法国大革命英文版
法国大革命
第二节法国大革命法国大革命（the French Revolution）是在资产阶级革命时代最激烈的一次社会革命。
它不仅震撼了当时欧洲的封建秩序，而且对整个人类历史产生了深远的影响。
因为，它开创了暴力革命的先河，从那时候开始，几乎一切的革命运动都是把法国大革命视为自己的先驱。
那么为什么法国大革命会有如此重大的影响：1，法国是当时欧洲重要的政治中心。
早在三十年战争之后，法国就已经成为欧洲大陆的霸主。
虽然，在一系列的争霸战争中法国遭到了沉重的打击，但是法国在欧洲大陆的影响力还是非常大的。
特别是此时他们保有的数十万的陆军力量，是任何一个欧洲大陆国家不敢小视。
2，法国也是欧洲大陆的经济中心。
在工业革命之前，法国是欧洲大陆最富庶的国家，它不仅又有2400万的人口，这比当时的英国要多一倍，而且它的经济总量在欧洲占有非常重要的地位。
据说当时，欧洲市面上流通的金币有一半都在法国。
在手工工场业的发展方面，欧洲几家最大的冶金业、采矿业企业都集中在法国。
232页。
3，法国是当时欧洲思想、文化变革的中心。
近代以来，由于法国强大的政治、军事力量，成为当时欧洲的文化中心，法语是当时欧洲贵族的通用语言，很多国际法律和重要文献都是用法语撰写的。
到了启蒙时代，法国又成为启蒙运动的中心。
当时法国的各种政治刊物、著作、报纸等等，都不需要翻译，直接就在欧洲其他各个国家发行。
所以，法国革命的思想必然会对其他国家的思想界产生重大的影响。
所以，在这样的国家，发生这样的一次革命。
它的效果、它的影响，可想而知。
再加上法国位于欧洲大陆，法国革命一发生，它就会很快地传播出去。
所以，法国革命为什么会影响这么大，我们大概就能够理解。
在了解了这个问题以后，我们来看一下课本上是怎么解释法国大革命的。
课本上，大概是分成了：旧制度、三级会议和革命的爆发；“八九年原则”和旧法国的改造；法兰西第一共和国；雅各宾派专政；热月党和督政府，这么六个部分。
这六个部分基本上是遵循了法国大革命的发展历程：第一、第二部分，231-238，讲的是同一个问题，革命的背景，革命爆发前的准备；第三部分，君主立宪制的时期，（1789年7月14日到1792年8月10日）；第四部分，吉伦特派专制时期（1792年8月10日到1793年6月2日），第五部分雅各宾派专制时期（1793年6月2日-1794年7月27日）；第六部分热月党和督政府时期（1794年7月27日-1799年11月9日）。
法国大革命(mfy)
第5课
为争取“民主”“共和”而 战 法国大革命
（1789—1794）
国 王 第一等级 教士
路易十六
1754-1793
第二等级 贵族
第 资产阶级 三 等 级 农民、工人、市民
波旁王朝统治下法国的等级制度
层层压迫下的法国农民
பைடு நூலகம்
压在农民前半身 的是教士，后半身的 是贵族。老农拄着一 把破镐，气喘吁吁地 挣扎向前行走。旁边 地主饲养的鸽子飞到 他的田里啄食谷物， 兔子在吃青菜，他却 无权轰赶。老农的裤 兜里露出催缴王粮的 通知单，而教士的衣 袋里塞满了逼缴各项 从奉教会的损税单。
法 国 大 革 命
原因：波旁王朝的封建专制统治阻碍了法国资本主义 经济的发展 开始标志：1789年7月14日，巴黎人民攻占巴士底狱 颁布机构：制宪议会 经 颁布文献：《人权宣言》 内容：在权利方面，人们生来就是始终 是自由平等的； 法律是公共意志的表 过 现； 财产权是人神圣不可侵犯的权利。 领导人：罗伯斯庇尔 结束标志：1794年7月的“热月政变” 意义：法国大革命是资产阶级革命时代最大、最彻底的 一次革命；彻底摧毁了法国的封建专制制度，使“民主、 共和”思想广为传播，对人类社会的发展产生了深远的 影响。但是民主权利仍然只为少数人所享有 文韬：颁布了《拿破仑法典》，是资产阶级 国家的第一部民法典。 拿 武略：对外发动战争，推广了法国大革命成果， 破 仑 但侵犯了别国人民利益，遭到了各国的联合反 抗，1815年滑铁卢战役失败，“拿破仑时代” 结束。
根本原因： 斯图亚特王朝的封建专制统治严重阻碍了 英 国 资 产 阶 级 革 命
英国资本主义经济的发展。
1、起止时间：1640——1688年 2、开始标志：英国国会（新贵族）与国王（封建势力） 围绕限制王权和保证国会权利开始斗争 革 3、1649年，国王查理一世被处死，英国进入共和时代 命 4、1688年，“光荣革命”，标志着资产阶级和新贵族 过 统治的建立，英国资产阶级革命结束 程 时间： 1689年 目的： 限制王权 颁布机构： 英国国会 内容 1、限制国王权力 《权利 2、规定公民权利 法案》 3、确定国会拥有最高权力 影响 ： 为限制君权提供了法律保障，标志着君主立宪 制的形成。
法国大革命[英文] The French Revolution
![法国大革命[英文] The French Revolution](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/a3f8e3f86137ee06eef91830.png)
consequences than the American Revolution
France = most powerful and populous
state in Europe
Massive social revolution Worldwide impact Becomes model for future revolutions
This “Dual Revolution” changed everything
politically, socially and economically
Triumph of European states and economies
globally
The Modern Era was inaugurated by the Dual
equality
II. Roots of Liberalism
Judeo-Christian and
Greek roots
Enlightenment
Foundation
Locke’s Notion of the
Rights of Englishmen
III. “A Dual Revolution”
One big movement of revolutionary
agitation
A. British North America
“All Men are Created
Equal”
The significance of
the American constitution
The influence of the
法国 (法兰西)英文版
Louis XVI of France
French King who was the Louis XV's grandson, and also the last France's king before the Bourbon restoration. Eexcept he was also the only king who was executed on the history of Frace ,the lock technology of Louis XVI was high,and very creative. After the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis XVI was forced to organizate constitutionalists to own up bourgeois with real power. 1792 France was forced to declare war on Austria. In 1792 Volunteers composing of French people repulsed the invaders of his country, and established the first French Republic. People urgently required the execution of Louis XVI. After the public under the Girondins, in 1793 he was brought to the guillotine on paris revolution Square.
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Louis XIV of France
法国大革命英文翻译
French RevolutionThe French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of radical social and political upheaval in French and European history. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. French society underwent an epic transformation as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from liberal political groups and the masses on the streets. Old ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.The French Revolution began in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of the Revolution witnessed members of the Third Estate proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and an epic march on V ersailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by tensions between various liberal assemblies and a conservative monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms. A republic was proclaimed in September 1792 and King Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats also played a dominant role in the development of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars started in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine—achievements that had defied previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular sentiments radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the Reign of Terror from 1793 until 1794 during which between 16,000 and 40,000 people were killed.After the fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution. The growth of republics and liberal democracies, the spread of secularism, the development of modern ideologies and the invention of total war[citation needed] all mark their birth during the Revolution. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy and two different empires.CausesAdherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the Ancien Régime as being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included hunger and malnutrition in the most destitute segments of the population, due to rising bread prices (from a normal eight sous for a four-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789),,after several years of poor grain harvests. The combination of bad harvests (due to abnormal/severe weather fluctuations) and rising food prices was further aggravated by an inadequate transportation system which hindered the shipment of bulk foods from rural areas to large population centers, contributing greatly to the destabilization of French society in the years leading up to the Revolution.Another cause may have been France's near bankruptcy as a result of the many wars foughtby previous rulers, as well as the financial strain caused by French participation in the American Revolutionary War. The national debt amounted to almost 2 billion livres. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the loss of France's colonial possessions in North America and the growing commercial dominance of Great Britain. France's inefficient and antiquated financial system was unable to manage the national debt, something which was both partially caused and exacerbated by the burden of an inadequate system of taxation. To obtain new money to head off default on the government's loans, the king called an Assembly of Notables in 1787.Meanwhile the royal court at V ersailles was perceived by many as being isolated from, and indifferent to the hardships of the lower classes. While in theory King Louis XVI was an absolute monarch, in practice he was often indecisive and known to back down when faced with strong opposition. While he did reduce government expenditures, opponents in the parlements successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms. Those who were opposed to Louis' policies further undermined royal authority by distributing pamphlets (often reporting false or exaggerated information) that criticized the government and its officials, stirring up public opinion against the monarchy.Many other factors involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal absolutism; resentment by peasants, laborers and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility; resentment of the Church's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for freedom of religion; resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy; aspirations for social, political and economic equality, and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism; hatred of Queen Marie-Antoinette, who was (falsely) accused of being a spendthrift and an Austrian spy; and anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker, among others, who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.Pre-revolutionFinancial crisisLouis XVI ascended to the throne amidst a financial crisis; the nation was nearing bankruptcy and outlays outpaced income. This was because of France’s financial obligations stemming from involvement in the Seven Y ears War and its participation in the American Revolutionary War. In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after he failed to enact much needed reforms. The next year, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Comptroller-General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant. Necker realized that the country's tax system, which was perceived as quite regressive, subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden; while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy. He argued that the country could not be taxed higher, that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced, and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country's fiscal shortages. Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres, and proposed restricting the power of the parlements. This was not received well by the King's ministers and Necker, hoping to bolster his position, argued to be made a minister. The Kingrefused, Necker was fired, and Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to the Comptrollership. Calonne initially spent liberally, but he quickly realized the critical financial situation and proposed a new tax code. The proposal included a consistent land tax, which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables. But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of the Estates-General, for May 1789, the first time the body had been summoned since 1614. This was a signal that the Bourbon monarchy was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people.Estates-General of 1789The Estates-General was organized into three estates, respectively: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. On the last occasion that the Estates-General had met, in 1614, each estate held one vote, and any two could override the third. The Parlement of Paris feared the government would attempt to gerrymander an assembly to rig the results. Thus, they required that the Estates be arranged as in 1614. The 1614 rules differed from practices of local assemblies, wherein each member had one vote and third estate membership was doubled. For instance, in the province of Dauphinéthe provincial assembly agreed to double the number of members of the third estate, hold membership elections, and allow one vote per member, rather than one vote per estate. The "Committee of Thirty," a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against voting by estate. This group, largely composed of the wealthy, argued for the Estates-General to assume the voting mechanisms of Dauphiné. They argued that ancient precedent was not sufficient, because "the people were sovereign." Necker convened a Second Assembly of the Notables, which rejected the notion of double representation by a vote of 111 to 333. The King, however, agreed to the proposition on 27 December; but he left discussion of the weight of each vote to the Estates-General itself.National Assembly (1789)On 10 June 1789 AbbéSieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor real tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreednot to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and V ersailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities.Storming of the BastilleBy this time, Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his overt manipulation of public opinion. Marie Antoinette, the King's younger brother the Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the King's privy council urged him to dismiss Necker as financial advisor. On 11 July 1789, after Necker published an inaccurate account of the government's debts and made it available to the public, the King fired him, and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time.Many Parisians presumed Louis's actions to be the start of a royal action against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving soldiers—mostly foreign mercenaries—had been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly. The Assembly, meeting at V ersailles, went into nonstop session to prevent eviction from their meeting place once again. Paris was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of some of the French Guard, who were armed and trained soldiers.On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a cease fire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city. Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Régime. Returning to the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery and he was butchered by the mob.The King, alarmed by the violence, backed down, at least for the time being. La Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath, became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a tricolore cockade, to cries of V ive la Nation "Long live the Nation" and Vive le Roi "Long live the King". Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour. He also felt he could save France all by himself, despite having few new ideas.As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country, the nobility began to leave France as émigrés, some of whom started plotting civil war and agitating for a European alliance against the Revolution.By late July, the spirit of popular sovereignty had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion: someattacked the châteaux of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). In addition, wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.。
法国大革命（FrenchRevolution）概述：18世纪资本主义在法国部分地区已
法国大革命(French Revolution)概述：18世纪资本主义在法国部分地区已相当发达，出现许多资本主义性质的手工工厂，个别企业雇佣数千名工人并拥有先进设备。
金融资本雄厚。
资产阶级已成为经济上最富有的阶级，但在政治上仍处于无权地位。
农村绝大部分地区保留着封建土地所有制，并实行严格的封建等级制度。
由天主教教士组成的第一等级和贵族组成的第二等级，是居于统治地位的特权阶级。
资产阶级、农民和城市平民组成第三等级，处于被统治地位。
特权阶级的最高代表是国王路易十六。
18世纪末第三等级同特权阶级的矛盾日益加剧。
特权阶级顽固维护其特权地位。
在第三等级中，农民和城市平民是基本群众，是后来革命中的主力。
资产阶级则凭借其经济实力、政治才能和文化知识处于领导地位。
1789年5月国王被迫召集三级会议，继而改为国民议会和制宪议会。
7月14日巴黎人民起义，攻占巴士底狱，革命爆发。
8月26日制宪会议通过《人权与公民权宣言》,确立人权、法制、公民自由和私有财产权等资本主义的基本原则。
议会还颁布法令废除贵族制度，取消行会制度，没收并拍卖教会财产。
革命初期，代表大资产阶级和自由派贵族利益的君主立宪派取得政权。
1791年6月20日路易十六乔装出逃，企图勾结外国力量扑灭革命，中途被识破押回巴黎。
广大群众要求废除王政，实行共和，但君主立宪派则主张维持现状，保留王政。
君主立宪派制定了《一七九一年宪法》，召开立法会议，维护君主立宪政体，反对革命继续发展。
第一、二等级和大资产阶级的取得了妥协，但和占法国人口大多数的农民和城市平民的矛盾依然没有缓和，相反，人民在斗争中看到了自己的力量。
1792年8月10日，巴黎人民再次起义，推翻君主立宪派统治，逮捕路易十六国王。
9月21日召开国民公会，次日宣布成立法兰西共和国。
8月10日巴黎人民起义后，吉伦特派取得政权。
9月20日法国军队在瓦尔密打败外国干涉军。
由普选产生的国民公会于9月21日开幕，9月22日成立了法兰西第一共和国。
法国大革命的特点是什么
法国大革命的特点是什么法国大革命(法文：La Révolution française，英文：The French Revolution)法国特定历史时期，是1789年7月14日在法国爆发的革命，统治法国多个世纪的君主制在三年内土崩瓦解。
下面是本人分享的法国大革命的特点是什么，一起来看看吧。
法国大革命的特点从1789年7月14日巴黎人民攻占巴士底狱到1830年7月革命，至此法国大革命才彻底结束。
法国大革命历时41年，漫长而曲折。
就其规模而言，如暴风骤雨，迅猛异常。
人民群众在三次起义中都显示了伟大力量，每当在革命的转折关头，都推动革命向前发展。
人民群众积极参加革命，使革命得以彻底进行。
成果卓著法国大革命是一场深刻的社会革命，它结束了法国一千多年的君主专制统治，在法国初步确立了共和国的政治体制。
这场大革命还震撼了欧洲的君主专制制度，给它们以沉重的打击。
影响深远这次革命扫荡了法国的专制势力。
在经济上为法国的工业革命创造了条件。
它对法国社会的思想观念、文化教育等方面产生了深远的影响。
这场大革命的彻底性更为以后的各国革命树立了榜样，它动摇了欧洲其他国家君主专制制度的基础，因而具有世界意义。
规模最大同时代其他国家和地区革命激烈的程度与影响的广泛、深远程度均不及法国大革命，因此说18世纪的法国大革命是革命时代规模最大、最彻底的一次革命。
法国大革命的影响对国内法国大革命是一次广泛而深刻的政治革命和社会革命，从巴黎人民攻占巴士底狱到热月政变，法国大革命经历了五年的历程，其势如暴风骤雨，迅猛异常。
在三次起义中，人民群众都显示出伟大的力量，一再把革命从危机中挽救过来，并推动它进一步向前发展，它彻底地结束了法国一千多年的君主专制制度，传播了自由民主平等的思想。
法国大革命摧毁了法国君主专制统治，传播了自由民主的进步思想，对世界历史的发展有很大影响。
对世界法国大革命是世界近代史上规模最大，最彻底的革命，它摧毁了法国的君主专制制度，震撼了整个欧洲大陆的封建秩序，传播了自由民主的进步思想。
法国大革命历史及原因(英文版)
The French RevolutionThe French Revolution was a period of radical social and political disorder in France and Europe. French society underwent massive changes as feudal, aristocratic, and religious privileges ceased to exist. The monarchy was abolished, and old ideas about hierarchy and tradition gave in to new Enlightenment* principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The French Revolution changed the world and even today the French people celebrate the Storming of the Bastille on July 14th 1789 as their national holiday.What were the causes of the revolution?The causes of the French Revolution are two sides of the same coin; one side were the long-ranging problems, such as the condition of French society. Since the Middle Ages the French population had been divided into three orders or estates* which enjoyed different rights. The First Estate was the clergy whose members did not have to pay France’s main tax, the taille *, and who owned about ten per cent of the land. However, the clergy was not a homogenous group: the higher clergy were often the younger sons of the most important noble families, and thelower clergy were often poor parish* priests who were overworked and whose interests lay with the common people.The Second Estate of the Ancien Régime * was the nobility. Just as the First Estate, its members possessed several privileges and were exempt from taxes, especially the taille *. The nobles held the best jobs in the army and the government. Nevertheless, some of the nobles had debts because of their expensive lifestyle. Therefore,they tried to raise the dues* paid by the peasants. Although the nobles enjoyed their economic advantages, they tried to expand their power at the expense of the monarchy while keeping their central positions in the military, the church, courts, and administration.The overwhelming majority of the French belonged to the Third Estate, or the commoners of society. These commoners were divided by major differences in occupation, education, and wealth. The peasants constituted thelargest segment of this order (about 80 per cent of the total population), owning about 40 per cent of the land. They had to give dues* to their local landlords as well as the tithe* to the clergy. They also had to work for the lord, especially at harvest time. The peasants’ crops were often ruined when the nobles went hunting which was one of the nobles’ privileges.But not all common people were poor peasants. Although the majority of the people lived in the country, thepeople in the towns and cities, especially in Paris, played a crucial role in the French Revolution. Among them were workers whose living conditions were very harsh. They often had insecure jobs in workshops or factories or worked at home. In times of economic trouble, they were often hungry and desperately poor as prices rose faster than wages. The streets they lived in were dirty and unhealthy. Other commoners in the cities were better off. Some members of the Third Estate became rich as bankers, manufacturers, or merchants. Others went touniversity and became lawyers or university teachers, often criticizing absolutism and the privileges of the First and Second Estate.Although they were different in many aspects, all the members of the Third Estate had something in common: they were the ones who had to pay for their country, they did not have a voice in politics, and they did not have any access to higher government posts.Another long-term cause of the French Revolution was the Enlightenment (cf. Chapter “The Enlightenment”) and its ideas. The American War of Independence (cf. Chapter “The Emergence and Rise of the United States”) also paved the way for revolutionary ideas, for example that everyone is born equal or has the right to resistance against an unjust ruler. But many of these ideas and social injustice had existed for a long time before the outbreak of the French Revolution. Something must have changed in a relatively small period of time 510152025303540which led to violent protests and finally to revolution. These changes were the immediate causes of the French Revolution.One of theses causes was the economic crisis of the late 1780s. The beginning of a manufacturing depression and bad weather led to serious problems. The number of unemployed workers rose as well as the price for bread after a series of bad harvests in 1787 and 1788. As a result, the poor were likely to suffer frommalnutrition and diseases, some even starved to death. In July 1789, those urban workers who still had their jobs had to spend 75 per cent of their wages on food. Peasants and townspeople even rioted and attacked the nobles’ castles since they could not bear the situation any longer.Another cause was the king’s financial situation. Louis XVI was in dire financial straits because of France’s involvement in the American War ofIndependence (the French supported the Americans against England) and dueto other wars that had been fought less successfully, increasing the nationaldebt. The royal court was costly, civil servants had to be paid, the militaryneeded financial support – all factors leading to the king’s bankruptcy. Thepoorly run tax system did not help to ease the situation, as many taxes werecollected by private companies and did not reach the king. Consequently, hewanted to get more money, but to achieve this, he needed to call an assemblyof the three estates, the Estates-General ,* which had not met since 1614. InAugust 1788, Louis XVI called the Estates-General for the next year. The hopes of what this assembly should accomplish were high: The king hoped to raise new taxes which even the Second Estate should pay, the nobles hopedto limit the powers of the king, and the people hoped that it would solve all their current problems, shown in thelists of grievances* and hopes for the future.Phases of the RevolutionThe Moderate PhaseThe representatives of the Estates-General met in Versailles on May 5th, 1789. The nobility and the clergy sent about 300 delegates each, whereas the Third Estate sent about 600. The problem to be faced was how thedelegates should vote: should each estate vote separately or as a whole? Or should each estate be voted by head, giving the Third Estate the chance to promote its interests with the help of some liberal nobles and clerics? On June 17th, the Third Estate declared itself to be a National Assembly* to work on a constitution. Three days later, the delegates found their usual meeting place locked, and they moved to an indoor tennis court and swore to meet until they had drawn up a French constitution. This event became known as the Tennis Court Oath* andwas a truly revolutionary act since the delegates had no legal right to turn themselves into a National Assembly. Although Louis XVI ordered the delegates of the First and Second Estate to join the Third, he summoned troops around Versailles and Paris.In July and August 1789, a series of peasants’ revolts and urban uprisings saved the National Assembly* from the king’s attempt to restore his authority. The peasants destroyed castles and the records of the dues theyhad to give their lords, showing their resentment of the entire landholding system that had determined their lives. The most famous of the urban uprisings was the Storming of the Bastille on July 14th , despite the fact that only seven prisoners were imprisoned in this medieval fortress which served as state prison and armoury*. The Parisian mob had not gathered to free the prisoners: it had come to demand the ammunition stored in the Bastille. When the prison governor refused to comply, the mob eventually took hold of the building after a violent battle.The governor was killed, his head carried round the streets on a spike. The Storming of the Bastille became a Image 1: The Third Estate carrying the clergy and the nobility,unknown author.510152025303540symbol of the French Revolution in which the monarchy was overthrown and a republic set up based on the ideas of liberty, equality, and brotherhood. Even today, the French still celebrate July 14th as a national holiday.During the agrarian revolts, panic spread throughout France that foreign troops would invade, supported by an aristocratic plot which became known as the Great Fear.* The uprisings and this fear influenced the work of the National Assembly in Versailles, leading to the abolition of the feudal rights of the nobles as well as the fiscalrights of the nobility and clergy. Many nobles started to flee as they thought that not only their property and their privileges, but also their lives were in danger.On August 26th, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of Man and the Citizen.* This document contains important ideas from the Enlightenment such as the rights of liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, the freedom of speech and the press, and it affirmed the destruction of aristocratic privileges. Thedeclaration also raised the important question whether the idea of equal rights for all men included women as well. Olympe de Gouge certainly thought so and published a Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen in 1791 which contained the idea that women should have the same rights as men. Although the National Assembly ignored her ideas, this was not the only time that women influenced the course of the French Revolution.On October 5th 1789, thousands of women from Paris marched to Versailles to complain about the lack of bread. At that time, Louis XVI had not yet endorsed the abolition of aristocratic privileges and the Declaration of Rights, but the women’s insurrection* forced the king to make up his mind and accept the changes. The next day, the royal family was brought to Paris while the women sang that they were bringing back the baker and his family as the king had also given in to their demand of bread. The National Assembly soon followed, meeting inParis where the delegates worked on a constitution that established a limited, constitutional monarchy*.In June 1791, Louis tried to escape from Paris and flee the country because he could not accept his situation. But the royal family was recognized near the border, taken back to Paris, and immediately placed under house arrest at the Tuileries*. As a result of the escape attempt, the credibility of the king as a constitutional monarch had been seriously undermined. Nevertheless, on September 3rd, the new constitution was adopted by theNational Assembly, and Louis XVI reigned with limited powers over France. It soon became obvious that he did not like his new role, and people started to call him “Monsieur Veto” as he vetoed many resolutions of the National Assembly and he lost his remaining credibility as a leader.In April 1792, the king’s reputation suffered even more when France declared war on Austria. This happened because the kings of Austria and Prussia had invited other European monarchs to use force to re-establishabsolute monarchy in France. Initially, the French troops did not fare well in the fighting, the price of bread rose once more, and the search for scapegoats* soon began. After the Brunswick Manifesto* was published the people did not have to look very hard: It became clear to them that the nobles who had fled and the king were traitors. Louis now hoped for a foreign invasion to restore him to power, but this did not happen. After a secret cupboard containing proof of Louis’ correspondence with foreign powers had been discovered in TuileriesPalace, the royal family was arrested and the monarchy suspended. A National Convention* was chosen by all French men, not just by property-holders, to decide on the new form of government. This new constitutional body established a republic on September 21st. It also decided the fate of the king and the queen who were executed in January and October 1793. The revolution entered its second stage, a more radical stage than the first.The Radical PhaseThe second stage of the French Revolution was a phase of increasing radicalism. Friends and foes of the revolution were bound to use violence to solve their problems. Over time it became less clear who was a friend and who was an enemy of the revolution as real and imaginary traitors were executed by the thousands.510152025303540The enemies of the revolution were found behind French borders as most of Europe had formed a coalition against France to invade it, and, at first, it looked like the revolutionaries would lose the war. But the enemies of the revolution were also found within French borders. In September 1792, French nobles and clerics who had supported the king and had been arrested were killed in the streets of Paris by revolutionary mobs who feared that they might help the invading armies. These murders became known as the September massacres*. OtherFrench enemies of the republic included a group of Catholic and royalist counter-revolutionaries who tried to overthrow the republic and restore the monarchy in the Vendée* in March 1793, but their attempt was futile and violently suppressed by supporters of the revolution.To save the republic from its enemies in France and abroad, an executive committee – the Committee of Public Safety* – was established with broad powers which were soon abused by the radical Jacobins*. TheJacobin Club was the most famous political club of the French Revolution. It got its name from their original meeting place - a Dominican convent in the Rue St. Jacques in Paris. The members of this political group believed that the Sansculottes* had not gained enough from the revolution. These urban workers who supported the revolution were named after the fact that they did not wear the knee-breeches of the upper class, but wore long trousers instead. They emphasized the idea of equality by dressing alike. Their strong views on what therevolution should achieve included universal male suffrage* and fixed prices on basic goods such as bread. They often supported the actions of the Jacobins as well.The Jacobins used drastic measures in times of crisis: their leader, the lawyer Maximilien Robespierre*, began the Reign of Terror* to save the revolution from its enemies, and tens of thousands of so-called counter-revolutionaries were executed. Revolutionary tribunals were set up to try people quickly, and their actions weresupported by the Sansculottes. In a famous speech, Robespierre explained that the Terror was necessary and inevitable, “Terror is only justice prompt, severe and inflexible. […] The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny.” The Terror was not restricted to Paris. All over the country more than 12,000 people were guillotined, but many others were shot, drowned, or killed in other ways.Apart from the counter-revolutionaries in France, there were absolute monarchs to be dealt with. TheCommittee of Public Safety thus created a national conscript* army which became the largest European army of 1,000,000 men and ended the series of French defeats. This Levée en masse * did not just enlarge the army, but it also led to much of the civilian population supporting the military. This development proved to be successful, and the Republican army pushed back the enemies across the Rhine and soon captured the Austrian Netherlands. The creation of a people’s army - instead of the relatively small armies of professional soldiers and mercenaries*that had fought the wars of the ruling dynasties - changed warfare for ever. The levée was a key development in modern warfare and would lead to steadily larger armies with each successive war, culminating in the total war of the modern world.The Terror was not only an emergency régime dealing with enemies of the revolution, but also an attempt to change society completely. Many of its supporters like Robespierre and Saint-Just* tried to establish true liberty,equality, and fraternity. To break with the past and promote revolutionary ideas, a Republican Calendar was introduced. Every year had twelve months of 30 days each which were given new names based on nature and weather conditions. The ten days of the week were renamed after fruit, crops, and animals. The numbering of years was also changed, and 1792 became Year 1 of the Revolutionary Calendar which was in use until 1805. Another one of Robespierre’s ideas was the Cult of the Supreme Being* which he devised to become the newstate religion. As a consequence, people did not marry in churches any more, and divorces were permitted by the state.The Terror ended in July 1794 with the execution of Robespierre and his close supporters. As Robespierre had become too powerful, the Convention voted for his arrest on July 27th. The executions took place the next day, the 10 Thermidor. Thus, the Thermidorian Reaction ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution. 51015202530354045Over the next five years, France was ruled by five Directors* according to the new Constitution of the Year III.* The new constitution favoured property-holders since the universal suffrage of 1793 was replaced by limited suffrage based on property, allowing only about 30,000 French to vote. The new constitution had been passed to establish a moderate government which should have been acceptable to many French. Instead of moderation and reconciliation, however, France under the Directory saw a period of crisis and discontent: Royalists desired therestoration of the monarchy, whereas Jacobins hoped to regain power as a result of ongoing economic struggles. In 1799, the French general Napoleon Bonaparte* seized power and founded a Consulate* which ruled France until he crowned himself Emperor of the French* in 1804.ResultsThe French Revolution had serious consequences throughout Europe. News of events initially caused much interest and prompted radicals to demand political reforms. For others, however, the French Revolutionrepresented a serious political danger. It was the cause of much anxiety in the absolute governments and illustrated the potentially serious consequences of social unrest and the ideas of the Enlightenment. After the French Revolution, the world would never be the same.One example of these consequences can be found just outside France: The Republic of Mainz was a product of the French Revolution: it lasted from March to July 1793. After the ruler of Mainz had fled in October 1792,citizens of Mainz founded a Jacobin club; they promoted the Enlightenment and the French revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, aiming for a German republic to be established following the French model. A democratically elected parliament met in March 1793, declaring the represented territory (which extended to Bingen in the west and to Landau in the south) to be free and democratic, denying any ties to the Holy Roman Empire,* and joining France. The same day, Mainz was besieged by Prussian and Austrian troops, and, in July,the democratic experiment ended with the fall of the city. This outlines the development of the early 19th century, when more and more countries found themselves caught between revolution and restoration.Thomas Zell 5101520。