英语语言学
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
英语语言学教案
英语语言学教案教案标题：引入英语语言学的基本概念和原理教学目标：1. 了解英语语言学的定义、研究内容和重要性。
2. 掌握英语语言学的基本概念和原理。
3. 能够应用英语语言学的知识分析和解释英语语言现象。
教学内容：1. 什么是英语语言学？a. 定义：英语语言学是研究英语语言的科学。
b. 研究内容：语音学、语法学、词汇学、语用学等。
c. 重要性：帮助学习者理解和运用英语语言。
2. 英语语言学的基本概念和原理a. 语音学：音素、音位、音节等基本概念。
b. 语法学：句子结构、词类、句型等基本概念。
c. 词汇学：词义、词形、词汇分类等基本概念。
d. 语用学：语言交际、语境、语用规则等基本概念。
教学步骤：1. 导入（5分钟）a. 创设情境：通过展示一段英语对话或新闻报道引起学生对英语语言学的兴趣。
b. 提问：什么是英语语言学？它的研究内容有哪些？2. 介绍英语语言学的定义和研究内容（10分钟）a. 讲解英语语言学的定义和研究内容，强调其重要性。
b. 提供实例：举例说明语音学、语法学、词汇学和语用学的研究内容。
3. 介绍语音学的基本概念和原理（15分钟）a. 讲解音素、音位和音节的概念和区别。
b. 提供实例：展示不同音素和音位的发音示范。
4. 介绍语法学的基本概念和原理（15分钟）a. 讲解句子结构、词类和句型的概念和分类。
b. 提供实例：分析不同句子结构和词类的句子。
5. 介绍词汇学的基本概念和原理（15分钟）a. 讲解词义、词形和词汇分类的概念和应用。
b. 提供实例：解释不同词义和词形的词汇。
6. 介绍语用学的基本概念和原理（15分钟）a. 讲解语言交际、语境和语用规则的概念和重要性。
b. 提供实例：分析不同语境下的语用规则。
7. 总结与拓展（5分钟）a. 概括英语语言学的基本概念和原理。
b. 提出拓展问题：学生可以通过进一步研究和实践探索英语语言学的更多内容。
教学资源：1. PowerPoint演示文稿，包含英语语言学的定义、研究内容和基本概念。
英语语言学 总结
英语语言学总结简介英语语言学是对英语语言进行科学研究的学科领域。
它涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面，对于了解英语的起源、演变以及语言结构和功能都具有重要意义。
本文将对英语语言学进行一些总结和概述，介绍其中一些重要的概念和理论。
语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要关注语音的产生、传播和听觉等方面。
在英语语言学中，语音学起着重要的作用，它帮助我们了解英语中不同音素（phoneme）的发音规律和特征。
在语音学中，音位（phoneme）是指语音的最小功能单位，而音素（phone）则是对特定发音的描述。
通过了解音位和音素的差异，我们可以更好地理解英语中的发音规则和口音变化。
语法学语法学研究语言的句法结构和规则，包括句子成分、词法、语序等。
英语语法学主要关注英语句子的结构和语法规则。
通过学习英语语法，我们可以了解英语句子构成的基本规则和语言运用中的一些常见现象。
常见的语法概念包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态等。
语义学语义学研究语言的意义和词义，包括词汇的意义、句子的意义以及语言的歧义等。
在英语语义学中，我们探讨英语词汇的意义差异、词义的转化和词汇搭配等。
通过学习英语语义学，我们可以更准确地理解英语中的词汇和句子的意义，并避免产生理解上的困惑。
语用学语用学研究语言的交际功能和使用情境，包括言语行为、话语的指称和暗示、对话结构等。
在英语语用学中，我们研究英语中的礼貌用语、委婉语、修辞手法等。
通过学习英语语用学，我们可以更好地理解英语中的社交规则和交际方式，提高我们的语言运用能力。
英语语言学的意义英语语言学的研究对于我们了解和使用英语具有重要的意义。
它帮助我们理解英语的起源、发展和演变，揭示了英语语言结构和功能的本质。
通过学习英语语言学，我们可以更好地掌握英语的发音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的知识，提高我们的英语语言能力。
此外，英语语言学还对翻译、教学、翻译和语言政策等领域有着重要的影响。
结论通过对英语语言学的总结，我们对英语语言的研究有了更深刻的认识。
英语语言学的作用和意义
英语语言学的作用和意义
英语语言学是一门研究英语语言及其发展历史、特征、语法、词汇、发音等方面的学科。
它的作用和意义主要体现在以下几个方面: 1. 提高英语学习效果：英语语言学可以帮助学习者更好地理解英语语言的结构和规律，提高英语学习的效果和效率。
2. 促进英语语言教学：英语语言学可以为英语语言教学提供理论和方法支持，帮助教师更好地开展英语教学。
3. 推动英语语言研究：英语语言学是英语语言研究的基础和关键，它的研究进展可以推动英语语言研究的深入和发展。
4. 促进英语语言国际化：英语语言学可以帮助学习者和教师更好地了解英语语言的国际发展动态和趋势，促进英语语言的国际化交流和合作。
总之，英语语言学对于英语学习和教学具有非常重要的作用和意义，可以帮助学习者更好地掌握和理解英语语言，提高英语学习效果，促进英语语言教学的开展，同时也能够推动英语语言研究的进展和促进英语语言的国际化交流和合作。
英语语言学知识整理
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学问题: What are the major branches of linguisticsWhat does each of them study→phonetics语音学→the study of sounds→phonology音位学→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology形态学→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax句法学→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics语义学→the study of meaning→pragmatics语用学→ the context of language useSociolinguistics社会语言学：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics语言心理学：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics应用语言学：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive规定性/descriptive描写性②synchronic共时/diachronic历时③speech口语/writing书面语④langue语言/parole言语the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics⑤competence语言能力/performance语言应用the American linguist N. Chomsky⑥traditional grammar 传统语法/modern linguistics现代语言学问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronicWhyIn modern linguistics, a synchronic 不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的 approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic 探求现象变化的, 历时的 one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writingFrom the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language7个识别特征①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson6种首要因素,结构主义语言学家①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使权力功能①ideational②interpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationships③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanceThe distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, ., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: 语音学①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatoryphonetics发音语音学Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics声学语音学③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palatevelum/hard palate/teeth ridgealveolus/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet IPA①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription宽式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription严式标音→the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation ③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⒈criteria :monophthongs单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded/ei //ai //au //u //i //i //ε// u /Phonology 音韵学,语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.Phone音素: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立Complementary distribution音位变体的互补分布Minimal pairs最小对立体：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set最小对立集：is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis音位分析Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus often a vowel with optional initial and final margins often consonants单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中,单词由音节构成,音节由音位构成;句子里读重音的词：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns②tone词汇层面English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall③intonation句子层面English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题：What are the two major media of communicationOf the two, which one is primary and whySpeech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题：What is voicing and how is it causedVibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds phonologyConstructions syntaxMeanings semanticsForms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副 are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new wordsare added3 词素有关Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位,包括声音和意义,abstract units任意性Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes① Free morpheme自由词素: A morpheme which can be a word by itself② bound morpheme粘着词素：A morpheme that must be attached to another one③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes派生词素,包括前后缀: They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④ inflectional morphemes屈折词素：词类不发生变化5 单词定义：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme词位. A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构：StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong toa lexical category.7 单词合成：Word formation①morphological rules→productive morphological rules②derivation③compounds 几点注意：When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不总是这样The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 单词合成过程：①compounding②affixation or derivationBlends 混合词Abbreviation 缩略语③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials 按字母拼读的单词Clippings 缩写词④backformation 逆构词法9 要点Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定义It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派别①traditional syntax 传统学派②structural syntax 结构主义学派索绪尔③transformational syntax 生成学派乔姆斯基本书重点学习④functional syntax 功能学派哈里德3 范畴CategoriesMajor lexical categoriesAdjective APreposition P限定词/成分程度词修饰语助词Conjunction Con 连词Syntactic categories句法范畴的定义：①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.②注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories主要词汇范畴 play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化Distribution 分布It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.↓The phrase is built around the word category.↓The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成;短语→单词→词素→音节→短语层面任何短语都有2个层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分:The word around which a phrase is formed②specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则定义：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP→Det N PP …VP→Qual V NP …AP→Deg A PP …PP→Deg P NP …XP ruleX’ Theory X 标杆理论①X’: The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.②X’ Theory: specifier X’ wordX’=X complementCoordination rule 并列规则Coordinate structures 并列结构Coordination 并列,并列关系Four important properties of coordination：①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.②a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.③coordinated categories must be of the same type.④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.;中心成分决定补充成分时,决定着是否需要补充成分,需要什么样的补充成分,以及补充成分的位置问题;The XP Rule revisedComplementizers Cs: 补语化成分Words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause: 补语从句The sentence introduced by the complementizerComplement phraseCP:补语短语Matrix clause 主句Modifiers 修饰成分,修饰语The Expanded XP rule:9 sentencesThe S rule: S→NP VP4种短语1种句子为屈折短语10 transformations 转换规则Yes-no questionSyntactic movement wh-questionPassive voiceTransformation/Inversion倒置定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Inversion倒置：All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not. Inversion revised:If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e”表示Head movement 中心语移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in anotherInversion→一般疑问句+显性助词Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position11 Two levels of syntactic structureDeep structure D-structure:The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure S-structure:The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate tansformationsThe XP Rule↓Deep structure subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓Transformations↓Surface structure12 Wh Movement:Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceWh Movement revised：Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP13 Move α and constraints on transformationsthere is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha”is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theoryancient Greek scholar PlatoA→BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.3The conceptualist view概念论There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. Semantic triangle/triangle of significance Ogden and Richards 1923年提出Thought/referenceSymbol/form ……………………………...referent4Contextualism 语境论J. R. Firth——British linguistMalinowski Polish anthropologistWittgenstein German philosopherThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context:The situational contextThe linguistic context/co-textThe main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation:The placeThe timeThe speakerThe hearerThe actionsThe various objects and eventsThe linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’sco-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论American BloomfieldThis theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论：Jill JackS------------------r………..s-------------------R6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary compilers are interested in每个单词都有它的意义senseReference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义referenceMajor sense relations:synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词British English and American EnglishGirl------lass/lassie Scottish dialectLiquor-------whiskey Irish dialectB AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality . old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/floatpolysemy 一词多义homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound homophones: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceleak/leek②identical in spelling homographs: Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling complete homonyms: Fast/fastscale/scalehyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/setteeantonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词不能共存,非此即彼③relational opposites 反向反义关系相反的两个极端但可共存7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.X真,Y真；X假,Y假②X is inconsistent with Y.X 真,Y假；X假,Y真③X entails Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y可真可假④X presupposes Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y仍为真⑤X is a contradiction. X永远假⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaningcomponential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析Semantic features语义特征：The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions选择限制.constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of arguments变元and predicate谓词. TOMSMOKEKID, APPLELIKEBE HOTSNOWArguments变元定义：It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.Predicate谓词定义：It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:①two-place predication②one-place predication③no-place predicationChapter 6 Pragmatics语用学Origin 起源：1938, American philosopher Charles MorrisFoundation of the Theory of SignsSemiotics:符号学 a science of signs3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics√Pragmatics 定义：It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:①the Anglo-American tradition:Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena②the European continental tradition:It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.√Pragmatics VS. SemanticsWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Five concepts: 五个概念整理First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930sIt is essential to the pragmatic study of languageIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speakerand the hearer.Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.Various components of shared knowledge:Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of what has been said before属于linguistic contextKnowledge about the world in generalKnowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is takingplaceKnowledge about each other和进行比较The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of thesentence itself in terms of predication. abstract/decontextualizedA sentence is a grammatical concept.Concrete/context-dependentAn utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence.注：the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning.Speech act theory 言语行为理论理论基础：when we are speaking, we are performing actionsdoing somethingof the 20th century.It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language ”Constatives: 述事话语表述句定义They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语施为句定义They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.√①locutionary act言内行为The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonologyThe act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses②illocutionary act言外行为语言学家最感兴趣The act of expressing the speaker’s intentionThe act of performed in saying something③perlocutionary act言后行为主要与听话人有关The act performed by or resulting from saying somethingIt is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something.Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.①representatives/assertives阐述类:stating or describing, saying what the speakerbelieves to be true②directives指令类: trying to get the hearer to do something③commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course ofaction.④expressives表达类：expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state⑤declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.√When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather his is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.A traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.We know of there exist three basic sentence forms, the declarative sentence, the imperative sentence, and the interrogative sentence.√Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act, which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.Primary speech act主要言语行为It is the speaker’s goal of communicationSecondary speech act次要言语行为It is the means by which he achieves his goalThe relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The recognition of the real purpose of the speaker through want he says is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principles.。
英语语言学分支
英语语言学分支（原创实用版）目录1.英语语言学的分支概述2.语音学3.语法学4.语义学5.语用学6.语言学与其他学科的联系正文一、英语语言学的分支概述英语语言学作为语言学的一个重要分支，主要研究英语的语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的规律。
英语语言学可以分为多个子领域，每个子领域都有其独特的研究方法和目标。
本文将对英语语言学的主要分支进行简要介绍。
二、语音学语音学是研究语音现象的学科，主要关注发音、声调、音位等方面的问题。
在英语语音学中，研究者需要分析英语音标的发音规律，以及不同口音和方言的特点。
此外，语音学还涉及到语音识别和合成等领域。
三、语法学语法学是研究语言结构的学科，主要关注词汇、句子和篇章的组织规律。
在英语语法学中，研究者需要分析英语单词的词性、词序、句子成分等方面的问题。
语法学的研究成果对语言教学、翻译和自然语言处理等方面具有重要意义。
四、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要关注词汇、句子和篇章的含义。
在英语语义学中，研究者需要分析英语单词和句子的意义、语义关系等方面的问题。
语义学的研究成果有助于提高语言表达的准确性和理解能力。
五、语用学语用学是研究语言使用情况的学科，主要关注语言在不同情境下的功能和效果。
在英语语用学中，研究者需要分析英语在不同语境、交际目的和文化背景中的使用规律。
语用学的研究成果对跨文化交际、语言教学和翻译等方面具有重要意义。
六、语言学与其他学科的联系英语语言学与许多其他学科有着密切的联系，如心理学、社会学、哲学、计算机科学等。
这些学科的研究成果为英语语言学的研究提供了丰富的理论资源和方法论支持。
同时，英语语言学的研究成果也在这些学科领域产生了广泛的应用价值。
总之，英语语言学作为一个多元化的学科体系，其各个分支领域都有独特的研究内容和方法。
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。
以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。
它包括语音学和音系学。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。
4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。
7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。
8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。
9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。
10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。
以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。
英语语言学大全
英语语言学大全英语是全球通用的语言之一，许多人都学习英语，但并不了解英语语言学的深层次内容。
本文将为您介绍英语语言学的基本概念和主要分支，希望帮助您更好地了解和学习英语。
一、语言学基础概念语言学是研究语言的学科，它涉及语言的形态、结构、意义、使用和历史等方面。
在语言学中，有一些基础概念需要了解：1.语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，包括语音的产生、听觉和声学特征等方面。
在学习英语时，我们需要掌握它的基本音素、音标和发音规则，才能有效地进行听、说、读、写等活动。
2.语法学语法学是研究语言结构和组织的学科，有时也称为句法学。
它研究语言的词类、句子结构、语法关系等方面。
通过学习英语的语法，我们可以正确使用语言，避免出现语法错误。
3.语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它探究词汇、短语和句子意义的形成和变化。
在英语学习中，我们需要理解单词和短语的意义，以及句子的含义，以便正确理解和表达内容。
4.语用学语用学是研究语言使用的学科，包括口语和书面语言的使用场合、对话方式、说话人的语言目标和对听者的影响等方面。
在英语学习中，我们需要了解不同场合和对象的语言使用规范，以便与人交流时更加得心应手。
二、英语语言学的主要分支除了以上基础概念外，英语语言学还有一些重要的学术分支，能够帮助我们更深入地了解和掌握英语。
1.语音学英语语音学探究的是英语中的音素、音标和发音规则等方面，以及与其他语音系统的比较和差异。
2.语法学英语语法学研究的是英语的句法结构、语法关系和句子意义等方面，以及与其他语言的比较和翻译问题。
3.词汇学英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的学科，包括单词的来源、组成和意义等方面，以及与其他语言的比较和词汇翻译问题。
4.语用学英语语用学研究的是英语在语言使用中的实际应用，包括语言交际、言语行为、语境和语言目的等方面。
5.文本语言学英语文本语言学是研究英语文本的结构、组织和语言特点等方面的学科，包括语篇分析和修辞分析等内容。
英语语言学导论
英语语言学导论在现代社会中，英语已成为世界上最重要的语言之一。
它的使用广泛，并在全球范围内被广泛教授和学习。
英语语言学是研究英语语言的起源、结构、运用和变化的学科。
本文将介绍英语语言学的基本概念和主要研究领域。
第一部分：语言的定义和特征语言是人类特有的沟通工具。
它通过词汇、语法和语音等要素传达思想和意义。
英语作为一种语言具有以下几个特征：1. 音位学：英语的语音系统是非常复杂的，包含了多种元音和辅音的组合。
音位学研究这些语音单元的发音规则和区别。
2. 词汇学：词汇学是研究语言中的词汇和词汇的组合方式。
英语借用了许多其他语言的词汇，并形成了自己独特的词汇体系。
3. 语法学：语法学研究语言的句法规则和结构。
英语有一套复杂的语法规则，包括句子成分的排列、时态和语态等。
4. 语义学：语义学研究语言的意义和符号之间的关系。
英语语义学关注单词和短语的意义以及其在句子中的作用。
第二部分：英语语言学的重要理论1. 生成语法：生成语法是描述语言结构的一种理论框架。
它认为语言的句子是由一系列规则翻译而来的。
在英语语言学中，生成语法的应用被广泛讨论和研究。
2. 语言变化：语言变化研究语言在时间和空间上的变化。
英语是一个活跃的语言，它经历了多次变化和演化。
研究英语变化可以帮助我们理解语言的发展和演变过程。
3. 语用学：语用学关注语言使用的背景和意图。
在英语语言学中，语用学研究口语交流、演讲和修辞等方面。
第三部分：英语作为国际语言的影响英语作为国际语言对全球化和文化交流产生了重要影响。
它被广泛用于商务、科技和学术交流等领域。
英语语言学的研究对英语作为国际语言的发展和应用具有重要意义。
1. 跨文化交际：英语作为国际语言使不同文化之间的交流更加方便。
研究跨文化交际可以帮助人们更好地理解和应对跨文化交流中的障碍和挑战。
2. 语言教育：英语作为国际语言受到广泛学习者的关注和学习。
英语语言学的研究对英语教育的改进和发展具有重要作用。
a050201英语语言文学专业简介
英语语言文学专业是指以英语为研究对象的学科，旨在培养学生对英语语言和英语国家文学的扎实功底和广博知识，掌握英语语言的运用和分析能力，具备研究和解读英语文学作品的能力，以及对英语国家文化和历史的了解。
本文将从专业设置、课程体系、就业前景等方面对英语语言文学专业进行详细介绍。
1. 专业设置1.1. 专业方向英语语言文学专业通常包括两个方向，即英语语言学和英美文学。
学生可以根据兴趣和职业发展规划选择其中一个或两个方向进行深造。
1.1.1. 英语语言学英语语言学专业主要研究英语的语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的知识，旨在培养学生对英语语言结构的掌握和分析能力。
学生将学习语音学、语法学、文体学、语用学等相关课程，掌握丰富的语言知识和分析方法。
1.1.2. 英美文学英美文学专业主要研究英语国家的文学作品，包括文学史、文学批评、文学作品欣赏等内容。
学生将学习英美文学史、文学流派、重要作家及其作品等知识，培养对文学作品的解读和分析能力。
2. 课程体系2.1. 英语语言学课程在英语语言学方向，学生将学习语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等基础课程，掌握英语语言的结构和运用规律。
还可以学习跨文化交际、语言教学理论等应用课程，为将来从事翻译、教学等工作做好准备。
2.2. 英美文学课程在英美文学方向，学生将学习英美文学史、文学批评理论、重要文学作品等课程，了解不同时期、不同流派的英美文学发展历程，培养对文学作品的解读和评价能力。
还可以选择修读欧洲文学、亚洲文学等选修课程，开阔视野，增加文学鉴赏能力。
3. 就业前景3.1. 翻译英语语言文学专业毕业生可以从事翻译工作，包括笔译和口译。
他们通过系统学习和训练，掌握了扎实的英语语言功底和翻译技巧，可以胜任各类文件翻译、口译交传等工作。
3.2. 教育对于英语语言学方向的毕业生，他们可以选择从事英语教育工作，包括中学英语教师、大学英语教师、留学培训机构教师等岗位。
他们通过专业学习，掌握了语言教学理论和实践技能，能够胜任各级各类的英语教学工作。
英语语言学知识
英语语言学知识English:1. What is the study of English language called?The study of English language is called English linguistics or English language studies.2. What are the main branches of English language studies?The main branches of English language studies include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics.3. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech, including the production and perception of speech sounds.4. What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of a language, including the way sounds are organized and used in the language.5. What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure and formationof words in a language, including the ways in which words are formed and the relationships between different forms ofa word.6. What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure and formation of sentences in a language, including the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form grammatical sentences.7. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language, including how meaning is constructed and interpreted in communication.8. What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in context, including how language is used to convey meaning and achieve communicative goals in different social and cultural settings.9. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society, including how language varies and changes in different social and cultural contexts.10. What are the major theories of language acquisition?The major theories of language acquisition include behaviorist theories, nativist theories, interactionist theories, and cognitive theories.中文：1. 英语语言学的研究叫什么？英语语言学的研究叫做英语语言学或英语语言研究。
英语语言学分支
英语语言学分支语言学是研究语言的科学，包括多个分支，每个分支关注语言的不同方面。
以下是一些主要的英语语言学分支：1. 音韵学（Phonetics and Phonology）：研究语音的产生、传播和接收，以及语音单位在语言中的组合和分布。
音韵学关注语音的物理性质和声学特征。
2. 形态学（Morphology）：研究语言中的词的内部结构和形态变化。
形态学关注单词如何形成，以及单词内部构建的规则。
3. 句法学（Syntax）：研究句子的结构，包括词与词之间的关系，以及句子的组成方式。
句法学关注语法规则是如何用来生成合乎语法规范的句子的。
4. 语义学（Semantics）：研究词和句子的意义。
语义学关注语言中词汇和句法单位的意义，以及它们如何组合形成合适的语言表达。
5. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言使用的上下文依赖性和语境中的语言交际。
语用学关注说话者和听话者之间的信息传递，以及言语行为在特定情境中的作用。
6. 社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）：研究语言和社会之间的关系。
社会语言学关注方言、语言变异、语言政策等与社会因素相关的语言现象。
7. 心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）：研究语言的心理过程，包括语言习得、语言记忆、语言理解等。
心理语言学关注语言在认知过程中的作用。
8. 历史语言学（Historical Linguistics）：研究语言的历史演变和变化。
历史语言学关注语言家族、语言演化、语言接触等方面的变化。
9. 比较语言学（Comparative Linguistics）：研究不同语言之间的相似性和差异。
比较语言学关注语言之间的语法结构、词汇和语音的比较。
这些分支共同构成了语言学的广阔领域，每个分支都有其独特的研究对象和方法。
英语语言学 语义学 语用学的区别
英语语言学、语义学和语用学是研究语言的不同方面的学科，它们有以下区别：
1. 英语语言学：
英语语言学是研究英语语言的结构和运用规律的学科。
它主要关注英语的音系、词汇、语法和语音等方面的研究，探究英语语言的内部结构和演变历程。
英语语言学的研究范围比较广泛，包括语音学、语法学、词汇学、句法学等多个分支学科。
2. 语义学：
语义学是研究语言符号（如单词、短语和句子）的意义和概念的学科。
它主要关注语言符号的意义和含义，探究语言符号与所表示的事物之间的关系。
语义学的研究内容包括词汇语义、句法语义、逻辑语义等方面的研究。
3. 语用学：
语用学是研究语言使用的学科。
它主要关注人们在特定情境下使用语言的方式和目的，探究语言使用者与听者之间的交互关系。
语用学的研究内容包括语言行为、语用推断、语言交际策略等方面的研究。
总的来说，英语语言学主要研究英语的内部结构和演化过程，语
义学主要研究语言符号的意义和概念，而语用学则主要关注语言使用的方式和目的。
这三门学科虽然各自研究不同的方面，但它们之间也有相互关联和交叉的地方，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。
英语语言学大全
定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.
反例：印度狼孩
3. Design feature 定义特征
primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. 举例： Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences>
texts/discourses
LOREM IPSUM DOLOR
langue: abstract linguistic system
parole: actual realization of langue
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
举例： 汉语系统 langue 每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语 parole
LOREM IPSUM DOLOR
1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （规定性） Descriptive: describing how things are. prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to be
LOREM IPSUM DOLOR
2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历时性） synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its c signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
英语专业语言学方向
英语专业语言学方向
英语专业中的语言学方向是研究语言的结构、功能和发展规律的学科。
在语言学方向中，主要关注的是英语语言的各个层面，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、词汇学、语用学等。
1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语音和发音的学科。
它包括对语音单位（音位）的分类和描述，以及语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的研究。
2. 语言音系学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的组合和规则。
它研究的是语音的功能和意义，以及不同语音之间的变化和相互关系。
3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构和句子的组织规则。
它关注句子的成分、句子类型、句法关系等方面，以及不同句式和语法现象的分析和解释。
4. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义和含义。
它涉及符号的指称、概念的表达、意义的推理等问题，并探讨语言与思维、社会文化背景之间的关系。
5. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的产生、变化和使用规律。
它研究词汇的分类、构词法、词义等问题，并分析词汇在句子中的作用和语言变异现象。
6. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言使用和交际的学科。
它关注语言的意图、指代、语境、说话人意向等方面，以及语言行为的目的和效果。
此外，还有与语言学密切相关的领域，如文体学（Stylistics）、社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）等。
这些方向在深入研究与英语语言相关的领域和问题时也起到重要的作用。
英语语言学 专业介绍
英语语言学专业介绍一、语言学基础知识英语语言学专业是研究英语语言及其应用的一门学科。
它涉及语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言与社会文化的关系等方面的研究。
在语言学基础知识方面，本专业的学生将学习语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等课程，掌握语言学的基本概念和理论，为进一步研究英语语言打下坚实的基础。
二、英语语言特点英语语言学专业的学生将深入了解英语语言的特点。
他们将学习英语的词汇、语法、语调等方面的知识，掌握英语的基本结构和使用规则。
同时，他们还将学习英语的演变历史，了解英语在不同历史时期和文化背景下的变迁，为理解现代英语的语言特点提供历史背景。
三、英语语言技能英语语言学专业注重培养学生的英语语言技能。
学生将通过大量的听、说、读、写训练，提高自己的英语语言能力。
同时，他们还将学习英语听力、口语、阅读、写作等技能的教学方法和技巧，为将来从事英语教学工作做好准备。
四、英语教学理论与实践英语语言学专业的学生将学习英语教学理论与实践方面的课程。
他们将了解英语教学的理论框架和教学方法，掌握英语教学的技巧和策略。
同时，他们还将学习如何设计教学方案、评估教学效果等方面的知识，为将来从事英语教学工作提供实践指导。
五、跨文化交际与外语教育英语语言学专业还注重培养学生的跨文化交际能力。
学生将学习跨文化交际的基本理论和方法，了解不同文化之间的差异和共性。
同时，他们还将学习外语教育的基本理论和实践，了解外语教育的历史和发展趋势，为将来从事外语教育工作提供理论支持和实践指导。
总之，英语语言学专业是一门综合性较强的学科，它涵盖了语言学基础知识、英语语言特点、英语语言技能、英语教学理论与实践以及跨文化交际与外语教育等方面。
本专业旨在培养具备扎实的英语语言基础和教学技能的人才，为他们在未来从事英语教学或相关领域的工作奠定基础。
英语语言学语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。
它涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。
下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。
一、语音学（Phonetics）语音学是研究语音的学问。
它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。
在语音学中，语音被分为音素（phoneme）和音位（allophone）。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。
而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式，即同一音素的不同发音形式。
在语音学中，还有一些重要概念，如元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。
元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类，它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。
而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。
二、语音语调学（Phonology）语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。
它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。
在语音语调学中，音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。
此外，在语音语调学中还有音变（phonological variation）的概念。
音变指的是在其中一种语言中，一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。
音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。
三、语法学（Grammar）语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。
在语法学中，句子是一个重要的研究对象。
句子结构可以划分为短语（phrase）和句子成分（sentence constituents），如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。
语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。
在语法学中，句法树（syntactic tree）是一种图形表示方式，用于描述句子的结构。
句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。
四、语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。
它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。
在语义学中，可以通过语义角色（semantic role）和逻辑关系（logical relation）来描述词语和句子之间的关系。
英语语言学
英语语言学
英语语言学是一门非常重要的学科，它旨在向读者提供关于英语的结构、形式和使用的研究。
英语语言学是英语语言学家们研究英语系统的研究领域，旨在研究英语的言语形式和结构，以及它们如何用于沟通和表达不同的意思。
英语语言学是研究语言系统中基本组成部分的学科，如：音韵、语法、句法和语义。
英语语言学也合理地分析了语言表达的不同方式和形式，以及语言表达背后的逻辑构架。
语言学家们使用一些理论来解释和应用英语语言学的相关概念。
这些理论通常涉及标准语言的研究、社会语言学的研究以及可能影响语言形式和使用的因素。
在近代，英语语言学研究得到了广泛的发展，影响了语言教育，特别是英语教学。
语言学家们基于他们对英语语言学的研究，结合社会语言学的研究结果，提出了实用的教学策略和方法，以帮助学习者学习英语。
此外，英语语言学还可以帮助人们了解英语的历史和发展，以及它如何在不同的文化中的使用。
此外，它也可以帮助人们理解英语的口语及书面表达，以及它们之间的差异。
进一步说，英语语言学还可以帮助人们深入了解不同类型的话语，以及它们之间的关系。
比如，一些语言学家将语言归类为口头话语、书面话语和电脑话语等，并阐述它们之间的不同。
此外，英语语言学还研究英语中特定类型的言语，如幽默、俚语等。
总之，英语语言学是一门非常重要的学科，而且它的影响深远。
英语语言学家们研究英语的系统及其使用，以期了解语言的结构和形式，并为教育提供一些有效的策略和方法。
最后，它还能帮助人们了解英语的历史和发展，以及它在不同文化中的使用。
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c. closed-class words & open-class words
Chapter three
Word formation (1)
Contents
• 1. Three senses of “word” • 2 . Identification of words • 3 . Classification of words
1. Three senses of “word”
Invariable words: do not have inflective endings. e.g conjunctions, prepositions, articles, interjection, pronouns.
b. grammatical words & lexical words
• ƒThree words are recognized.
(2) Both as a general term and as a specific term A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked How many words are there? (general:one; specific:four)
e.g • ƒCertainly. • ƒYes. • ƒHi. • ƒWonderful • ƒMorning.
3. Classification of words
(1) General classification
a. Variable vs. Invariable Words b. Grammatical vs. Lexical Words c. Closed-class vs. Open-class Words
Selfie Phubber Bromeo Fangirl/fanboy Gayriage Mompetition
• (1) A physical unit : a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks,
• eg
• ƒPhonological: [ɪt ɪz ˈwʌndəfl]
• ƒOrthographic: It is wonderful .
• A unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. – A vague definition.
• Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.
2. Identification of words
Three factors to identify words:
(1) Stability : the most stable of all linguistic units. e.g. housewife , but not *wifehouse
love building pan
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
and up
run
the
crazy mad
an
ghost
this
slowly
b. grammatical words & lexical words
Grammatical/Function words: mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause or even text. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.
So WORD may be used both as a general term (then walk, walks, walking,walked are just one word) and as specific items (then walk, walks, walking, walked are three words).
(3) A grammatical unit : sentence clause phrase word morpheme
The Word rank is located between Morpheme Phrase. A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, just like morpheme or clause complex.
a. variable words & invariable words
follow go say boy dog fat late
since when a through hello that
a. variable words & invariable words
Variable words: may have inflective change e.g nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
(2) Relative uninterruptibility: new elements should not be inserted into a word. e.g. independent , but not * inadependention
(3) A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can be used as a complete utterance by itself,