of RCC dam design has inconsequence evolved. with emphasis being placed on optimizing design anddetailing to construction in RCC rather than using RCC to construct a con- ventional gravity dam .This trend has led to the common provision ofan”impermeable” upstream element or barrier, e. g. by a slip-formed facing (Fig 3.22 and also New Victoria dam.Australia (Ward and Mann ,1992)).An alternative is the use of a PVC or similar synthetic membrane placed against or Just downstream of a high-quality concrete upstream face In the case of the 68m high Concepcion gravity dam, Honduras. a 3 .2mm PVC geomembrane backed by a supporting geotextile drainage layer was applied to the upstream face of the RCC (Giovagnoli, schrader and Ercoli ,1992). Recent practice has also moved towards control of cracking by sawn transverse Joints, or by the cutting of a regular series of slots to act as crack Inducers.The very considerable cost savings attaching to RCC construction are dependent upon plant and RCC mix optimization ,and hence continuity of the RCC placing operation. This in turn requires that design features which interfere continuous unobstructed end-to-end placing of the RCC, egg. galleries. internal pipework, etc.. Must be kept to the minimum and simplified. Experiments with retrospectively excavating gallerries by trenching and by driving a heading in the placed RCC fill at Riou, France. have proved successful (goubet and guerinet, 1992).Vertical rates of raising of 2.0-2.5 m week-1 are attainable for RDLC and high-paste RCCs compared with 1. 0-1.5m week-1 for RCD con- struction As one example, the Conception dam, Honduras, referred to earlier was raised in seven months. A lean RCC mix (cement content 80-95kgm-3) was employedfor the 290 x 103m3 of RCC fill, and a continuous mixing plant was used In conjunction with a high-speed belt conveyor system. Placing rates of up to 4000m3 days-1 were ultimately attained (Gio vagnoli, Schraderand Ercoli, 1992).The employment of RCC fill has also been extended to the upgrading of existing dams, e.g. by placing a downstream shoulder where stability is deficient (Section 3. 2. 9) .RCC has also Been applied to general remedialworks and to raising or rebuilding older dams. the benefits of RCC con- struction have also been appropriate. in special circumstances. to the con- struction of smaller dams, e.g. Holbeam wood and New Mills in the UK (Iffla, Millmore and Dunstan. 1992).ICOLD Bulletin 75 (ICOLD,1989) provides a comprehensive over- view of the use of RCC for dam construction. Recent US developments are discussed in Hansen (1994). Design options with respect to upstream face construction have Been reviewed in some detail by Schrader (1993).Construction in RCC is recognized as providing the way forward in concrete dam engineering .An extensive review of current issues in RCC dam design and construction is presented within Li (1998) .Major issues discussed include the need. or otherwise, for a conventional concrete upstream face, and the question of resistance to high seismic Ioading.where dynamic tensile strength of the interlayer bond between successive layers of RCC will be critical.The recently completed 95m high RCC gravity dam. at P1atanovryssi, Greece, located in a seismic zone is described in Stefanakos and Dunston (1999). the design peak ground acceleration corresponding to the MCE at Platanovryssi was determined as 0.385g, equating to a maximum dynamic crack inducers vibrated into the RCC. the “joints” were subsequently sealed by a 600mm wide external waterstop bonded to the face. Seepage through the dam body diminished to a satisfactory 10-12l/s over the first 12 months' operational service.The first use of RCC in Turkey, for the 124m high by 290m long Cine gravity dam (originally planned as a rockfill embankment with a clay core) is presented in Ozdogan (1999). the low-paste RCC used for cine has a cement content of 70kg/m3. with 90kg/m3 of PFA and 88 l/m3 of water. Target 180 day compressive strength was specified as 24MN/m2.碾压混凝土重力坝(1)碾压混凝土坝的简介混凝土重力坝和土石坝样具有概念简单和适用性强的特性，但常规大体积混凝土施工速度不象土石坝施工提高那样快，还维持在1950年代的水平。
水利水电工程英文专业词汇
水工建筑物专业词汇岸墙land wall坝顶dam crest,dam top坝踵dam heel坝趾dam toe板桩sheet pile边墩side pier,land pier变形模量deformation modulus鼻坎bucket lip毕肖普法Bishop method冰压力ice pressure剥离desquamation侧槽式溢洪道side channel Spillway沉降settlement齿墙cut-off trench冲沙闸(排沙闸) silt-releasing Sluice纯拱法independent arch method刺墙key-wall大头坝massive-head buttress dam *buttress 就是扶壁的意思单宽流量discharge per unit width单曲拱坝single-curvature arch dam挡潮闸tidal sluice导流隧洞river diversion tunnel倒悬度Overhang degree底流消能energy dissipation by underflow地震作用earthquake action垫座cushion abutment动水压力hydrodynamic pressure断层fault堆石坝rock-fill dam多拱梁法multi-arch beam method阀门valve gate防浪墙wave wall防渗铺盖impervious blanket非常溢洪道emergency spillway分洪闸flood diversion sluice副坝auxiliary dam刚体极限平衡法limit equilibrium method for rigid block 拱坝arch dam拱冠梁crown cantilever拱冠粱法crown cantilever method工作桥service bridge固结灌浆consolidation grouting灌溉隧洞irrigation tunnel灌浆帷幕grout curtain管涌piping海漫apron extension横缝transverse joint虹吸式溢洪道siphon spillway蝴蝶阀butterfly valve护坡slope protection护坦apron弧形闸门radial gate滑雪道式溢洪道ski-jump spillway化学管涌chemical piping混凝土防渗墙concrete cut-off wall混凝土面板堆石坝concrete faced rock-fill dam 基本断面primary section简化毕肖普法simplified Bishop method浆砌石拱坝stone masonry arch dam浆砌石重力坝stone masonry gravity dam交通桥traffic bridge接触冲刷contact scouring接触灌浆contact grouting接缝灌浆joint grouting截水槽cut-off trench节制闸check sluice进水口water inlet进水闸inlet sluice井式溢洪道shaft spillway静水压力hydrostatic pressure均质坝homogeneous earth dam抗滑稳定分析analysis of stability against sliding 抗滑稳定性stability against sliding空腹重力坝hollow gravity dam空化cavitation空蚀cavitation erosion空注阀hollow jet valve宽缝重力坝slotted gravity dam宽尾墩flaring pier廊道gallery浪压力wave force理论计算theoretical computation拦河闸river sluice沥青混凝土asphalt concrete连拱坝multiple-arch dam流土soil flow流网法flow net method锚杆anchor rod面板face slab面流消能energy dissipation by surface flow模型试验model experiment泥沙压力silt pressure碾压混凝土坝Roller Compacted Concrete Dam 牛腿Corbel排沙隧洞silt-releasing tunnel排水drainage排水闸outlet sluice喷混凝土sprayed concrete平板坝flat slab buttress dam平面闸门plane gate破碎带crushed zone铺盖blanket砌石护坡stone pitching人工材料面板坝artificial material faced dam 人工材料心墙坝artificial material-core dam溶洞solution cavern软基重力坝gravity dam on soft foundation软弱夹层soft intercalated layer实用断面practical section试载法trial-load method双曲拱坝double-curvature arch dam水工建筑物hydraulic structure水工隧洞hydraulic tunnel,waterway tunnel水力发电隧洞hydropower tunnel水利枢纽hydro-complex水力学方法hydraulics method水平施工缝horizontal joint水闸sluice弹性模量elastic modulus挑流消能energy dissipation by trajectory jet土工膜geomembrane土石坝earth-rock dam土质斜墙坝earth dam with inclined soil wall 土质斜心墙坝earth dam with inclined soil core 土质心墙坝earth dam with soil core帷幕灌浆curtain grouting温度荷载temperature load温度控制temperature control温度应力temperature stress温度作用temperature action无压隧洞free level tunnel消力池stilling pool消力戽roller bucket消能工energy dissipater泄洪隧洞spillway tunnel泄水建筑物discharge structure泄水孔outlet hole新奥法NATM(New Austrian Tunneling Method) 胸墙breast wall扬压力uplift溢洪道spillway水垫塘plunge pool溢流坝overflow dam、翼墙wing wall应力分析stress analysis优化设计optimization design有限单元法finite element method有压隧洞pressure tunnel闸墩pier闸门gate闸门槽gate slot正槽式溢洪道normal channel spillway整体式重力坝monolithic gravity dam趾板toe slab支墩坝buttress dam重力坝gravity dam重力墩gravity abutment 周边缝peripheral joint 驻波standing wave锥形阀cone valve自由跌流free drop自重dead weight纵缝longitudinal joint键槽key strench伸缩缝contraction joint 施工缝construction joint 反弧段flip bucket拦污栅trash rack渐变段transition泄槽chute发电进水口power intake 通气管air vent检修门bulkhead gate事故门emergency gate 工作门service gate堰weir通气管air vent胸墙breast wall梁beam柱column回填混凝土backfill concrete 接地earth一期混凝土primary concrete 二期混凝土secondary concrete 叠梁门stoplog门机gantry crane止水waterstop钢筋reinforcement模板formwork围堰cofferdam马道bench;berm蜗壳volute水轮机turbine电站power house车间workshop发电机generator变电站transformer station副厂房auxiliary power house安装间erection bay尾水闸门tail lock尾水渠tailrace引水渠approach channel前池fore bay导墙lead wall隔墙partition wall接触灌浆contact grouting回填混凝土backfill concrete帷幕灌浆curtain grouting挡墙retaining wall港口harbour港口建筑物port structure船闸navigation lock船闸充水lock filling船闸充水与泄水系统locking filling and emptying system 船闸前池upper pool船闸上下游水位差lock lift船闸闸首lock head升船机ship elevator;ship lift鱼道fish canal水利水电工程英文专业词汇旁通管by-pass齿槽cut-off wall。
水利水电工程英文专业词汇
水工建筑物专业词汇岸墙land wall坝顶dam crest，dam top坝踵dam heel坝趾dam toe板桩sheet pile边墩side pier，land pier变形模量deformation modulus鼻坎bucket lip毕肖普法Bishop method冰压力ice pressure剥离desquamation侧槽式溢洪道side channel Spillway沉降settlement齿墙cut-off trench冲沙闸（排沙闸）silt-releasing Sluice纯拱法independent arch method刺墙key-wall大头坝massive-head buttress dam *buttress 是扶壁的意思单宽流量discharge per unit width单曲拱坝single-curvature arch dam挡潮闸tidal sluice导流隧洞river diversion tunnel倒悬度Overhang degree底流消能energy dissipation by underflow地震作用earthquake action垫座cushion abutment动水压力hydrodynamic pressure断层fault堆石坝rock-fill dam多拱梁法multi-arch beam method阀门valve gate防浪墙wave wall防渗铺盖impervious blanket非常溢洪道emergency spillway分洪闸flood diversion sluice副坝auxiliary dam刚体极限平衡法limit equilibrium method for rigid block 拱坝arch dam拱冠梁crown cantilever拱冠粱法crown cantilever method工作桥service bridge固结灌浆consolidation grouting灌溉隧洞irrigation tunnel灌浆帷幕grout curtain管涌piping海漫apron extension横缝transverse joint虹吸式溢洪道siphon spillway蝴蝶阀butterfly valve护坡slope protection护坦apron弧形闸门radial gate滑雪道式溢洪道ski-jump spillway化学管涌chemical piping混凝土防渗墙concrete cut-off wall混凝土面板堆石坝concrete faced rock-fill dam 基本断面primary section简化毕肖普法simplified Bishop method浆砌石拱坝stone masonry arch dam浆砌石重力坝stone masonry gravity dam交通桥traffic bridge接触冲刷contact scouring接触灌浆contact grouting接缝灌浆joint grouting截水槽cut-off trench节制闸check sluice进水口water inlet进水闸inlet sluice井式溢洪道shaft spillway静水压力hydrostatic pressure均质坝homogeneous earth dam抗滑稳定分析analysis of stability against sliding 抗滑稳定性stability against sliding空腹重力坝hollow gravity dam空化cavitation空蚀cavitation erosion空注阀hollow jet valve宽缝重力坝slotted gravity dam宽尾墩flaring pier廊道gallery浪压力wave force理论计算theoretical computation拦河闸river sluice沥青混凝土asphalt concrete连拱坝multiple-arch dam流土soil flow流网法flow net method锚杆anchor rod面板face slab面流消能energy dissipation by surface flow模型试验model experiment泥沙压力silt pressure碾压混凝土坝Roller Compacted Concrete Dam 牛腿Corbel排沙隧洞silt-releasing tunnel排水drainage排水闸outlet sluice喷混凝土sprayed concrete平板坝flat slab buttress dam平面闸门plane gate破碎带crushed zone铺盖blanket砌石护坡stone pitching人工材料面板坝artificial material faced dam 人工材料心墙坝artificial material-core dam溶洞solution cavern软基重力坝gravity dam on soft foundation软弱夹层soft intercalated layer实用断面practical section试载法trial-load method双曲拱坝double-curvature arch dam水工建筑物hydraulic structure水工隧洞hydraulic tunnel，waterway tunnel 水力发电隧洞hydropower tunnel水利枢纽hydro-complex水力学方法hydraulics method水平施工缝horizontal joint水闸sluice弹性模量elastic modulus挑流消能energy dissipation by trajectory jet土工膜geomembrane土石坝earth-rock dam土质斜墙坝earth dam with inclined soil wall 土质斜心墙坝earth dam with inclined soil core 土质心墙坝earth dam with soil core帷幕灌浆curtain grouting温度荷载temperature load温度控制temperature control温度应力temperature stress温度作用temperature action无压隧洞free level tunnel消力池stilling pool消力戽roller bucket消能工energy dissipater泄洪隧洞spillway tunnel泄水建筑物discharge structure泄水孔outlet hole新奥法NATM（New Austrian Tunneling Method）胸墙breast wall扬压力uplift溢洪道spillway水垫塘plunge pool溢流坝overflow dam、翼墙wing wall应力分析stress analysis优化设计optimization design有限单元法finite element method有压隧洞pressure tunnel闸墩pier闸门gate闸门槽gate slot正槽式溢洪道normal channel spillway整体式重力坝monolithic gravity dam趾板toe slab支墩坝buttress dam重力坝gravity dam重力墩gravity abutment 周边缝peripheral joint 驻波standing wave锥形阀cone valve自由跌流free drop自重dead weight纵缝longitudinal joint键槽key strench伸缩缝contraction joint 施工缝construction joint 反弧段flip bucket拦污栅trash rack渐变段transition泄槽chute发电进水口power intake 通气管air vent检修门bulkhead gate事故门emergency gate 工作门service gate堰weir通气管air vent胸墙breast wall梁beam柱column回填混凝土backfill concrete 接地earth一期混凝土primary concrete 二期混凝土secondary concrete 叠梁门stoplog门机gantry crane止水waterstop钢筋reinforcement模板formwork围堰cofferdam马道bench；berm蜗壳volute水轮机turbine电站power house车间workshop发电机generator变电站transformer station副厂房auxiliary power house安装间erection bay尾水闸门tail lock尾水渠tailrace引水渠approach channel前池fore bay导墙lead wall隔墙partition wall接触灌浆contact grouting回填混凝土backfill concrete帷幕灌浆curtain grouting挡墙retaining wall港口harbour港口建筑物port structure船闸navigation lock船闸充水lock filling船闸充水和泄水系统locking filling and emptying system 船闸前池upper pool船闸上下游水位差lock lift船闸闸首lock head升船机ship elevator；ship lift鱼道fish canal精品文档旁通管by-pass齿槽cut-off wall.。
水利水电工程专业英语教材翻译
P71 2-1混凝土重力坝类型基本上，重力水坝保持其对设计载荷从几何形状和混凝土的质量和强度稳定坚固的混凝土结构。
一般情况下，它们在一条直线轴构成，但也可以稍微弯曲或成角度，以适应特定的现场条件。
重力坝通常由非溢流坝段（S）和溢出部分或溢洪道。
这两个一般混凝土的施工方法，混凝土重力坝是常规放置大体积混凝土和碾压。
Conventional concrete dams.传统的混凝土大坝。
（1）传统上放置大体积混凝土坝的特点是建筑施工中用的材料和配料使用的技术，混匀，放置，固化和大体积混凝土的温度控制（美国混凝土学会（ACI）207.1 R-87）。
典型溢出和非溢出部分示于图2-1和图2-2。
建筑采用已开发和完善了多年设计和建造大体积混凝土大坝的方法。
普通混凝土的水泥水化过程限制大小和混凝土浇筑的速度和建设就必须在巨石满足裂缝控制要求。
通常采用大尺寸的粗集料，混合比例被选择为产生低坍落度混凝土，使经济，在放置期间保持良好的加工性，水化过程中发育的最低温度上升，并产生重要性能如强度，抗渗性和耐久性。
大坝建设与传统的混凝土容易便于安装管道，压力管道，画廊等，在结构内。
（2）施工过程包括配料和混合，运输，安置，振动，冷却，固化，并准备电梯间的水平施工缝。
在重力坝大体积混凝土通常证明一个现场搅拌站，并需要足够的质量和数量，位于或项目的经济范围内的总根源。
一般是在水桶由卡车，铁路，起重机，索道，或这些方法的组合进行4至12立方码大小不等，从批次厂坝运输。
最大桶大小通常是通过有效地扩散和振动混凝土桩后它被从桶倾倒的能力受到限制。
混凝土被放置在5-升降机至10英尺的深度。
每部电梯由连续层不超过18至20英寸。
振动一般由大的人，气动，开钻式振动器进行。
保洁水平施工缝固化过程中去除表面上的薄弱浮浆薄膜的方法包括绿色切削，湿喷砂和高压气水射流。
传统的混凝土安置的其他详情载于EM 1110-2-2000。
（3）由于水泥水化产生的热量，需要在大体积混凝土的放置和放置几天后仔细的温度控制。
外文翻译
毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目地震荷载下的混凝土重力坝断裂原因分析专业水利水电工程班级2010级1班学生倪昌义指导教师陈野鹰重庆交通大学2014 年Fracture analysis of concrete gravity dam underearthquake induced loadsABBAS MANSOURI; MIR AHMAD LASHTEH NESHAEI; REZA AGHAJANY1 Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University (South Branch of Tehran) Tehran, Iran2 Civil Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran3 Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University, (North Branch of Tehran), Tehran, Iran ABSTRACT: In this paper, seismic fracture behavior of the concrete gravity dam using finite element (2D) theory has been studied. Bazant model which is non-linear fracture mechanics criteria as a measure of growth and smeared crack was chosen to develop profiles of the crack. Behavior of stress - strain curves of concrete as a simplified two-line, dam and reservoir system using the formulation of the Euler-Lagrange was chosen. According to the above models, Koyna concrete gravity dam were investigated by the 1967 earthquake record. The results provide profiles of growth and expansion first with the effects of reservoir and second without it. Comparison of the obtained results shows good agreement with the works of the other researchers.Keywords: Seismic fracture; Smeared crack; Non-linear fracture mechanics; Concrete gravity dam.The seismic behavior of concrete dams has been the subject of extensive research during the past decade concerning dam safety during earthquakes. Chopra et al (1972), studies seismic behavior of dam’s crack path by using linear elastic analysis. The analysis shows, places that are in damage or and risk of the concerning stability of structure. Pal (1976) was the first researcher who examined Koyna dam by using non-linear analysis. In this research, assuming no effect of reservoir, being rigid foundation, smeared crack model use for crack expansion and strength criteria to crack growth, Koyna dam was analyzed and was shown that the results of material properties and element size are very sensitive. Figure 1(a) crack zone in the dam of which resulting from this analysis are shown. Skrikerud (1986) studied concrete dams through a case study on Koyna dam and by employing discrete crack for crack growth and strength criteria for crack expansion. In their study the growth of crack at each step of growth, the length of the crack tip element was considered that this is the final results were effective. He interpreted the results of their model, due to expansion mismatch with the cracking in their analysis of real crack in the dam, no match Foundation and reservoir interaction and lack of real values of characteristic parameters dam announced.Crack profiles from the analysis left in Figure 1(b) are presented. El-Aidi and Hall (1989) did a research on seismic fracture of Pine flat dam. Smeared crack model and strength criteria for crack expansion and growth were used. In their analysis is considering the reservoir –dam and foundation –dam interaction was crack profile presented. Figure 1(c), cracking in the dam will provide analysis. Fenves and Vargas-Loli also studied Pine flat dam by using fracture mechanics criteria for crack growth and smeared crack model to crack expand (Uang and Bertero,1990). They apply different coefficients of Taft earthquake record, regardless of the effect by foundation; Pine Flat dam in two cases with and without the effect of the reservoir was analyzed. In this study the effect of hydrodynamic pressure on the seismic behavior in the dam with the crack profiles presented. The results of this analysis were shown in Figure 1(d). Koy Koyna dam is one of a few concrete dams that haveexperienced a destructive earthquake. In this paper, study the nonlinear fracture behavior ofconcrete gravity dams under earthquake conditions. First, presented smeared crack modelwith the behavior of concrete under dynamic loads and fracture of dams. Secondly, Seismicbehavior of concrete gravity dams was assessed with non-linear analysis to Koyna dam withregard dam – reservoir interaction and without reservoir using finite element 2D method andpresented results of analysis. From the results it is concluded that both the upstream anddownstream faces of the dam are predicted to experience cracking through the upper part ofthe dam, which is consistent with the observed prototype behavior. Comparison analysis wasdone showed that the reservoir effect cannot be waived.(d) Vargas-loli (c) El-Aidi (b) Skrikerud (a) Pal(h) Experimental model (g) Real model (f) Bhattacharjee (e) Calayir anAnd Leger KaratonFigure 1: Past investigations into cracking profile in gravity dams.Euler - Lagrange Formulation for Dynamic Interaction of Dam - Reservoir Systems andBoundary Conditions: Different methods for dam and reservoir modeling are used. The Euler- Lagrange model is one criteria to used. In this research, the relations of Euler - Lagrangefor dam and reservoir modeling system is investigated.In Figure 2, the dam and reservoir boundary condition is presented.According to the finite element theory equations governing the dam is as follows(Kucukarslan, 2003):)1(}]{][[}]{[}]{[}]{[-----------------=++g a J M r K r C r MIn this equations,][M =Mass matrix,][C =Damping matrix,][K = Structural stiffnessmatrix,}{r =Displacement vector of relative nodal,][J = Unit matrix,}{a g = Anchoracceleration vector.Equation governing the distribution of hydrodynamic pressure in the fluid environment iswell known Helmholtz equation by two relations in which presented by the equation below: )2(2222----------------------∂∂=t P C P VI n Equation (2), =p the fluid pressures, =C the speed of sound in the fluid.Four boundary conditions are used to define the reservoir as follows.1. Free surface Boundary)3(0--------------------------=p2. Remote Boundary)4(12------------------------=∂∂p cn p 3. Interaction Boundary)5(------------------------=∂∂n s pa n p 4. Bottom Boundary)6(--------------------∂∂--=∂∂tp q a n p n g ρ In this Equations,=n s a Dam Acceleration,=n g a Ground Acceleration,=n Vectorperpendicular,=ρFluid density. Value of acceleration created in the reservoir, is related tothe amount of dam acceleration.,221c q ρρ=where:=1ρfluid density,=2ρDamdensity,=2c speed of sound.Considering the boundary conditions and fluid equations, the relationship matrix in thereservoir is formed as follows:)7(}}{]{[}]{[}]{[}]{[-------------=++g a J B p H p L p GFigure 2: dam and reservoir Systems Where:=][G Fluid mass matrix,=][L Damping matrix,=][H Fluid stiffnessmatrix,=}{p Hydrodynamic pressure vector,=}{J Unit matrix,=}{g a Anchor Accelerationvector.Rupture direction, is defined by potential derivative according to stress or strain tensor.Loss potential can be either a function of stress or strain (Kolari, 2007). In smeared crackmodel, loss potential is a function of stress. This means that crack happens when the stressesreach the level of submission. Also crack levels which are perpendicular to the maximum, are regarded as the tensile main stress. As a result in the state of compressive stress, no damage is recorded.As stress increases inelastic strains happen and concrete becomes soft. At any point, after the maximum compressive strength of concrete, initial slope is parallel to loading slope. When the unloading direction changes (strain - stress) the concrete response is to the maximum elastic tensile stress and then crack mechanism occurs. Than as a result concrete is damaged. In this state, with the help of reducing elastic hardness, a model can be made out of crack unfolding. If the compressive stress is applied again, by returning to zero, the cracks will be closed completely. Figure 3 shows the behavior of concrete when placed under compressive and tensile stress.Figure 3: Uniaxial behavior of plain concrete (Abaqus theory manual, 2009).According linear elastic fracture mechanics criteria, development process of crac k and its growth occur only at the peak of crack and the rest of elastic element rem ains and behaves linearly. This method is applicable in ordinary structure in which d amaged area is relatively small. But using nonlinear fracture mechanics model is mor e suitable in huge structures such as concrete dams where the damaged area is relati vely big. This method is established on the base of energy relations. In the field of fracture mechanics two models have been presented based on Hillerborg (1978) and Bazant (1983) theories. According to the model presented by Hillerborg in 1976, dam aged area is considered as imaginary crack at the peak of the real crack. In 1983; B azant showed that growth and expansion process of crack occur on a stripe. In the p resent study, Bazant smeared crack model is used in studying Koyna dam. ConclusionIn this research interaction of dam and reservoir under earthquake was examined by employing nonlinear fracture mechanics criterion and smeared crack model of develop profiles of the crack. The results, through analysis in conditions of dam decomposition with reservoir and without it, the following conclusions were reached:1、By comparing the results with other researchers it shows a fairly good agreement between this study and the others references: (Guanglun et al, 2000), (Calayir and Karaton, 2005), (Cai et al, 2008), (Hal, 1988), (Saini and Krishna, 1974), and therefore the philosophy of the nonlinear fracture mechanics criteria and smeared crack models at proper seismic behavior of concrete gravity dam seems to be confirmed. The obtained results of the analysisof Koyna dam considering interaction between dam and reservoir shows there are three vulnerable points: dam heels, changing areas of slope and some areas in upper part in which there are most of the crack elements. The results obtained in the analysis of Koyna dam regardless of reservoir effect on the dam, shows cracks in the heel areas of the dam, where the slope change. The results from analyses can be seen in damaged areas and the number of damaged elements in the case of interaction between dam and reservoir intended effect was bigger than effect of dam alone. Therefore it is important to attend thehydrodynamic pressure on concrete dam.2、Dynamic analysis was used in the smeared crack to extend crack and the non-linear fracture mechanics criteria for crack growth profiles is indeed the function of profile material, especially fracture energy and behavior of materials.3、Being given specific structures such as concrete gravity dam, which provide great scope area for fracture energy according to the various references and considering the importance of this parameter with the behavior of materials in the behavior of seismic fracture dams, Accurate tests, and also correct definition of material behavior are a necessity. The theory of nonlinear fracture mechanics for defining the fracture area and smeared crack model for defining the develop crack, can be regarded as a proper criterion and provides us with the real behavior of the structure.ReferencesAbaqus theory manual and users' manual, (2009).Bazant, Z. P. and oh, B. H (1983). “Crack band theory for fracture of concrete.” Materials and Structure.Bhattacharjee, S. S. and Leger, P (1992). “Concrete constitutive models for nonlinear seismic analysis of gravity dams-state-of-the art.” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. Bhattacharjee, S. S. and Leger, P (1994). “Application of NLFM models to predict cra cking in concrete gravity dams.” Journal of Structural Engineering.Cai, Q. and Robberts, J.M. and Van Rensburg, B.W.J (2008). “ Finite element fracture modeling of concrete gravity dams. ”Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering.Calayir, Y. and Karaton, M (2005). “Seismic fracture analysis of concrete gravity dams including dam–reservoir inter action.” Computers and Structures.Chopra, A. K. and Chakrabarti, P (1972). “The earthquake experience at Koyna dam and stress in concrete gravity dam. ” Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamic. Chopra, A.K (1967). “Hydrodynamic pressure on dams during earthquake,”Journal of Engineering Mechanics Division.El-Aidi, B. and Hall, J (1989). “Nonlinear earthquake response of concrete gravity dams”part 2: behavior.Gha emian, M. and Ghobarah, A (1999). “ Nonlinear Seismic Response of Concrete Gravity Dams With Dam –Reservoir Interaction.” Engineering Structures.Guanglun, W. and Pekau, O.A, and Chuhan, Z. And Shaomin, W (2000). “Seismic fracture analysis of concrete gravity dams based o n nonlinear fracture mechanics.”Engineering Fracture Mechanics.地震载荷下的混凝土重力坝断裂原因分析ABBAS MANSOURI;MIR AHMAD LASHTEH NESHAEI;REZA AGHAJANY1伊斯兰阿扎德大学，土木工程，伊朗德黑兰2桂兰大学，土木工程，拉什特，土木工程伊朗3伊斯兰阿扎德大学，土木工程，德黑兰（北支），伊朗摘要：在本文中，对混凝土重力坝的地震裂缝采用有限元（2D）的行为理论进行了研究。
英文翻译-王程
本科生文献翻译题目重力坝设计学院水利水电学院专业水利水电工程学生姓名王程学号 2012141482047 年级2012 级指导教师李艳玲教务处制表二Ο一六年六月三日Design of Gravity DamsA gravity dam is a concrete structure which resists the imposed forces by its weight and section without relying on arch or beam action. In its common usage the term is restricted to solid masonry or concrete dams which are straight or slightly curved in plan.The downstream face of gravity dam is usually of uniform slope which if extende d, would intersect the upstream face at or near the maximum reservoir level. The upstream face is normally vertical excepting for steep batter near the heel. The upper portion is usually thick enough to resist the impact of floating objects and accommodate a roadway. The thickness of section at any elevation is adequate to resist sliding and to ensure compressive stresses at the heel under different conditions of loading.For a gravity dam to be stable, the following criteria should be satisfied:1) Resultant of all static and pseudo-static forces should lie within the middle third lines or the kern of the dam at all section. This ensures a factor of safety of about 2 against overturning and eliminates tensile stresses at the heel and the toe of the dam.2) The dam should provide adequate factor of safety against sliding at the construction joints, the base of the dam, and any planes of weakness within the foundation.3) Maximum stresses in the dam section and the foundation should be within the permissible stresses of the concrete used in the dam section and the foundation rock respectively.Gravity dams can be analyzed by the Gravity Methods, Trial-load Twist Analysis, or the Beam and Cantilever Method, depending upon the configuration of the dam, continuity between the blocks, and the degree of refinement required. The Gravity method is used when blocks are not made monolithic by keying and grouting the joints between them. Thus, each block acts independently and the load is transmitted to the foundation by cantilever action and is resisted by the weight of the cantilever. Trial-load twist analysis and the beam and cantilever analysis are used when the blocks are keyed and grouted together to form a monolith because part of the load is transmitted to the abutments by beam action. The Gravity Method may be used, however, as a preliminary analysis for keyed and grouted dams.The Gravity Method is applicable to the general case of a gravity section with vertical upstream face and a constant downstream slope and to the case where there is variable batter on either or both faces. The method provide a direct method of calculating stresses at any point within the boundaries of a transverse section of a gravity dam, and the results are substantially correct, except for horizontal planes near the base of the dam where the foundation yielding affects the stress distributions. The stress changes which occur due to foundation yielding are usually small in dams of low or medium height but they may be important in high dams. Stresses near the base of a high masonry dam should be checked by the Finite Element Method or other comparable methods of analyses.Uplift pressures on a horizontal section are usually not included with the contact pressures in the computation of stresses, but are considered in the computation of stability factors.The analysis of overflow sections presents no added difficulties. Usually, the dynamic effect of overflowing water is negligible and can be omitted. Any additional head above the top of the section can be included as a surcharge load on the dam.The following are assumptions to the Gravity Method:l) The concrete in the dam is a homogenous, isotropic, and uniform elastic material.2) There are no differential movements which occur at the dam site due to water loads on the reservoir walls and floors.3) All loads are carried by the gravity action of vertical, parallel side cantilever which receive no support from the adjacent elements on either side.4) Unit vertical pressures, or normal stresses on horizontal planes, vary uniformly as a straight line from the upstream face to the downstream face.Shear-friction factor are computed at each elevation for which stresses are calculated in the cantilever element. All possible conditions of loading should be investigated. It should be noted that a large margin of safety against sliding is indicated by high shear-friction factor.A factor of safety for overturning is not usually tabulated with other stability factors. Before bodily overturning of a gravity dam can take place, other failures may occur such as crushing of the toe material and cracking of the upstream material with accompanying increases in uplift pressure and reduction of the shear resistance. How-ever, it is desirable to provide an adequate factor of safety against the overturning tendency. This may be accomplished by specifying the maximum allowable stress at the downstream face of the dam.Because of their oscillatory nature, earthquake forces are not considered as contributing to the overturning tendency. A factor of safety for overturning may be calculated if desired by dividing the total resisting moments by the total moments tending to cause overturning about the downstream toe?Design of Earth DamsIn general, there are two types of embankment dams: earth and rockfill. The selection is dependent upon the usable materials from the required excavation and available borrow. There is no typical earth dam. All are designed and constructed to meet the condition at each particular site. However, there are certain general similarities which permit presentation of types of designs, for example, the earth dam can be further classified into three basic types according to the location of impervious zone: homogeneous dam, central core dam, inclined core dam. The selection and the design of an earth dam are based upon the judgment and experience of the designer and is to a large extent of an empirical nature. The various methods of stability and seepage analyses are used mainly to confirm the engineer's judgment.For an earth dam to be stable, the following criteria should be satisfied: (1)The foundations, abutments and the earth dam must be stable for all conditions of construction a nd operations; (2) Seepage through the dam, foundation and abutment must not exert excessive forces which will result in instability of the dam or abutments while piping, if not controlled, will eventually result in the release of the pool; (3) The top of the dam must be high enough to allow for settlement of the dam and foundation and also to provide sufficient freeboard to prevent waves from a maximum pool from overtopping the dam; (4) The spillway and outlet capacity must be such as to prevent overtopping of the dam; (5)The slopes of the spillway and the outlet works must be stable under all operational conditions.The foundation, abutments and potential sources of borrow materials for construction of the dam must be studied in detail. The influence must be considered of seismic action on thestability of the dam, the abutments, the cut slopes of the spillway and inlet and outlet works, and especially induced liquefaction.In the design of an earth dam, the following aspects should be considered carefully:1) Freeboard. All earth dams must have sufficient extra height known as freeboard to prevent overtopping by the pool. The freeboard must be of such height that wave action, wind setup, and earthquake effects will not result in overtopping of the dam. In addition to freeboard, an allowance must be made for settlement of the dam and the foundation which will occur upon completion of the dam. An extra allowance for freeboard to counter earthquake induced settlement is required.2) Top Width. The width of the earth dam top is generally controlled by the required width of fill for ease of construction using conventional equipment. If a highway is to cross the dam then this will control the top width.3) Alignment. The alignment of an earth dam should be such as to minimize construction costs but such alignment should not be such as to encourage sliding or cracking of the dam? Normally the shortest straight line across the valley will be satisfactory, but local topographic and foundation conditions may dictate otherwise.4) Abutments. Three problems are generally associated with the abutment of earth dams: (1) seepage, (2) instability, and (3) transverse cracking of the dam. If the abutment consists of deposits of previous soils it may be necessary to construct an upstream impervious blanket and downstream drainage measures to minimize and control abutment seepage. If the abutments are weak then the embankment fill may be widened to provide a support to prevent sliding under the action of downstream seepage and upstream pool drawdown. Where steep abutments exist, especially with sudden changes of slopes or with steep bluff, there exists a danger of transverse cracking of the embankment fills. This can be treated by excavation of the abutment to reduce the. slope, especially in the imperious and transition zones. Surface drainage should be provided at the junction of the fill and abutments to avoid rain and snow melt nm-off erosion.5) Stage Construction. It is often possible, and in some cases necessary, to construct the dam in stages. Factors dictating such a procedure are (1) a wide valley permitting the construction of the diversion or outlet works and part of the embankment at the same time; (2) a weak foundation requiring that the embankment not be built too rapidly to prevent overstressing the foundation soils; (3) a wet borrow area which requires a slow construction to permit an increase in shear strength through consolidation of the fill.6) River Diversion. The diversion of the river is a critical operation in the erection of an earth dam and the timing and method are significant parts of design. The factors affecting the method of river diversion are hydrology, site topography, geology and construction programming. The diversion works must be constructed first. Once diversion has been made, the permanent cofferdams are constructed; the most important of which is the upstream. If the upstream cofferdam top is wide, or if a significant part of the closure has been constructed and a danger of overtopping exists, then consideration should be given to using the part of the downstream fill as a temporary source of borrow to quickly raise the cofferdam.7) Seismic Problems. An earth dam should never be located on or near an active fault. It is often necessary, however, to construct dams in seismically active areas and for these cases defensive design measures should be taken. These consist of (1) not building upon loosefoundation sands; (2) the impervious zone should be made plastic by compacting at a somewhat higher water content; (3) enlarging the impervious core; (4) flattening the outer slopes; (5) increasing the height of the dam to allow for seismically induced settlement; (6) increasing the width of the crown; (7) increasing the widths of the falter zones and constructing the upstream zones of cohesionless soils which will readily move into any downstream cracks;(8) increasing the width of the zones at the abutments.8) Cracking Problems. The design and construction of an earth dam should be such as to prevent cracking, especially transverse cracks which may lead to failure by piping.9) Seepage Control. Seepage is prevented or minimized by an impervious zone located in the central or upstream part of the dam. If the embankment rests upon a pervious foundation, then a cutoff may be used or if the foundation is too thick, then a slurry trench or an up-stream impervious blanket is used. The impervious zone is supported by up and downstream shells. The shell may be either pervious or random depending upon available soils.Seepage through the earth dam is collected by either a pervious downstream shell or by a combined inclined and horizontal drainage blanket. The capacity of the drain should be sufficient to carry off the collected seepage with little head loss. Collector pipes should not be used in or under the main body of the embankment. Collector pipes should be located at the downstream toe of the drainage blanket where it can be readily reached for maintenance and repairs. The drainage material must meet the filter requirements to prevent the finer adjacent soils from being carried into the drain.10) Excess Pore Pressures. The influence of foundation settlement and its rate must be considered. Foundation settlement will require overbuilding of the dam to allow for post construction settlement to provide an adequate freeboard. If compressible soils are present then consolidation tests must be made to permit an estimate of the rate at which the excess water will be expelled. The gain in shear strength of the foundation is dependent upon the rapidity of consolidation. If the rate is slow then the stresses induced in the foundation by the earth dam will be carried partly by the soil structure and partly by the pore water. If the foundation's shear strength is low then the rapidity of earth dam construction must be controlled by stage construction-the outer slope flattened or stability berms used. The rate at which the consolidation occurs may be accelerated through use of horizontal drainage layers and by vertical sand drains. Because of the variation of natural soils and the simplifying assumptions made in the shearing and consolidation theories, a conservative approach to the selection of design shear strengths is necessary.As a result of experiences with the earlier concrete-faced rockfill dams, a number of changes in design treatment and construction practice have evolved in recent years: (1) Compacted rockfill, rolled in compacted rockfill thin layers, has practically superseded dumped rock placed in high ~lifts. It is now almost universally used in the main rockfill sections of rolled in thin layer modem dams. (2) The upstream dry rubble masonry or placed-rock zone is no longer used. The upstream slopes are constructed at or about the normal angle of repose of the rock, and a compacted bedding layer of small rock is placed on the upstream face to support the facing. (3) Cutoff walls deeply entrenched into the rock have largely been superseded by anchored footwalls which support and seal the periphery of the facing and serve as a grout cap for curtain grouting.(4)The present trend is toward the elimination of deformable joint fillers in vertical joints of thefacing and very limited use of horizontal joints.Some or all of these design and construction modernizations have been utilized in the two dams selected as examples in the following brief discussions,Cethana DamIt is 110 m high, completed in 1971. The upstream slopes are 1.3 H to 1.0 V. The main rockfill was sound quartzite. The rock was placed in layers 0.9 m thick and rolled with 4 passes of a 10-ton vibratory roller. Immediately preceding and during compaction all rockfill was sprayed with water, the volume applied being not less than 15 percent of the rockfill volume. This procedure produced a relative density of the rockfill close to 100 percent. Within the downstream one-third of the section, lifts 1.35 m thick were used and the gradation limits for the rockfill were wider than for the main rockfill. A zone about 3.0 m wide in the upstream part of the main fill was composed of specially selected rock and compacted in 0.45 m lifts.To ensure good compaction of the fill immediately beneath the facing, the upstream face of the rockfill was initially given 4 passes of the miler without vibration, and the slope was trimmed to remove high spots. It was then given 4 passes at half vibration and low areas were filled. To avoid displacement of stones by roller vibration, traffic, and rain, a bitumen emulsion treatment was applied. The final compaction was attained by 8 passes of the roller with full vibration.The concrete facing was slip formed in panels 12.2 m wide with horizontal contraction joints except near the periphery where intermediate vertical joints, terminating in horizontal contraction joints, were introduced to control cracking of the slab in zones where horizontal tensile strains were expected.~ These horizontal joints contained wood filler strips, but no filler of any kind was used in the vertical joints. The concrete facing was tapered according to the formula "t = 0.3+0.002 h", where "t'= thickness and "h'= hydraulic head, in meters. The plinth or footwall at the lower periphery of the facing was not entrenched but cast on the rock surface after removal of weathered and open jointed rock. The plinth was dowelled to the foundation to withstand the consolidation grouting pressures.Instrumentation installed at Cethana provided comprehensive data on the structure during construction, first filling of the reservoir, and for a short period of operation. A few of the findings are cited for comparison with performance data on dumped rockfill dams:1) During construction, settlement was approximately proportional to height of rockfill when rock was placed continuously. Creep settlement continued with no increase in fill loading.A high rate of settlement continued for up to 2 months after the top 12 m of rockfill was placed and after the reservoir was filled.2) The vertical and horizontal deflections of the crest during a period of about 11 months following the commencement of filling the reservoir were: maximum vertical = 69 mm, horizontal down-stream maximum = 41 mm, horizontal transverse = 18 mm toward center from left and 8 mm toward center from right.3) The deflection of the membrane was essentially normal to the face and was a maximum of about 13 mm at about the lower 0.4 point of the slope.4) The maximum perimetric joint opening was about 11.5 mm.5) After filling the reservoir the strains in the facing were compressive, the maximum being 207×106 in the slope direction and 290×106 in the transverse direction.6) The leakage past the dam at full reservoir was 0.035 m3/s.New Exchequer DamIt is 149.5 m high, completed in 1966. The dam is unique in that it incorporates the old 94.55 m high concrete gravity arch dam in the upstream heel as a retaining wall for the rockfill of the new dam, and as the lower part of the upstream impervious membrane on the face of the new dam. The slopes of the dam, both upstream and down-stream, are 1.4 H to 1.0 V. The rockfill was placed in 4 zones, as follows:1) The zone immediately under the concrete facing consists of 38.1 cm maximum size rock compacted in 0.61 m lifts by a 10-ton vibratory rollers.2) An upstream zone adjacent to the old dam and extending to the top of the new dam, varying in width from about 61 m at the bottom to about 12.2 m at the top, was constructed of 1.22 m maximum size rock placed in 1.22 m lifts and compacted by 10-ton rollers.3) The main body of the dam consist~ of 1.22 m maximum size rock placed in 3.1 m lifts and compacted by hauling and grading equipment.4) The downstream slope section of the dam consists of largest rock which could be placed with a minimum of 50 percent larger than 30.48 m. The fill material was dumped in lifts up to 18.3 m high but no compaction was specified. All the fill except the zone immediately under the facing was sluiced with high pressure jets.The New Exchequer Dam rockfill represents a compromise or transition between the traditional practice of dumping rock in high lifts without compaction and the more recent trend toward heavy mechanical compaction of the flu in relatively thin lifts.Measurements made during construction and during the first filling of the reservoir showed normal movements of the facing slabs, with the vertical joints near the center tending to close and those near the abutments tending to open. After the reservoir was filled the maximum crest settlement was 0.46 m or about 0.3 percent of the height. The maximum horizontal downstream movement of the crest was 12.2cm or about 30 percent of the associated vertical movement. The crest settlement was only about one-third of that which normally would have been expected for a dumped rockfill, but about 5 times that of the fully compacted rockfill of Cethana Dam. The settlement of the facing itself formed the characteristic bowl-shaped depression with a maximumdepth of about 61cra normal to the slope at a point 0.3 to 0.4 of the height above the toe?During the first two fillings of the reservoir the leakage through the dam increased from 0.35 m3/sec to a maximum of 13.72 m3/sec. This was caused by the spalling and cracking of the face slabs at and near the junction of the new facing with the old dam. A supplementary zone composed of sand, gravel, clay, and bentonite was placed underwater in the "V" notch formed at the contact of the new facing with the downstream facing of the old dam. This material was placed to a depth of 6.1 m to 7.6 m using a specially designed skip? The sealing blanket reduced the leakage to about 0.224 m3/sec.重力坝设计重力坝是通过其自重和截面，而不依赖于拱和梁的作用来抵抗强加的外力的一种混凝土结构。
水利水电专业英语词汇 (1)
专业英语词汇水利水电工程专业施工总平面布置(施工总体布置) construction general layout施工组织Consruction Programming施工组织设计construction planning施工坐标系（建筑坐标系）construction coordinate system湿化变形soaking deformation湿润比percentage of wetted area湿润灌溉wetting irrigation湿室型泵房wet-pit type pump house湿陷变形系数soaking deformation coefficient湿陷起始压力initial collapse pressure湿陷系数(湿陷变形系数) coefficient of collapsibility湿周wetted perimeter十字板剪切试验vane shear test石袋honeycomb时均流速time average velocity时均能量time average energy时效硬化(老化) age hardening (ageing)时针式喷灌系统(中心支轴自走式系统) central pivot sprinkler system 实测放大图surveyed amplification map实腹柱solid column实际材料图primitive data map实时接线分析real time connection analysis实时控制real-time control实时数据和实时信息real time data and real time information实体坝solid dike实体重力坝solid gravity dam实物工程量real work quantity实验站experimental station实用堰practical weir示流信号器liquid-flow annunciator示坡线slope indication line示误三角形error triangle示踪模型tracer model事故failure (accident)事故备用容量reserve capacity for accident事故低油压tripping lower oil pressure事故音响信号emergency signal (alarmsignal)事故运行方式accident operation mode事故闸门emergency gate事故照明accident lighting事故照明切换屏accident lighting change-over panel势波potential wave势流potential flow势能potential energy势涡(自由涡) potential vortex视差parallax视差法测距（基线横尺视差法）subtense method with horizontal staff 视差角parallactic angle视准线法collimation line method视准轴（照准轴）coolimation axis试验处理treatment of experiment试验端子test terminal试验项目Testing item试验小区experimental block试运行test run试运行test run收敛测量convergence measurement收敛约束法convergence-confinement method收缩断面vena-contracta收缩缝(温度缝) contraction joint (temperature joint)收缩水深contracted depth手动[自动]复归manual [automatic] reset手动[自动]准同期manual [automatic] precise synchronization手动调节manual regulation手动控制manual control手动运行manual operation手工电弧焊manual arc welding首曲线（基本等高线）standard contour首子午线（本初子午线，起始子午线）prime meridian受油器oil head枢纽布置layout of hydroproject疏浚dredging输电系统transmission system输电线transmission line输入功率试验input test输沙量sediment runoff输沙率sediment discharge输水钢管steel pipe for water conveyance输水沟conveyance ditch输水建筑物water conveyance structure输水渠道water conveyance canal鼠道mole drains鼠道犁mole plough鼠笼型感应电动机squirrel cage induction motor竖井定向测量shaft orientation survey竖井贯流式水轮机pit turbine竖井联系测量shaft connection survey竖井排水drainage well竖井式进水口shaf tintake竖轴弧形闸门radial gate with vertic alaxes数字地面模型digital terrain model（DTM）数字化测图digitized mapping数字通信digital communication数字图像处理digital image processing数字仪表digital instrument甩负荷load dump (load rejection,load shutdown)甩负荷试验load-rejection test (load-shutdowntest)双层布置double storey layout双调节调速器dual-regulation governor双扉闸门double-leaf gate双回线double-circuit line双击式水轮机cross flow turbine,Banki turbine双极高压直流系统bipolar HVDC system双金属标bimetal bench mark双列布置double row layout双母线接线double-bus connection双曲拱坝double curvature arch dam双曲拱渡槽double curvature arch aqueduct双室式调压室double-chamber surge shaft双吸式离心泵double-suction pump双向挡水人字闸门bidirectional retaining mitre gate水泵[水泵水轮机的水泵工况]的反向最大稳态飞逸转速steady state reverse runaway speed of pump水泵比转速specific speed of pump水泵并联扬程曲线head curve of parallel pumping system水泵参数与特性Parameters and characteristics of pump水泵串联扬程曲线head curve of series pumping system水泵的最大[最小]输入功率maximum[minimum] input power of pump 水泵电动机机组Motor-pump unit水泵反常运行pump abnormal operating水泵工况(抽水工况) pump operation水泵工作点(水泵工况点) pump operating point水泵供水water feed by pump水泵机械效率mechanical efficiency of pump水泵机组pump unit水泵类型Classification of pumps水泵零部件Components of pumps水泵流量pump discharge水泵容积效率volumetric efficiency of pump水泵输出功率output power of pump水泵输入功率(水泵轴功率) input power of pump水泵水力效率hydraulic efficiency of pump水泵水轮机Pump-turbine水泵无流量输入功率no-discharge power of pump水泵效率pump efficiency水泵扬程(水泵总扬程) total head of pump水泵站Pumping Station水泵装置pump system水锤(水击) water hammer水锤泵站hydrauli cram pump station水锤波(水击波) wave of water hammer水锤波波速wave velocity of water hammer水电站Hydroelectric Station水电站(水力发电站) Hydroelectric station (hydroelectric power station) 水电站保证出力firm power, firm output水电站厂房(发电厂房) power house水电站厂房的类型Types of power house of hydroelectric station水电站出力power output of hydropower station水电站出力和发电量Power and energy output of hydropower station水电站的水头、流量、水位Waterhead, discharge, water lever of hydropower station水电站发电成本generation cost of hydropower station水电站发电量energy output of hydropower station水电站建筑物hydroelectric station structure水电站经济指标Economie index of hydropower station水电站类型Types of hydroelectric station水电站引用流量quotative discharge of hydropower station水电站装机容量installed capacity of hydropower station水电站自动化automation of hydroelectric station水跌hydraulic drop水动力学Hydrodynamics水斗bucket水斗式水轮机(贝尔顿式水轮机) pelton turbine水工建筑物hydraulic structure水工建筑物的类别及荷载Classification and load of hydraulic structures水工建筑物级别grade of hydraulic structure水工金属结构及安装Metal Structures and Their Installation水工隧洞hydraulic tunnel水工隧洞Hydraulic tunnels水工隧洞构造Components of hydraulic tunnel水工隧洞类型Classification of hydraulic tunnels水管冷却pipe cooling水柜water pool水环真空泵liquid ring pump水灰比water-cement ratio水窖(旱井) water callar(dry wall)水静力学Hydrostatics水库并联运用operation of parallel-connected resertvoir水库测量reservoir survey水库串联运用operation of serial-connected reservoirs水库调度reservoir operation水库调度图graph of reservoir operation水库回水变动区fluctuating back water zone of reservoir水库浸没reservoir immersion水库控制缓洪controlled flood retarding水库库底清理cleaning of reservoir zone水库泥沙Reservoir sediment水库泥沙防治Prevention of sediment水库年限ultimate life of reservoir水库渗漏reservoir leakage水库水文测验reservoir hydrometry水库塌岸bank ruin of reservoir水库特征库容Characteristic capacity of reservoir水库特征水位Characteristic level of reservoir水库泄空排沙sediment releasing by emptying reservoir水库蓄清排浑clear water impounding and muddy flow releasing水库淹没补偿compensation for reservoir inundation水库淹没处理Treatment of reservoir inundation水库淹没处理范围treatment zone of reservoir inundation水库淹没界线测量reservoir inundation line survey水库淹没区zone of reservoir inundation水库淹没实物指标material index of reservoir inundation水库异重流density current in reservoir水库异重流排沙sediment releasing by density current水库诱发地震reservoir induced earthquake水库淤积Sediment deposition in reservoir水库淤积测量reservoir accretion survey水库淤积极限limit state of sediment deposition in reservoir水库淤积平衡比降equilibrium slope of sediment deposition in reservoir 水库淤积上延(翘尾巴) upward extension of reservoir deposition水库淤积纵剖面longitudinal profile of deposit in reservoir水库滞洪排沙flood retarding and sediment releasing水库自然滞洪free flood retarding水冷式空压机water-cooled compressor水力半径hydraulic radius水力冲填hydraulic excavation and filling水力冲填坝hydraulic fill dam水力冲洗式沉沙池hydraulic flushing sedimentation basin水力粗糙度hydraulic roughness水力粗糙区hydraulic roughness region水力共振hydraulic resonance水力光滑区hydraulic smooth水力机械Hydraulic Machinery水力机械与电气设备HYDRAULIC MACHINERY AND ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT 水力机组hydropower unit水力机组测试Measurement and test for hydropower unit水力机组的安装和试运行Installation and starting operation of hydropower unit水力机组调节系统Regulating system of hydropower unit水力机组辅助系统Auxiliary system for hydropower unit水力开挖hydraulic excavation水力坡降(水力比降) hydraulic slope (energy gradient)水力破裂法(水力致裂法) hydro fracturing method水力侵蚀(水蚀) water erosion水力学Hydraulics水力要素(水力参数) hydraulic elements水力指数hydraulic exponent水力自动闸门hydraulic operating gate水力最优断面optimal hydraulic cross section水利工程经营管理management and administration of water project水利计算Computation of water conservancy水利区划zoning of water conservancy水利枢纽hydroproject水利水电工程等别rank of hydroproject水利水电工程规划PLANNING OF HYDROENGINEERING水利水电工程技术术语标准Standard of Technical Terms on Hydroengineering水利水电工程勘测SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION FOR HYDROENGINEERING 水利水电工程施工CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING水量分布曲线water distribution curve水流动力轴线(主流线) dynamic axis of flow水流连续方程continuity equation of flow水流流态State of flow水流阻力和能头损失Flow resistance and head loss水轮泵站turbine-pump station水轮发电机Hydraulic generator水轮发电机hydraulic turbine-driven synchronous generator(hydro-generator)水轮发电机组Hydraulic turbine-generator unit水轮发电机组hydraulic turbine-generator unit水轮机hydraulic turbine,water turbine水轮机[水泵]额定流量rated discharge of turbine[pump]水轮机安装Installation of hydraulic turbine水轮机安装高程setting of turbine水轮机保证出力guaranteed output of turbine水轮机比转速specific speed of turbine水轮机参数和特性Turbine parameters and turbine characteristics水轮机层turbine storey (turbine floor)水轮机的机械效率mechanical efficiency of turbine水轮机的容积效率volumetric efficiency of turbine水轮机的水力效率hydraulic efficiency of turbine水轮机调节系统turbine regulating system水轮机调节系统静特性试验static characteristic test of regulation system of hydraulic turbine水轮机调速器turbine governor水轮机额定输出功率(水轮机额定出力) rated output of turbine水轮机飞逸转速runaway speed of turbine水轮机工况(发电工况) turbine operation水轮机空载流量no-load discharge of turbine水轮机类型Classification of turbines水轮机零、部件Components of hydraulic turbine水轮机流量turbine discharge水轮机模型试验model test of turbine水轮机磨蚀与振动Erosion and vibration of hydraulic turbine水轮机气蚀系数cavitation factor of turbine,cavitation coefficient of turbine 水轮机设计水头design head of turbine水轮机试运行Test runof hydraulic turbine水轮机室turbine casing水轮机输出功率(水轮机出力) turbine output水轮机输入功率turbine input power水轮机水头(水轮机净水头) turbine net head水轮机吸出水头损失suction head loss of turbine水轮机效率turbine efficiency水轮机压力管道(高压管道) penstock水轮机引水室turbine flume水轮机主轴turbine main shaft水轮机最大输出功率(水轮机最大出力) maximum output of turbine水轮机最高效率maximum efficiency of turbine水面曲线water surface profile水面蒸发量evaporation from water surface水能waterpower, hydropower水能计算hydropower computation水能开发方式Types of hydropower development水能利用Water power utilization水能利用规划waterpower utilization planning水能资源(水力资源) waterpower resources, hydropower resources水泥比表面积specific surface of cement水泥罐cement silo水泥水化热hydration heat of cement水泥体积安定性soundness of cement水平底坡horizontal slope水平地质剖面图geological plan水平度levelness水平沟horizontal ditches水平阶地horizontal terraces水平位移工作点operative mark of horizontal displacement水平位移观测horizontal displacement observation水平位移基点datum mark of horizontal displacement水生态学hydrobiology水头water head水头损失head loss水头预想出力expected power, expected output水土保持soil and water conservation水土保持工程措施Soil and water conservation works水土保持规划Planning of soil and water conservation水土保持林业措施Afforestation measures for soil and water conservation 水土流失Soilandwaterloss水土流失(土壤侵蚀) soil erosion(soil and waterloss)水位water stage (water level)水位、流速、流量Water stage, flow velocity, flow discharge水位传导系数coefficient of water level conductivity水位调节装置water level regulator水位计water-level gauge水位流量关系曲线stage-discharge relation curve水位信号water-level indicating signal水位站water stage gauging station水文测验hydrometry水文测站hydrometrical station水文测站和站网Hydrometrical station and network水文地质Hydrogeology水文地质基础Basichydrogeology水文地质试验Hydrogeologicaltest水文地质图hydrogeological map水文调查hydrological investigation水文分析计算Hydrological analysis and computation水文观测hydrological observation水文观测Hydrological observation and measurement水文过程线hydrograph水文核技术nuclear technology in hydrology水文计算Hydrologic computation水文计算及水文预报Hydrological Computation and Forecasing水文空间技术space technology in hydrology水文模型hydrological model水文年鉴hydrological almanac(hydrological yearbook)水文频率曲线hydrological frequency curve水文手册hydrological handbook水文统计hydrological statistics水文图集hydrological atlas水文遥测技术hydrological telemetering technology水文要素hydrological data水文预报Hydrological forecast水文站hydrometrical station水文站网hydrological network水文资料整编hydrological data processing水系(河系,河网) hydrographic net(river system)水下爆破under water blasting水下地形测量underground topographic survey水下混凝土浇筑underwater concreting水下接地网under water earthed network水压力hydraulic pressure水跃hydraulic jump水跃长度length of hydraulic jump水跃高度height of hydraulic jump水跃函数hydraulic jump function水跃消能率coefficient of energy dissipation of hydraulic jump 水运动学Hydrokinematics水运动学及水动力学Hydrokinematics and hydrodynamics水闸sluice (barrage)水闸类型Classification of sluices水闸组成部分Components of sluice水质water quality水质标准water quality standard水质监测站water quality monitoring station水质评价water quality assessment水质污染Water quality pollution水质预报water quality forecast水中起动starting in water水中起动力矩starting torque in water水柱water column水坠坝sluicing siltation earth dam水准测量leveling水准点benchmark水准路线leveling line水准器分划值（水准器角值，水准器格值）scale value of level水准网平差adjustment of leveling network水准仪（水平仪）level水准仪与经纬仪Leveland theodolite水资源water resources水资源规划water resources planning水资源开发利用Development and utilization of water resources水资源开发利用water resources development税金tax顺坝longitudinal dike (training dike)顺坡(正坡) positive slope顺行波advancing downstream wave顺序控制系统sequential control system顺直型河流straight river瞬动电流instantaneous acting current瞬发雷管(即发雷管) instantaneous blasting cap瞬时沉降(弹性沉降,初始沉降,形变沉降) initial settlement瞬时单位线instantaneous unit hydrograph瞬时电流速断保护(无时限电流速断保护) instantaneous over current cut-off protection瞬时流速instantaneous velocity瞬态法finite increment method死库容(垫底库容) dead storage死区dead band死水位minimum pool level(dead water level)松动爆破loosening blasting (crumbling blasting)松方loose measure松散系数bulk factor素混凝土(无筋混凝土) plain concrete素图simple map速动时间常数promptitude time constant速度环量velocity circulation速度三角形velocity triangle速凝(瞬时凝结) quick set (flash set)速凝剂accelerator塑料导爆管(传爆管) plastic primacord tube塑限(塑性限度,塑性界限含水量) plastic limit塑性铰plastic hinge塑性指数plasticity index溯源冲刷[淤积] backward erosion[deposition]算术平均粒径arithmetic mean diameter算术平均水头arithmetic average head算术平均效率arithmetic average efficiency随动系统servo system随动系统不准确度inaccuracy of servosystem随机波random wave随机性水文模型(非确定性水文模型) stochastic hydrological model 碎部点（地形特征点）detail point碎裂结构clastic structure碎屑结构clastic texture隧洞衬砌tunnel lining隧洞导流tunnel diversion隧洞渐变段tunnel transition section隧洞开挖tunnel excavation隧洞排水tunnel drainage隧洞钻孔爆破法(隧洞钻爆法) drill-blast tunneling method损失容积(死容积) lost volume缩限(收缩界限) shrinkage limit锁坝closure dike锁定装置dog device (latch device,gate lock device)锁锭装置locking device (checking device)它励(它激) separate excitation塔式进水口tower intake踏面rolling face台车式启闭机platform hoist台阶结构面step structural plane台阶掘进法heading and bench method坍落度slump坍落拱collapse arch探槽exploratoryt rench探洞exploratory adit探井exploratory shaft探坑exploratory pit碳素钢(碳钢) carbon steel塘堰pond掏槽孔(掏槽眼) cut hole套管casing pipe套闸(双埝船闸) double dike lock特大暴雨extraordinary rainstorm特大洪水extraordinary flood特高压(特高电压) ultra-high voltage (U.H.V.)特类钢(C类钢) type C steel特殊地区施工增加费additional cost for special condition特殊荷载specia lload (unusual load)特殊荷载组合special load combination特性和参数Characteristics and parameters特性阻抗(波阻抗) characteristic impedance (wave impedance) 特征线法characteristics method特征斜率characteristic slope梯段爆破bench blasting梯级水电站cascade hydroelectric station梯形堰trapezoidal weir锑恩锑(三硝基甲苯) TNT (trinitroto luene)提升式升船机lifting type ship lift提水灌溉pumping irrigation提水排水pumping drainage体积模量bulk modulus体积压缩系数coefficient of volume compressibility天然骨料natural aggregate天然密度(天然容重) natural density(naturalunitweight)天文潮astronomical tide田间持水量field capacity田间工程farml and works田间排水沟(墒沟) field ditch田间排水试验experiment for farm land drainage田间渠系farm canal system田间水利用系数water efficiency in field田间需水量(田间耗水量) water consumption on farmland填埋式管(上埋式管) buried pipe line填石笼gabion填筑filling填筑含水量placement water content(placement moisture content) 挑坎(挑流鼻坎) flip bucket。
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Concrete Gravity DamThe type of dam selected for a site depends principally on topographic, geologic,hydrologic, and climatic conditions. Where more than one type can be built, alternative economic estimates are prepared and selection is based on economica considerations.Safety and performance are primary requirements, but construction time and materials often affect economic comparisons.Dam ClassificationDams are classified according to construction materials such as concrete or earth. Concrete dams are further classified as gravity, arch, buttress, or a combination of these. Earthfill dams are gravity dams built of either earth or rock materials, with particular provisions for spillways and seepage control.A concrete gravity dam depends on its own weight for structural stability. The dam may be straight or slightly curved, with the water load transmitted through the dam to the foundation material. Ordinarily, gravity dams have a base width of 0.7 to 0.9 the height of the dam. Solid rock provides the best foundation condition. However, many small concrete dams are built on previous or soft foundations and perform satisfactorily. A concrete gravity dam is well suited for use with an overflow spillway crest. Because of this advantage, it is often combined with an earthfill dam in wide flood plain sites.Arch dams are well suited to narrow V- or U-shaped canyons. Canyon walls must be of rock suitable for carrying the transmitted water load to the sides of the canyon by arch action. Arch sections carry the greatest part of the load; vertical elements carry sufficient load through cantilever action to produce cantilever deflections equal to arch deflections. Ordinarily, the crest length-to-height ratio should be less than 5, although greater ratios have been used. Generally, the base width of modern arch dams is 0.1 to 0.3 the height of the impounded water. A spillway may be designed into the crest of an arch dam.Multiple arches similarly transmit loads to the abutment or ends of the arch. This type of dam is suited to wider valleys. The main thrust and radial shears are transmitted to massive buttresses and then into the foundation material.Buttress dams include flat-slab, multiple-arch, roundhead-buttress, and multiple-dome types. The buttress dam adapts to all site locations. Downstream face slabs and aprons are used for overflow spillways similar to gravity dam spillways. Inclined sliding gates or light-weight low-head gates control the flow.The water loads are transmitted to the foundation by two systems of load-carrying members. The flat slabs, arches, or domes support the direct water load. The face slabs are supported by vertical buttresses. In most flat-slab buttress dams, steel reinforcement is used to carry thetension forces developed in the face slabs and buttress supports. Massive-head buttresses eliminate most tension forces and steel is not necessary.Combiantion designs may utilize one or more of the previously mentioned types of dams. For example, studies may indicate that an earthfill dam with a center concrete gravity overflow spillway section is the most economial in a wide, flat valley. Other design conditions may dictate a multiple-arch and buttress dam section or a buttress and gravity dam combination.Site ExplorationThe dam location is determined by the project’s functions. The exact site within the general location must be determined by careful project consideration and systematic studies.In preliminary studies, two primary factors must be determined-the topography at the site and characteristics of the foundation materials. The first choice of the type of dam is based primarily on these two factors. However, the final choice will usually be controlled by construction cost if other site factors are also considered.Asite exploration requires the preparation of an accurate topographic map for each possible site in the general location. The scale of the maps should be large enough for layout. Exploration primarily determines the conditions that make sites usable or unusable.From the site explorations, tentative sketches can be made of the dam location and project features such as power plants. Physical features at the site must be ascertained in order to make a sketch of the dam and determine the position of materials and work plant during construction. Other factors that may affect dam selection are roadways,fishways, locks, and log passages.TopographyTopography often determines the type of dam. For example, a narrow V-shaped channel may dictate an arch dam. The topography indicates surface characteristics of the valley and the relation of the contours to the various requirements of the structure. Soundness of the rock surface must be included in the topographic study.In a location study, one should select the best position for the dam. An accurate sketch of the dam and how it fits into the topographic features of the valley are often sufficient to permit initial cost estimates. The tentative location of the other dam features should be included in this sketch since items such as spillways can influence the type and location of the dam.Topographic maps can be made from aerial surveys and subsequent contour plotting or they can be obtained from governmental agencies. The topographic survey should be correlated with the site exploration to ensure accuracy. Topographic maps give only the surface profile at thesite. Further geological and foundation analyses are necessary for a final determination of dam feasibility.Foundation and Geological InvestigationFoundation and geological conditions determine the factors that support the weight of the dam. The foundation materials limit the type of dam to a great extent, although such limitations can be compensated for in design.Initial exploration may consist of a few core holes drilled along the tentatively selected site location. Their analysis in relation to the general geology of the area often rules out certain sites as unfeasible, particularly as dam height increases. Once the number of possible site locations has been narrowed down, more detailed geological investiagtions should be considered.The location of all faults, contacts, zones of permeability, fissures, and other underground conditions must be accurately defined. The probable required excavation depth at all points should be derived from the core drill analysis. Extensive drilling into rock formations isn’t necessary for small dams. However, as dam height and safety requirements increase, investigations should be increased in depth and number. If foundation materials are soft, extensive investigations should determine their depth,permeability, and bearing capacity. It is not always necessary orpossible to put a concrete dam on solid rock.The different foundations commonly encountered for dam construction are: (1)solid rock foundations, (2) gravel foundations, (3) silt or fine sand foundations, (4) clay foundations, and (5) nonuniform foundation materials. Small dams on soft foundation ( item 2 through item 5 ) present some additonal design problems such as settlement, prevention of piping, excessive percolation, and protection of foundation from downstream toe erosion. These conditions are above the normal design forces of a concrete dam on a rock foundation. The same problems also exist for earth dams.Geological formations can often be pictured in cross-section by a qualified geologist if he has certain core drill holes upon which to base his overall concept of the geology. However, the plans and specifications should not contain this overall geological concept. Only the logs of the core drill holes should be included for the contractor’s estimates. However, the geological picture of the underlying formations is a great aid in evaluating the dam safety. The appendix consists of excerpts from a geologic report for the site used in the design examples.HydrologyHydrology studies are necessary to estimate diversion requirements during construction, to establish frequency of use of emergency spillways in conjunction with outlets or spillways, to determine peak dischargeestimates for diversion dams, and to provide the basis for power generation. Hydrologic studies are complex; however, simplified procedures may be used for small dams if certain conservative estimates are made to ensure structural safety.Formulas are only a guide to preliminary plans and design computations. The empirical equations provide only peak discharge estimates. However, the designer is more interested in the runoff volume associated with discharge and the time distribution of the flow. With these data, the designer knows both the peak discharge and the total inflow into the reservoir area. This provides a basis for making reliable diversion estimates for irrigation projects, water supply, or power generation.A reliable study of hydrology enables the designer to select the proper spillway capacity to ensure safety. The importance of a safe spillway cannot be overemphasized. Insufficient spillways have caused failures of dams. Adequate spillway capacity is of paramount importance for earthfill and rockfill dams. Concrete dams may be able to withstand moderate overtopping.Spillways release excess water that cannot be retained in the storage space of the reservoir. In the preliminary site exploration, the designer must consider spillway size and location. Site conditions greatly influence the selection of location, type, and components of a spillway. The design flows that the spillway must carry without endangering the dam areequally important. Therefore, study of streamflow is just as critical as the foundation and geological studies of the site.附录2外文翻译混凝土重力坝一个坝址的坝型选择，主要取决于地形、地质、水文和气候条件。