国际经济学第十版课后答案(萨尔瓦多、杨冰译)
克鲁格曼 国际经济学第10版 英文答案 国际贸易部分krugman_intlecon10_im_06_GE
Chapter 6The Standard Trade Model⏹Chapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierWorld Relative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations?Tariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?International Borrowing and LendingIntertemporal Production Possibilities and TradeThe Real Interest RateIntertemporal Comparative AdvantageSummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 6: More on Intertemporal Trade⏹Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage that give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model that admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods, are considered in this chapter.© 2015 Pearson Education LimitedThe standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one that takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade (ratio of export prices to import prices) increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two-country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves, which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of China has helped or hurt the United States as a whole and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by China’s particular growth biases. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion on the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. exports.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in China hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth and the possibility of immiserizing growth are discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new termsof trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle that emerges is that a country that experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country that experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study argues that this is really an empirical question, and the evidence suggests that the rapid growth of countries like China has not led to a significant deterioration of the U.S. terms of trade nor has it drastically improved China’s terms of trade.The second area to which the standard trade model is applied is the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, nonzero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Internationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors, while subsidies have the opposite effect.The chapter then closes with a discussion of international borrowing and lending. The standard trade model is adapted to trade in consumption across time. The relative price of future consumption is defined as 1/(1 r), where r is the real interest rate. Countries with relatively high real interest rates (newly industrializing countries with high investment returns for example) will be biased toward future consumption and will effectively “export” future consumption by borrowing from established developed countries with relatively lower real interest rates.Chapter 6 The Standard Trade Model 29Answers to Textbook Problems1.If the relative price of palm oil increases in relation to the price of lubricants, this would increase theproduction of palm oil, because Indonesia exports palm oil. Similarly, an increase in relative price of lubricants leads to a shift along the indifference curve, towards lubricants and away from palm oil for Indonesia. This is because Palm oil is relatively expensive, hence reducing palm oil consumption in Indonesia.Expensive palm oil increases the relative income of Indonesia. The income effect would induce more for the consumption of palm oil whereas the substitution effect acts to make the economy consume less of palm oil and more of lubricants. However, if the income effect outweighs the substitution effect, then the consumption of palm oil would increase in Indonesia.2.In panel a, the re duction of Norway’s production possibilities away from fish cause the production of fish relative to automobiles to fall. Thus, despite the higher relative price of fish exports, Norway moves down to a lower indifference curve representing a drop in welfare.In panel b, the increase in the relative price of fish shifts causes Norway’s relative production of fish to rise (despite the reduction in fish productivity). Thus, the increase in the relative price of fish exports allows Norway to move to a higher indifference curve and higher welfare.3. The terms of trade of the home country would worsen. This is because a strong biased productiontowards cloth would increase the home country’s supply of cloth and shifts the supply curve to the right. At the same time, the production of wheat would decline relative to the production of cloth. An increased supply of cloth would reduce the price at the domestic and at the international market. The reduction in international price of cloth would worsen the terms of trade of the home country as the home country exports. On the other hand, if the home country’s production grows in favor of wheat, the terms of trade would improve in favor of the home country. This is because wheat is imported by the home country.© 2015 Pearson Education Limited。
ch02国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔瓦多）
ch02国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔⽡多）*CHAPTER 2Chapter) (CoreCOMPARATIVE ADVANTAGEOUTLINE2.1 Introduction2.2 Mercantilists’ Views on TradeCase Study 2-1 Mercantilism Is Alive and Well in the Twenty-First Century2.3 Trade Based on Absolute Advantage: Adam Smith2.4 Trade Based on Comparative Advantage: David Ricardo2.5 Gains from Trade with Comparative Advantage2.6 Comparative Advantage with MoneyCase Study 2-2 The Petition of the Candlemakers2.7 Comparative Advantage and Opportunity CostsCase Study 2-3 Labor Productivities and Comparative Advantage2.8 Production Possibility Frontier with Constant Costs2.9 Opportunity Costs and Relative Commodity Prices2.10 Basis and Gains from Trade Under Constant CostsAppendix: Comparative Advantage with More than Two Commodities and NationsA2.1 Comparative Advantage with More than Two CommoditiesA2.2 Comparative Advantage with More than Two NationsKey TermstheoryofvalueLabortradeBasisfortheorytrade OpportunitycostGainsfromtrade Production possibility frontierofPatterncostopportunityConstantMercantilismcommodityRelativeprices advantageAbsolutespecializationCompleteLaissez-faireLaw of comparative advantage Small-country case-7-Lecture Guide1. This is a long and crucial core chapter and may require four classes to cover adequately. In thefirst lecture, I would present Sections 1-4 and assign review questions 1-3.2. In the second lecture of Chapter 2, I would concentrate on Sections 5-6 and carefully explain the law of comparative advantage using simple numerical examples, as in the text. Both sections are crucial. Section 5 explains the law of comparative advantage and Section 6 establishes the link between trade theory and international finance. I find that the numerical explanations before the graphical analysis really helps the student to truly understand the law. The simple lawyer-secretary example should also render the law more immediately relevant to the student. I would also assign Problems 4-7.3. In the third lecture, I would cover Sections 7-9 and assign Problems 8-10.4. In the fourth lecture, I would Section 10 and go over problems 4-10. The appendixes could bemade optional for the more enterprising students in the class.Answer to Review Questions and Problems1. The mercantilists believed that the way for a nation to become rich and powerful was toexport more than it imported. The resulting export surplus would then be settled by an inflow of gold and silver and the more gold and silver a nation had, the richer and more powerful it was. Thus, the government had to do all in its power to stimulate the nation’s exports and discourage and restrict imports. However, since all nations could not simultaneously have an export surplus and the amount of gold and silver was fixed at any particular point in time, one nation could gain only at the expense of other nations. The mercantilists thus preached economic nationalism, believing that national interests were basically in conflict.Adam Smith, on the other hand, believed that free trade would make all nations better off.All of this is relevant today because many of the arguments made in favor of restrictinginternational trade to protect domestic jobs are very similar to the mercantilists argumentsmade three or four centuries ago. That is why we can say that “mercantilism is alive and well in the twenty-first century”. Thus we have to be prepared to answer and demonstrate thatthese arguments are basically wrong.2. According to Adam Smith, the basis for trade was absolute advantage, or one country being more productive or efficient in the production of some commodities and other countriesbeing more productive in the production of other commodities.The gains from trade arise as each country specialized in the production of the commodities in which it had an absolute advantage and importing those commodities in which the nation had an absolute disadvantage.Adam Smith believed in free trade and laissez-faire, or as little government interference with the economic system as possible. There were to be only a few exceptions to this policy of laissez-faire and free trade. One of these was the protection of industries important for national defense.3. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage is superior to Smith’s theory of absolute advantage inthat it showed that even if a nation is less efficient than or has an absolute disadvantage in theproduction of all commodities with respect to the other nations, there is still a basis for beneficial trade for all nations.The gains from trade arise from the increased production of all commodities that arises wheneach country specializes in the production of and exports the commodities of its comparativeadvantage and imports the other commodities.A nation that is less efficient than others will be able to export the commodities of its compara-tive advantage by having its wages and other costs sufficiently lower than in other nations so asto make the commodities of its comparative advantage cheaper in terms of the same currencywith respect to the other nations.4. a. In case A, the United States has an absolute and a comparative advantage in wheat and theUnited Kingdom in cloth.In case B, the United States has an absolute advantage (so that the United Kingdom has anabsolute disadvantage) in both commodities.In case C, the United States has an absolute advantage in wheat but has neither an absoluteadvantage nor disadvantage in cloth.In case D, the United States has an absolute advantage over the United Kingdom in bothcommodities.b. In case A, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case B, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case C, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdomin cloth.In case D, the United States and the United Kingdom have a comparative advantage in neither commodities.5. a. The United States gains 1C.b. The United Kingdom gains 4C.c. 3C < 4W < 8C.d. The United States would gain 3C while the United Kingdom would gain 2C.6. a. The cost in terms of labor content of producing wheat is 1/4 in the United States and 1 in the United Kingdom, while the cost in terms of labor content of producing cloth is 1/3 in theUnited States and 1/2 in the United Kingdom.b. In the United States, Pw=$1.50 and Pc=$2.00.c. In the United Kingdom, Pw=￡1.00 and Pc=￡0.50.7. The United States has a comparative disadvantage in the production of textiles. Restrictingtextile imports would keep U.S. workers from eventually moving into industries in which the United States has a comparative advantage and in which wages are higher.8. Ricardo’s explanation of the law of comparative is unacceptable because it is based on the labor theory of value, which is not an acceptable theory of value.The explanation of the law of comparative advantage can be based on the opportunity costdoctrine, which is an acceptable theory of value.9. The production possibilities frontier reflects the opportunity costs of producing bothcommodities in the nation.The production possibilities frontier under constant costs is a (negatively sloped) straight line. The absolute slope of the production possibilities frontier reflects or gives the price of thecommodity plotted along the horizontal axis in relation to the commodity plotted along thevertical axis.10. a. See Figure 1.b. In the United States Pw/Pc=3/4, while in the United Kingdom, Pw/Pc=2.c. In the United States Pc/Pw=4/3, while in the United Kingdom Pc/Pw=1/2.d. See Figure 2.The autarky points are A and A' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively. The points of production with trade are B and B' in the United States and the UnitedKingdom, respectively.The points of consumption are E and E' in the United States and the United Kingdom,respectively. The gains from trade are shown by E > A for the U.S. and E' > A' for the U.K.Fig 1.1aU.K. Fig 1.1bFigure1Fig 1.2aFig 1.2bFigure2Multiple-Choice Questions1. The Mercantilists did not advocated:*a. free tradeb. stimulating the nation's exportsc. restricting the nations' importsd. the accumulation of gold by the nation2. According to Adam Smith, international trade was based on:*a. absolute advantageb. comparative advantagec. both absolute and comparative advantaged. neither absolute nor comparative advantage3. What proportion of international trade is based on absolute advantage?a. allb. most*c. somed. none4. The commodity in which the nation has the smallest absolute disadvantage is the commodityof its:a. absolute disadvantageb. absolute advantagec. comparative disadvantaged. comparative advantage5. If in a two-nation (A and B), two-commodity (X and Y) world, it is established that nationA has a comparative advantage in commodity X, then nationB must have:a. an absolute advantage in commodity Yb. an absolute disadvantage in commodity Yc. a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*d. a comparative advantage in commodity Y6. If with one hour of labor time nation A can produce either 3X or 3Y while nation B canproduce either 1X or 3Y (and labor is the only input):a. nation A has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Xb. nation B has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*c. nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity Xd. nation A has a comparative advantage in neither commodity7. With reference to the statement in Question 6:a. Px/Py=1 in nation Ab. Px/Py=3 in nation Bc. Py/Px=1/3 in nation B*d. all of the above8. With reference to the statement in Question 6, if 3X is exchanged for 3Y:a. nation A gains 2X*b. nation B gains 6Yc. nation A gains 3Yd. nation B gains 3Y9. With reference to the statement of Question 6, the range of mutually beneficial trade between nation A and B is:a. 3Y < 3X < 5Yb. 5Y < 3X < 9Y*c. 3Y < 3X < 9Yd. 1Y < 3X < 3Y10. If domestically 3X=3Y in nation A, while 1X=1Y domestically in nation B:a. there will be no trade between the two nationsb. the relative price of X is the same in both nationsc. the relative price of Y is the same in both nations*d. all of the above11. Ricardo explained the law of comparative advantage on the basis of:*a. the labor theory of valueb. the opportunity cost theoryc. the law of diminishing returnsd. all of the above12. The Ricardian trade model has been empirically*a. verifiedb. rejectedc. not testedd. tested but the results were inconclusive13. The Ricardian model was tested empirically in terms of differences ina. relative labor productivities costs in various industries among nationsb. relative labor costs in various industries among nations*c. relative labor productivities and costs in various industries among nationsd. none of the above14. A difference in relative commodity prices between two nations can be based upon a difference in:a. factor endowmentsb. technologyc. tastes*d. all of the above15. In the trade between a small and a large nation:a. the large nation is likely to receive all of the gains from trade*b. the small nation is likely to receive all of the gains from tradec. the gains from trade are likely to be equally sharedd. we cannot say。
萨尔瓦多国际经济学(第十版)
FIGURE 16-1 Balance-of-Payments Adjustments with Exchange Rate Changes.
FIGURE 16-2 Derivation of the U.S. Demand and Supply Curves for Foreign Exchange.
.
Adjustment with Flexible Exchange Rates
Price adjustment mechanism relies on depreciation and devaluation of currency to adjust current account and balance of payments.
.
Effect of Exchange Rate Changes on Domestic Prices and the Terms of Sale
Depreciation of the currency increases prices of both exports and imports in terms of domestic currency.
.
Introduction
Assumptions
International private c responses to cover temporary trade imbalances.
The nation wants to correct a deficit in its current account by exchange rate changes.
Effect of Exchange Rate Changes on Domestic Prices and the Terms of Sale
ch04 国际经济学课后答案与习题(萨尔瓦多)
*CHAPTER 4(Core Chapter)THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN AND OTHER TRADE THEORIESOUTLINE4.1 Introduction4.2 Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.3 The Formal Heckscher-Ohlin ModelCase Study 4-1 The Revealed Comparative Advantage of Various Countries and Regions4.4 Factor-Price Equalization and Income DistributionCase Study 4-2 Has International Trade Increased U.S. Wage Inequalities?4.5 Empirical Tests of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.6 Economies of Scale and International TradeCase Study 4-3 The New International Economies of Scale4.7 Trade Based on Product DifferentiationCase Study 4-4 Growth of Intra-Industry Trade4.8 Technological Gap and Product Cycle ModelsCase Study 4-5: The United States as the Most Competitive Economy in the World4.9 Transportation Costs and International Trade4.10 Environmental Standards and International TradeAppendix The Specific-Factors Model and Intra-Industry Trade ModelsA4.1 The Specific-Factors ModelA4.2 A Model of Intra-Industry TradeKey TermsInternationalofscaleeconomies pricesRelativefactorproducts Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) theory DifferentiatedtradeIntra-industryHeckscher–Ohlintheorem(H–O)Factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory Technological gap modelcyclemodelProductFactor–price equalization theoremcostsTransportationStolper-Samuelsontheoremmodel Nontraded goods and services Specific-factorsparadox Environmental standardsLeontiefMonopolisticcompetitionscalereturnsIncreasingtoLecture Guide1. This is one of the most important and difficult chapters in the book. It is also a long chapter andrequires four lectures to cover adequately.2. In the first lecture, I would cover sections 1-3. Section 3 is one of the most important sections inthe book because it presents the H-O model. I would proceed slowly and carefully in explaining Figure 4.1 and compare it to the standard trade model of Figure 3.4.3. In the second lecture, I would cover sections 4 and 5. Section 4 on the factor-price equalizationtheorem and income distribution is a difficult section. Case Study 4-2 should be of great interest to the students and give rise to a great deal of class discussion.4. In third lecture, I would cover sections sections 6-7, paying a great deal of attention to section 7on trade in differentiated products.5. In fourth lecture, I would cover the rest of the chapter.Answers to Review Questions and Problems1. a. The Heckscher–Ohlin (H-0) theorem postulates that a nation will export those commodi- ties whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodities whose production requires the intensive useof the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. In short, the relatively labor-richnation exports relatively labor-intensive commodities and imports the relativelycapital-intensive commodities.b. Heckscher and Ohlin identify the relative difference in factor endowments amongnations as the basic determinant of comparative advantage and international trade.c. The H-O Theory represent an extension of the standard trade model because it explains the basis for comparative advantage (classical economists, such as Ricardo had assumed it) and examines the effect of international trade on factor prices and income distribution (which classical economists had left unanswered).2. See Figure 1 on the next page.3. a. The factor–price equalization theorem postulates that international trade will bring about the equalization of the returns to homogeneous or identical factors across nations.b. The Stopler-Samuelson theorem postulates that free international trade reduces the realincome of the nation’s relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor.Fig 4.1Fig 4.2XXb. The specific-factors model postulates that the opening of trade (1) benefits the specific factorused in the production of the nation’s export commodity, (2) harms the specific factor used in the production of the nation’s import-competing industry, and (3) leads to an ambiguouseffect (i.e., it may benefit or harm) the mobile factor.c. Trade acts as a substitute for the international mobility of factors of production in itseffect on factor prices. With perfect mobility, labor would migrate from the low-wagenation to the high-wage nation until wages in the two nations are equalized. Similarly,capital would move from the low-interest to the high-interest nation until the rate ofinterest was equalized in the two nations.4. a. The Leontief paradox refers to the original Leontief’s finding that U.S. import substituteswere more K-intensive than U.S. exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O theorempostulated.b. The Leontief paradox was resolved by including human capital into the calculations andexcluding industries based on natural resources. Recent research using data on many sectors, for many countries, over many years, and considering that countries could specialize in aparticular subset or group of commodities that were best suited to their specific factorendowments, provides strong support for the H-O theorem.c. The Hecksher-Olhin theory remains the centerpiece of modern trade theory for explaininginternational trade today. To be sure, there are other forces (such as economies of scale,product differentiation, and technological differences across countries) that provide additional reasons and explanations for some international trade not explained by the basic H-O model.These other trade theories complement the basic H-O model in explaining the pattern ofinternational trade in the world today.5. International trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing economies (NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing the demand for unskilledworkers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive manufactures and, indirectly, byspeeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations, which further reduced the U.S.demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however, was only a small cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important cause was technological change.6. a. Economies of scale refer to the production situation where output grows proportionatelymore than the increase in inputs or factors of production. For example, output may morethan double with a doubling of inputs.b. Even if two nations were identical in every respect, there is still a basis for mutually bene-ficial trade based on economies of scale. When each nation specializes in the production of one commodity, the combined total world output of both commodities will be greater thanthan without specialization when economies of scale are present. With trade, each nationthen shares in these gains.c. The new international economies of scale refers to the increase in productivity resultingfrom firms purchasing parts and components from nations where they are made cheaperand better, and by establishing production facilities abroad-26-7. a. Product differentiation refers to products that are similar, but not identical. Intra-industrytrade refers to trade in differentiated products, as opposed to inter-industry trade incompletely different products.b. Intra-industry trade arises in order to take advantage of important economies of scale inproduction. That is, with intra-industry trade each firm or plant in industrial countries canspecialize in the production of only one, or at most a few, varieties and styles of the sameproduct rather than many different varieties and styles of a product and achieve economies of scale.c. With few varieties and styles, more specialized and faster machinery can be developedfor a continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports othervarieties and styles from other nations. Intra-industry trade benefits consumers because ofthe wider range of choices (i.e., the greater variety of differentiated products) available atthe lower prices made possible by economies of scale in production.8. a. According to the technological gap model, a firm exports a new product until imitators incountries take away its market. In the meantime, the innovating firm will have introduced a new product or process.b. The criticism of the technological gap model are that it does not explain the size of techno- logical gaps and does not explore the reason for technological gaps arising in the first place, or exactly how they are eliminated over time.c. The five stages of the product cycle model are: the introduction of the product, expansion of production for export, standardization and beginning of production abroad through imitation, foreign imitators underselling the nation in third markets, and foreigners underselling theinnovating firms in their home market as well.9. See Figure 2 on page 25.10. A nation with lower environmental standards can use the environment as a resource endow-ment or as a factor of production in attracting polluting firms from abroad and achieving acomparative advantage in the production of polluting goods and services. This can lead totrade disputes with nations with more stringent environmental standards.-27-Multiple-Choice Questions1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:a. explaining the basis for comparative advantageb. examining the effect of trade on factor prices*c. both a and bd. neither a nor b2. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:a. greater absolute amount of Kb. smaller absolute amount of Lc. higher L/K ratio*d. lower price of K in relation to the price of L3. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a difference in:a. technologyb. factor endowmentsc. tastes*d. all of the above4. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:a. technology*b. factor endowmentsc. economies of scaled. tastes5. According to the H-O theory, trade reduces international differences in:a. commodity pricesb. in factor prices*c. both commodity and factor pricesd. neither relative nor absolute factor prices6. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, international trade leads toa. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor*b. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factorc. increase in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factord. none of the above7. Which of the following is false with regard to the specific factors theorem, international trade *a. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s export commodities or sectorsb. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s import-competing commoditiesc. has an ambiguous effect on the nation’s mobile factorsd. may benefit or harm the nation’s mobile factors8. Perfect international mobility of factors of productiona. leads to a reduction in international differences in the returns to homogenous factorsb. acts as a substitute for international trade in its effects on factor pricesc. operates on the supply of factors in affecting factor prices*d. all of the above9. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.*a. import substitutes were more K-intensive than exportsb. exports were more L-intensive than importsc. exports were more K-intensive than import substitutesd. all of the above10. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:a. must be rejectedb. must be accepted without reservations*c. can generally be acceptedd. explains all international trade11. International trade can be based on economies of scale even if both nations have identical:a. factor endowmentsb. tastesc. technology*d. all of the above12. A great deal of international trade:a. is intra-industry tradeb. involves differentiated productsc. is based on monopolistic competition*d. all of the above13. Intra-industry trade takes place:a. because products are homogeneous*b. in order to take advantage of economies of scalec. because perfect competition is the prevalent form of market organizationd. all of the above14. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the product-cycle theory?a. it depends on differences in technological changes over time among countriesb. it depends on the opening and the closing of technological gaps among countriesc. it postulates that industrial countries export more advanced products to lessadvanced countries*d. all of the above15. Transport costs:a. increase the price in the importing countryb. reduces the price in the exporting countryc. falls less heavily on the nation with the more elastic demand and supply curves of the traded commodity*d. all of the above-30-ADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART ONE1. Assume that both the United States and Germany produce beef and computer chips with the following costs:United States Germany(dollars) (marks)Unit cost of beef (B) 2 8Unit cost of computer chips (C) 1 2(a) What is the opportunity cost of beef (B) and computer chips (C) in each country?(b) In which commodity does the United States have a comparative cost advantage?What about Germany?(c) What is the range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germanyfor each computer chip traded?(b) How much would the United States and Germany gain if 1 unit of beef is exchangedfor 3 chips?Answ. (a) In the United States:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 2 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/2 unit of beef.In Germany:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 4 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/4 unit of beef.(b) The United States has a comparative cost advantage in beef with respect to Germany,while Germany has a comparative cost advantage in computer chips.(c) The range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germany foreach unit of beef that the United States exports is2C < 1B < 4C(d) Both the United States and Germany would gain 1 chip for each unit of beef traded.2. Given: (1) two nations (1 and 2) which have the same technology but different factor costs conditions, and (3) no transportation costs, tariffs, or other obstructions to trade.Prove geometrically that mutually advantageous trade between the two nations is possible.Note: Your answer should show the autarky (no-trade) and free-trade points of production and consumption for each nation, the gains from trade of each nation, and express the equilibrium condition that should prevail when trade stops expanding.)Ans.: See the figure below.Fig 4.3Fig 4.4Nations 1 and 2 have different production possibilities curves and different community indifference maps. With these, they will usually end up with different relative commodity prices in autarky, thus making mutually beneficial trade possible.In the figure, Nation 1 produces and consumes at point A and Px/Py=P A in autarky, while Nation 2 produces and consumes at point A' and Px/Py=P A'. Since P A < P A', Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation 2 in Y. Specialization in production proceeds until point B in Nation 1 and point B' in Nation 2, at which P B =P B' and the quantity supplied for export of each commodity exactly equals the quantity demanded for import.Thus, Nation 1 starts at point A in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B in production, and by exchanging BC of X for CE of Y reaches point E in consumption. E > A since it involves more of both X and Y and lies on a higher community indifference curve.Nation 2 starts at A' in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B' in production, and by exchanging B'C' of Y for C'E' of X reaches point E'in consumption (which exceeds A').At Px/Py=P B =P B', Nation 1 wants to export BC of X for CE of Y, while Nation 2 wants to export B'C' (=CE) of Y for C'E' (=BC) of X. Thus, P B =P B' is the equilibrium relative commodity price because it clears both (the X and Y) markets.3. (a) Identify the conditions that may give rise to trade between two nations. (b) What aresome of the assumptions on which the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is based? (c) What does this theory say about the pattern of trade and effect of trade on factor prices?Ans. (a) Trade can be based on a difference in factor endowments, technology, or tastesbetween two nations. A difference either in factor endowments or technology results in a different production possibilities frontier for each nation, which, unlessneutralized by a difference in tastes, leads to a difference in relative commodity price and mutually beneficial trade. If two nations face increasing costs and have identical production possibilities frontiers but different tastes, there will also be a differencein relative commodity prices and the basis for mutually beneficial trade between the two nations. The difference in relative commodity prices is then translated into adifference in absolute commodity prices between the two nations, which is the immediate cause of trade.(b) The Heckscher-Ohlin theory (sometimes referred to as the modern theory – asopposed to the classical theory - of international trade) assumes that nations have the same tastes, use the same technology, face constant returns to scale (i.e., a givenpercentage increase in all inputs increases output by the same percentage) but differ widely in factor endowments. It also says that in the face of identical tastes or demand conditions, this difference in factor endowments will result in a difference in relative factor prices between nations, which in turn leads to a difference in relativecommodity prices and trade. Thus, in the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the internationaldifference in supply conditions alone determines the pattern of trade. To be noted is that the two nations need not be identical in other respects in order for internationaltrade to be based primarily on the difference in their factor endowments.(c) The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem postulates that each nation will export the commodityintensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodityintensive in its relatively scarce and expensive factor. As an important corollary, itadds that under highly restrictive assumptions, trade will completely eliminate thepretrade relative and absolute differences in the price of homogeneous factors amongnations. Under less restrictive and more usual conditions, however, trade will reduce, but not eliminate, the pretrade differences in relative and absolute factor prices among nations. In any event, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory does say something very useful onhow trade affects factor prices and the distribution of income in each nation. Classical economists were practically silent on this point.-33-4. Suppose that tastes change in Nation 1 (the L-abundant and L-cheap nation) so that consumers demand more of commodity X (the L-intensive commodity) and less of commodity Y (the K- intensive commodity). Suppose that Nation 1 is India, commodity X is textiles, and commodi- ty Y is food. Starting from the no-trade equilibrium position and using the Heckscher-Ohlinmodel, trace the effect of this change in tastes on India's (a) relative commodity prices anddemand for food and textiles, (b) production of both commodities and factor prices, and(c) comparative advantage and volume of trade. (d) Do you expect international trade to leadto the complete equalization of relative commodity and factor prices between India and theUnited States? Why?Ans. (a) The change in tastes can be visualized by a shift toward the textile axis in India'sindifference map in such a way that an indifference curve is tangent to the steepersegment of India's production frontier (because of increasing opportunity costs) after the increase in demand for textiles. This will cause the pretrade relative commodity price of textiles to rise in India.(b) The increase in the relative price of textiles will lead domestic producers in India toshift labor and capital from the production of food to the production of textiles. Since textiles are L-intensive in relation to food, the demand for labor and therefore the wage rate will rise in India. At the same time, as the demand for food falls, thedemand for and thus the price of capital will fall. With labor becoming relative more expensive, producers in India will substitute capital for labor in the production of both textiles and food.(c) Even with the rise in relative wages and in the relative price of textiles, India stillremains the L-abundant and low-wage nation with respect to a nation such as theUnited States. However, the pretrade difference in the relative price of textilesbetween India and the United States is now somewhat smaller than before the change in tastes in India. As a result the volume of trade required to equalize relativecommodity prices and hence factor prices is smaller than before. That is, India need now export a smaller quantity of textiles and import less food than before for therelative price of textiles in India and the United States to be equalized. Similarly, the gap between real wages and between India and the United States is now smaller and can be more quickly and easily closed (i.e., with a smaller volume of trade).(d) Since many of the assumptions required for the complete equalization of relativecommodity and factor prices do not hold in the real world, great differences can be expected and do in fact remain between real wages in India and the United States.Nevertheless, trade would tend to reduce these differences, and the H-O model does identify the forces that must be considered to analyze the effect of trade on thedifferences in the relative and absolute commodity and factor prices between Indiaand the United States.-34-5. (a) Explain why the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended. (b) Indicate in what important ways the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model can be extended. (c) Explain what ismeant by differentiated products and intra-industry trade.Ans. (a) The Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended because, while generallycorrect, it fails to explain a significant portion of international trade, particularly the trade in manufactured products among industrial nations.(b) The international trade left unexplained by the basic Heckscher-Ohlin trade model canbe explained by (1) economies of scale, (2) intra-industry trade, and (3) trade based on imitation gaps and product differentiation.(c) Differentiated products refer to similar, but not identical, products (such as cars,typewriters, cigarettes, soaps, and so on) produced by the same industry or broadproduct group. Intra-industry trade refers to the international trade in differentiated products.-35-。
国际经济学第十版答案
国际经济学第十版答案【篇一：国际经济学复习课后答案】1．为什么说生产和消费只取决于相对价格？答：经济主体的经济行为考虑的是所有商品的价格，而不是单一价格因素。
3.在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案：是4.如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5.如果改用y商品的过剩供给曲线（b国）和过剩需求曲线（a国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：不一定一致，x商品的价格是px/py，而y商品的价格是py/px.7.如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8.根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。
第二章答案1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
表1 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x y表2 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入ab 5 5a 6 2b 15 12x 10 y4答案提示：首先将劳动投入转化为劳动生产率，然后应用与本章正文中一样的方法进行比较。
（表2-2（a）和表2-2（b）部分的内容） 2．假设a、b两国的生产技术条件如下所示，那么两国还有进行贸易的动机吗？解释原因。
表3 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x ya 4 2b 8 4答案提示：从绝对优势来看，两国当中a国在两种产品中都有绝对优势；从比较优势来看，两国不存在相对技术差异。
所以，两国没有进行国际贸易的动机。
3．如果一国在某一商品上具有绝对优势，那么也必具有比较优势吗？答案提示：不一定，比较优势的确定原则是两优取最优，两劣取最劣。
5.假设某一国家拥有20，000万单位的劳动，x、y的单位产出所要求的劳动投入分别为5个单位和4个单位，试确定生产可能性边界方程。
ch07 国际经济学课后答案与习题(萨尔瓦多)
*CHAPTER 7(Core Chapter)INTEGRATIONECONOMICOUTLINE7.1 Introduction7.1 Forms of Economic Integration7.2 Trade Creation and Trade Diversion in Customs Unions7.3 Dynamic Benefits from Customs Unions7.4 The European UnionCase Study 7-1 Economic Profile of EU, NAFTA, and JapanCase Study 7-2 Gains from the Single EU Market in 19927.5 The European Free Trade Association7.6 The North-American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)7.7 Attempts at Economic Integration Among Developing CountriesCase 7-3 Economic Profile of MercosurCase 7-4 Changes in Trade Pattern with Economic Integration7.9 Economic Integration in Central and Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet RepublicsCase Study 7-5 Per Capita Income in Transition EconomiesKey TermsdeflectionTradeEconomicintegrationPreferential trade arrangements European Economic Area (EEA)Free trade area North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)MarketCommon(Mercosur)SouthernCustomsunionmarket Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) or (COMECON) Commoncompaniestradingunion StateEconomicDuty-free zones or free economic zones Centrally planned economiesagreementsBilateralTradecreationBulkpurchasingdiversionTradeandEastern European Countries (CEEC) factoriesCentralTariffNewly Independent States (NIS)(EU)EuropeanUnionVariable import levies Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Central European Free Trade Association (CEFTA)(BFTA)AreaBalticTradeFree-53-Lecture Guide:1. This is not a core chapter and I would skip it, except for sections 7-4 to 7-8 dealing with theEuropean Union (EU), The European Free Trade Association, the North American FreeTrade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur).2. I would take two classes to cover the material. Case Studies 7-1 to 7-4 can be used for a very stimulating class discussion.Answers to Problems:1. If Nation A imposes a 100 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will produce commodity X domestically because thedomestic price of commodity X is $10 as compared with the tariff-inclusive price of$16 if Nation A imported commodity X from Nation B and $12 if Nation A importedcommodity X from nation C.2. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodityX from Nation B at the price of $8 instead of producing it itself at $10 or importing itfrom Nation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads to trade creationonly because Nation A replaces the domestic production of commodity X at Px=$10with tariff-free imports of commodity X from Nation B at Px=$8.3. If Nation A imposes a 50 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will import commodity X from nation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $9 instead of producing commodity X itself or importing it fromNation B at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.4. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodityX from Nation B at the price of $8 instead of importing it from Nation C at the tariff- inclusive price of $9.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads not only to tradecreation but also to trade diversion because it replaces lower-cost imports of commodity X of $6 (from the point of view of Nation A as a whole) with higher priced imports of Commodity X from Nation B at $8.Specifically, Nation A's importers do not import commodity X from Nation C becausethe tariff-inclusive price of commodity X from Nation C is $9 as compared with theno-tariff price of $8 for imports of commodity X from Nation B. However, since thegovernment of Nation A collects the $3 tariff per unit on imports of commodity Xfrom Nation C, the net effective price for imports of commodity X from Nation C isreally $6 for Nation A as a whole.-54-5. a. See Figure 1 below.b. The net gain from the trade-diverting customs union shown in Figure 1 is given byC'JJ'+B'HH'-MJ'H'N. As contrasted with the case in Figure 7-1 in the text, however,the sum of the areas of the two triangles (measuring gains) is here greater than the area the rectangle (measuring the loss). Thus, the nation would now gain from the formation of a custom union. Had we drawn the figure on graph paper, we would have been able to measure the net gain in monetary terms also.6. A customs union that leads to both trade creation and trade diversion is more likely to lead to a net positive welfare gain of the nation joining the union (1) the smaller is the relative inefficiency of the union member in relation to the non-union member and (2) the higher is the level of the tariff imposed by the customs union on the non-union member.7. The dynamic benefits resulting from the formation of a customs union are (1) increasedcompetition, (2) economies of scale, (3) stimulus to investment, and (4) better utilizationof economic resources. These are likely to be much more significant than the static benefits.8. See Figure 2 below. The formation of the customs union has no effect.9. NAFTA created much more controversy because the very low wages in Mexico led togreat fears of large job losses in the U. S.10. The possible cost to the U.S. from EU92 arose from the increased efficiency andcompetitiveness of the E.U. The benefit arose because a more rapid growth in the EUspills into a greater demand for American products, which benefits the U. S.Fig 7.1xPFig 7.2xP-55-Multiple-choice Questions:1. Which of the following statements is correct?*a. in a customs union, member nations apply a uniform external tariffb. in a free-trade area, member nations harmonize their monetary and fiscal policiesc. within a customs union there is unrestricted factor movementd. a customs union is a higher form of economic integration than a common market2. A customs union that allows for the free movement of labor and capital among itsmember nations is called a:a. preferential trade arrangementb. free-trade area*c. common marketd. all of the above3. A customs union creates trade when:a. lower-cost imports from outside the customs union are replaced by higher-costimports from a union member*b. some domestic production in a member nation is replaced by lower-cost imports from another member nationc. trade among members increases but trade with nonmembers decreasesd. trade among members decreases while trade with nonmembers increases4. Trade diversion arises in a customs union if it:a. increases trade among union members and with nonmember nationsb. reduces trade among union members and with nonmember nations*c. increases trade among members but reduces trade with non-membersd. reduces trade among union members but increases it with nonmembers5. Customs union usually results in:a. trade diversion onlyb. trade creation only*c. both trade creation and trade diversiond. we cannot say-56-6. The formation of a customs union that leads only to trade creation and all economic resources of member nations are fully employed before and after the formation of the customs union leads to an:*a. increase in the welfare of member and nonmember nationsb. increase in the welfare of member nations onlyc. increase in the welfare of nonmember nations onlyd. increase or decrease in the welfare of member and nonmember nations7. A customs union that leads to both trade creation and trade diversion:a. increases the welfare of member and nonmember nationsb. reduces the welfare of member and nonmember nationsc. increases the welfare of member nations but reduces that of nonmembers*d. reduces the welfare of nonmembers and may increase or reduce that of members8. A customs union is more likely to lead to trade creation:a. the lower are the pre-union trade barriers of the member countries*b. the lower are the customs union's barriers on trade with the rest of the worldc. the smaller is the number of countries forming the customs union and the smallertheir sized. the more complementary rather than competitive are the economies of the nationsforming the customs union9. Which is not a dynamic benefit from the formation of a customs union?a. increased competitionb. economies of scalec. stimulus to investment*d. trade creation10. The formation of the EU resulted in:a. trade creation in industrial and agricultural productsb. trade diversion in industrial and agricultural products*c. trade creation in industrial products and trade diversion in agricultural productsd. trade diversion in industrial products and trade creation in agricultural products11. The benefit that the United States receives from NAFTA:*a. increasing competition in product and resource marketsb. greater technical innovationc. improvements in its terms of traded. all of the above-57-12. The benefit that Mexico is likely to receive from NAFTA:a. greater export-led growthb. encouraging the return of flight capitalc. more rapid structural change*d. all of the above13. Which is a stumbling block to successful economic integration among groups ofdeveloping nations?a. benefits are not evenly distributed among nationsb. many developing nations are not willing to relinquish part of their newly-acquiredsovereignty to a supranational community body, as required for successful economicintegrationc. the complementary nature of their economies and competition for the same worldmarkets for their agricultural exports*d. all of the above14. The formation of a free trade area among the countries of Eastern Europe is advocatedin order to:a. restore trade trading*b. retain the traditional trade links that can be justified on market principlesc. reduce the need for structural changed. none of the above15. The Members of Mercosur are:a. Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, and venezuelab. Argentina, Brazil, the United States and Peru*c. Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguayd. Brazil, Chile, Peru and Canada-58-。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》(第10版)课后习题详解-第18章 开放经济宏观经济学：调整政策【圣才出品】
第18章 开放经济宏观经济学：调整政策一、概念题1．曲线（ curve）BP BP答：曲线是在其他参数变量固定的前提下，以利率为纵坐标，国民收入为横坐标BP表示的国际收支均衡的曲线。
曲线包含三方面含义：①对于曲线上任何一点均代表BP BP国际收支平衡；而在曲线之下或之上的区域内任何一点，与曲线上的均衡点相比，BP BP则表示国际收支处于逆差或顺差状态。
②在通常情况下，曲线向上倾斜，即斜率为正，BP这代表利率与实际国民收入同方向变动。
③国际收支平衡的曲线的形状存在两种极端BP情况：没有资本流动情况下的垂直线和资本完全自由流动下的水平线。
2．直接控制（direct controls）答：直接控制也称直接管制，是指政府直接对国际经济交易进行行政干预，以使国际收支达到平衡的政策措施，包括贸易控制、外汇控制和其他控制。
直接管制通常能起到迅速改善国际收支的效果，能按照本国的不同需要，对进出口贸易和资本流动区别对待。
但是，它并不能真正解决国际收支平衡问题，只是将显性国际收支赤字变为隐性国际收支赤字；一旦取消管制，国际收支赤字仍会重新出现。
此外，实行管制政策，既为国际经济组织所反对，又会引起他国的反抗和报复。
3．外汇控制（exchange controls）答：外汇控制是指一国政府为平衡国际收支和维持本国货币汇率而对外汇进出实行的限制性措施，在中国又称外汇管理。
它是一国政府通过法令对国际结算和外汇买卖进行限制的一种限制进口的国际贸易政策。
外汇控制分为数量控制和成本控制。
前者是指国家外汇管理机构对外汇买卖的数量直接进行限制和分配，通过控制外汇总量达到限制出口的目的；后者是指，国家外汇管理机构对外汇买卖实行复汇率制，利用外汇买卖成本的差异，调节进口商品结构。
4．支出—改变政策（expenditure-changing policies）答：支出—改变政策是指政府通过财政政策来改变经济中对商品和劳务的总需求水平，从而实现内外均衡的政策。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(国际货币体系：过去、现在与未来)【圣才出品】
第21章国际货币体系：过去、现在与未来一、概念题1．调整（adjustment）答：调整是评价国际货币体系好坏的标准之一，是指国际货币体系纠正国际收支失衡的过程。
一个好的国际货币体系应该使调整成本和所需时间最小。
2．善意忽视（benign neglect）答：善意忽视是指在浮动汇率制度中，货币当局对汇率采取的一种相对放任的态度，较少地对外汇市场进行干预，而由货币本身价值的变化自动调节国际收支状况。
3．布雷顿森林体系（Bretton Woods System）答：布雷顿森林体系是第二次世界大战即将结束时创立的国际货币体系。
该体系是根据《国际货币基金协定》创立的。
主要特点是：规定美元与黄金挂钩，确认美国1934年1月规定的1美元含金量为0.888671克，即35美元＝1盎司黄金；规定其他各国货币按含金量同美元挂钩；市场汇率的波动幅度若超过平价上下1%，各国政府有义务进行市场干预；平价变动幅度如超过10%时则须得到国际货币基金组织的同意，由此形成了固定汇率制度，促进了国际贸易与金融关系的发展。
20世纪60年代频繁爆发的美元危机削弱了布雷顿森林体系，并迫使美国政府于1971年8月15日宣布停止美元兑换黄金。
1973年3月起，主要西方国家相继实行浮动汇率制，布雷顿森林体系正式宣告瓦解。
4．可靠性（confidence）答：可靠性是评价国际货币体系好坏的标准之一，是指国际货币体系调节机制具有正常运行的自动机制，能够保持国际储备的绝对价值和相对价值。
5．信用份额（credit tranches）答：信用份额是指国际货币基金组织为其成员国提供不受任何限制或附加条件约束的贷款的额度。
一般来说，一个成员国一年内的借款不得超过其配额的25%，每5年的借款总额不得超过其配额的125%，在此范围内，这些借款可自动获得。
当一国的借款超过所设定的信用份额时，国际货币基金组织就要收取越来越高的利息，而且进行越来越严格的监督，附加越来越多的条件，以确保该逆差国正在采取正确的措施以消除其赤字。
萨尔瓦多国际经济学第三章课后练习题答案
1.在一个坐标系内，画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线:（1）从生产可能性曲线的中点开始用箭头表示该国在生产更多X(横轴表示的商品)和更多Y时所发生的机会成本递增情况。
（2）当生产更多的X时，生产可能性曲线的斜率如何变化?生产更多的Y呢?这种变化反映了什么?答：（1）图1 生产可能性曲线（3）如上图所示，当生产更多的X时，生产可能性曲线的斜率变大；当生产更多的Y时，生产可能性曲线的斜率变大。
原因是当该国生产更多的X或Y时，机会成本会变大。
2.在另一个坐标系内，画三条社会无差异曲线,并令最高的两条相交:(1) 社会无差异曲线为什么向下倾斜,或者说斜率为负?(2)曲线的斜率代表什么?为什么每条无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小?(3)考虑相交的两条无差异曲线，是在交点右边的还是在交点左边的曲线表示的满足程度较高?为什么和无差异曲线的定义不一致?你可以得出什么结论?答：图2 社会无差异曲线（1）社会无差异曲线之所以会向下倾斜是因为为了维持社会福利水平不变，随着X商品消费的增加必须减少Y的消费。
（2）曲线的斜率代表一国在保持处在同一条无差异曲线的前提下，多消费一单位x而必须少消费Y的数量。
一国消费X越多，则其消费Y越少。
对该国来说，一单位Y的效用会逐渐增大。
因此，该国每多消费一单位X，只会放弃越来越少的Y商品。
所以，无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小。
（3）无差异曲线的定义表明每条无差异曲线意味着一个给定的满足程度，无差异曲线互不相交。
无差异曲线II显示了比交点右边更高的满足程度，无差异曲线II显示了比交点左边更高的满足程度。
因此，这个图是不合理。
3.在一个坐标系内，画一条生产可能性曲线，再画一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较平坦的地方，在另一个坐标系内，面另一条生产可能性曲线,再画另一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较陡直的地方。
(1)画一条表示各国孤立均衡相对价格的直线。
(2)各国具有比较优势的商品分别是什么?(3)在什么(极端)情况下，两国之间不存在比较优势或比较劣势?答：国家1 国家2图3 孤立均衡（1）如图3所示，P A和P A’是两国在孤立均衡情况下的价格。
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题萨尔瓦多
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题萨尔瓦多国际经济学视角下的萨尔瓦多在国际经济学的广袤领域中，萨尔瓦多作为一个中美洲的国家，具有独特的经济特征和在全球经济格局中的地位。
萨尔瓦多的经济发展历程充满了挑战与机遇。
从传统的农业经济为主，逐渐向多元化的经济结构转变。
农业曾经是其经济的支柱，咖啡、棉花等农产品在国际市场上有一定的份额。
然而，随着时间的推移，萨尔瓦多开始注重发展制造业和服务业，以减少对农业的依赖。
在国际贸易方面，萨尔瓦多面临着诸多问题。
其出口产品相对单一，缺乏高附加值的商品。
这使得萨尔瓦多在国际贸易中处于相对弱势的地位，容易受到国际市场波动和贸易保护主义的影响。
同时，萨尔瓦多的贸易伙伴相对集中，主要是美国和中美洲的一些邻国。
这种贸易结构的单一性增加了经济的风险。
在国际金融领域，萨尔瓦多的货币汇率波动对其经济稳定产生了一定的影响。
萨尔瓦多曾经长期使用美元作为法定货币，这在一定程度上稳定了金融市场，但也削弱了本国货币政策的自主性。
此外，国际资本的流动对萨尔瓦多的金融市场也带来了冲击，尤其是在全球金融危机期间，外资的撤离给其经济造成了不小的压力。
从国际投资的角度来看，萨尔瓦多在吸引外资方面做出了不少努力。
政府出台了一系列优惠政策，试图吸引更多的外国直接投资。
然而，由于基础设施不完善、劳动力素质有待提高等因素，萨尔瓦多在吸引大规模、高质量的外资方面仍面临困难。
萨尔瓦多的经济还受到国际经济环境变化的深刻影响。
例如，全球经济增长放缓会导致对萨尔瓦多出口商品的需求减少，从而影响其经济增长。
而国际原材料价格的波动也会对萨尔瓦多的相关产业造成冲击。
在区域经济合作中，萨尔瓦多积极参与中美洲一体化体系等区域组织，试图通过加强区域内的贸易和投资合作来促进自身经济发展。
然而，区域内各国经济发展水平参差不齐，合作机制也存在一些不完善之处，这在一定程度上限制了区域合作对萨尔瓦多经济的推动作用。
为了实现经济的可持续发展，萨尔瓦多需要在多个方面采取措施。
国际经济学第十版课后标准答案-(萨尔瓦多、杨冰译)
国际经济学第十版课后答案-(萨尔瓦多、杨冰译)————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著)P16页练习题6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。
（2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。
7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。
（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。
8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。
而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。
（2）它们在哪方面相似？答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。
10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益，那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制？答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格，这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利，挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额。
ch06 国际经济学课后答案与习题(萨尔瓦多)
*CHAPTER6Chapter) (Core NONTARIFF TRADE BARRIERS AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PROTETIONISM OUTLINE6.1 Introduction6.2 Import Quotas6.3 Other Nontariff Trade BarriersCase Study 6-1 Voluntary Export Restraints on Japanese Automobiles to the United States6.4 Dumping and Export SubsidiesCase Study 6-2 Antidumping Measures in Force in 2002Case Study 6-3 Agricultural Subsidies in Developed NationsCase Study 6-4 Pervasiveness of Nontariff Barriers6.5 The Political Economy of Protectionism6.6 Strategic Trade and Industrial PoliciesCase Study 6-5 Economic Effects on the U.S. Economy from Removing all Import Restraints6.7 History of U.S. Commercial Policy6.8 The Uruguay RoundCase Study 6-6 The Multilateral Rounds of Trade Negotiations6.9 Outstanding Trade Problems and the Doha RoundAppendix: Strategic Trade and Industrial Policies with Game TheoryKey Termsprinciple Most-favored-nationQuotaNontariff trade barriers (NTBs) Bilateral tradeprotectionism General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) NewVoluntary export restraints (VERs) Multilateral trade negotiationsTechnical, administrative, and other regulations Peril-point provisionsclausecartel EscapeInternationalclauseDumping NationalsecurityPersistent dumping Trade Expansion Act of 1962Trade adjustment assistance (TAP)Predatorydumpingdumping KennedyRoundSporadicTrigger-price mechanism Trade Reform Act of 1974RoundExportsubsidies TokyoExport-Import Bank Trade and Tariff Act of 1984Foreign Sales Corporations Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988UruguayRound(CVDs)dutiesCountervailingOrganization(WTO)TradeWorldScientifictariffpromotion authority or fast trackInfant-industryargument TradepolicyRoundDohatradeStrategicmovement policy AntiglobalizationIndustrialtheoryAct GameSmoot–HawleyTariffTrade Agreements Act of 1934-43-Lecture Guide:1. This is an important core chapter examining some of the most recent developments ininternational trade policy.2. I would cover sections 1-3 in lecture 1. I would pay particular attention to Figure 6-1,which examines the partial equilibrium effects of an import quota. I would also clearlyexplain the difference between a regular import quota and a voluntary export restraint.3. I would cover sections 4 and 5 in lecture 2. I would also clearly explain the meaningand importance of dumping and export subsidies, as well as the political economy ofprotectionism. The four case studies serve to highlight the theory and show the relevance of the theory in today's world.4. The rest of the chapter can be covered in lecture 3. Strategic trade and industrial policies, thehistory of U.S. commercial policy, and the outstaying trade problems and the collapse of the Doha Round of trade negotiations in September 2003 should not be difficult to explain and can lead to a great deal of interesting class discussion.Answer to Problems:1. a. An import quota will increase the price of the product to domestic consumers, reduce the domestic consumption of the good, increase domestic production, and result in a protection or deadweight loss to the economy.b. The effects of an import quota are identical to those of an equivalent import tariff, except that with a quota the government does not collect a tariff revenue (unless it auctions offimport quotas to the highest bidder). The import quota is also more restrictive than anequivalent import tariff because foreign producers cannot increase their exports bylowering their prices.2. By penciling in D”X in Figure 1, we can see that the effects of the import quota are:P x=$2.00 and consumption is 60X, of which 40X are produced domestically and 20X areimported; by auctioning off import licenses, the revenue effect would be $20.3. The effects of an export quota of 20X are identical to those of an import quota of 20X or a100 percent import tariff on commodity X, except that the revenue effect is collected by the exporters, rather than by the domestic importers or their government.4. a. An international cartel is an organization of suppliers of a commodity located in different nations (or it is a group of governments) that agrees to restrict output and the exports of the commodity with the aim of maximizing or increasing the total profits of its members.Although domestic cartels are illegal in the United States and are restricted in Europe, the power of international cartels cannot easily be countered because they do not fall under the jurisdiction of any one nation.b. The most notorious of present-day international cartels is OPEC (Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries), which, by restricting production and exports, succeeded in quadrupling the price of crude oil between 1973 and 1974. The economic power ofOPEC declined during the 1980s and 1990s when many other nations (such as Russia,Mexico, Norway, the United Kingdom) encouraged by the sharp increase in prices started to extract and export petroleum.5. a. Dumping refers to the export of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price than thecommodity is sold domestically.b. Dumping is classified as persistent, predatory, and sporadic. Persistent dumping, orinternational price discrimination, refers to the continuous sale of the commodity at ahigher price in the domestic market than internationally . The incentive for persistentdumping is the higher profits it provides to domestic producers.Predatory dumping is the temporary sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower priceabroad than at home in order to drive foreign producers out of business, after which prices are raised to maximize profits. Sporadic dumping is the occasional sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price abroad than domestically in order to unload an unforeseenand temporary surplus of the commodity without having to reduce domestic prices.c. Dumping usually leads to trade restrictions as nations try to protect domestic producersfrom “unfair” foreign competition, even when the dumping is persistent and sporadic.6. a. One fallacious argument is that trade restrictions are needed to protect domestic laboragainst cheap foreign labor. This argument is not valid because even if domestic wagesare higher than wages abroad, domestic labor costs can still be lower if the productivity of labor is sufficiently higher domestically than abroad. If not, expensive-labor nations canstill specialize in the production and export capital- and technology-intensive commodities.b. Another fallacious argument for protection is the scientific tariff. This is the tariff rate that would make the price of imports equal to domestic prices and (so the argument goes) allow domestic producers to meet foreign competition. However, this would eliminate internatio- nal price differences and trade in commodities subject to such “scientific” tariffs.7. a. The infant-industry argument postulates that temporary protection may be justified in order to allow a developing nation to develop an industry in which it has a potential comparative advantage. Temporary trade protection is then justified to establish and protect the domestic industry during its “infancy” until it can grow and meet foreign competition. For thisargument to be valid, however, protection must be temporary and the return in the grown-up industry must be sufficiently high to also offset the higher prices paid by domesticconsumers of the commodity during the period of infancy.b. The infant-industry argument must be qualified in several important ways to be acceptable. First, this argument is more justified for developing nations (where capital markets maynot function properly) than for industrial nations. Second, it is usually difficult to identifywhich industry or potential industry qualifies for this treatment, and experience has shown that protection, once given, is difficult to remove. Third, and most important, what tradeprotection (say in the form of an import tariff) can do, an equivalent production subsidy to the infant industry can do better.8. a. According to strategic industrial trade policy a nation can create a comparative advantage(through temporary trade protection, subsidies, tax benefits, and cooperative government– industry programs) in a high-technology field deemed crucial to future growth in the nation.b. There are also serious difficulties in carrying strategic industrial and trade policies. First, itis extremely difficult to pick winners (i.e., choose the industries that will contribute significantly to growth in the future). Second, if most leading nations undertake strategic trade policies at the same time, their efforts are largely neutralized. Third, when a country does achieve substantial success with a strategic trade policy, this comes at the expense of other countries (i.e., it is a beggar-thy-neighbor policy), which are, therefore, likely to retaliate. Faced with all these practical difficulties, even supporters of strategic trade policy grudgingly acknowledge that free trade is still the best policy, after all.9. a. The main provisions of the Uruguay Round were the reduction of average tariffs onindustrial goods from 4.7 percent to 3 percent, for quotas to be replaced by tariffs, and for antidumping and safeguards to be tightened. The agreement also called for the reduction in agricultural export subsidies and industrial subsidies, and for the protection of intellectual property.b. When fully implemented by 2005, the Uruguay Round is estimated to increase world tradeby about 20 percent (with one quarter of the increase in trade in manufactures and the rest in agriculture) and generate total gains in world income of $349 billion ($164 billion from liberalizing trade in agriculture, $130 billion from manufactures and $55 billion fromservices), with developing countries receiving 42 percent of the total gains (mostly fromliberalization of trade in manufactures), which is roughly double their share of world GDP.10. a. The major trade problems facing the world today are (1) the serious trade disputes amongthe United States, the European Union, and Japan; (2) the high trade protectionism, especially in agriculture and textiles, which are of great importance to developing countries, and the abuse antidumping and safeguards; (3) the breaking up of the world into a few major trading blocks, and a serious anti-globalization movement that has come into existence.b. The Doha Round is needed to take up all of the above problems. However, as of the endof 2003 no negotiating agenda had been decided primarily because of disagreements on agricultural protectionism between developing and developed countries.-46-Multiple-choice Questions:1. An import quota:a. increases the domestic price of the imported commodityb. reduces domestic consumptionc. increases domestic production*d. all of the above2. An increase in the demand of the imported commodity subject to a given import quota:a. reduces the domestic quantity demanded of the commodity*b. increases the domestic production of the commodityc. reduces the domestic price of the commodityd. reduces the producers' surplus3. Adjustment to any shift in the domestic demand or supply of an importable commodityoccurs:a. in domestic price with an import quotab. in the quantity of imports with a tariffc. through the market mechanism with an import tariff but not with an import quota*d. all of the above4. An international cartel refers to:a. dumping*b. an organization of exportersc. an international commodity agreementd. voluntary export restraints5. The temporary sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price abroad in order todrive foreign producers out of business is called:*a. predatory dumpingb. sporadic dumpingc. continuous dumpingd. voluntary export restraints6. The type of dumping which would justify antidumping measures by the country subjectto the dumping is:*a. predatory dumpingb. sporadic dumpingc. continuous dumpingd. all of the above7. A fallacious argument for protection is:a. the infant industry argumentb. protection for national defense*c. the scientific tariffd. to correct domestic distortions8. Which of the following is true with respect to the infant-industry argument for protection:a. it refers to temporary protection to establish a domestic industryb. to be valid, the return to the grown-up industry must be sufficiently high also to repayfor the higher prices paid by domestic consumers of the commodity during the infancyperiodc. is inferior to an equivalent production subsidy to the infant industry*d. all of the above9. Which of the following is false with respect to strategic trade policy?a. it postulates that a nation can gain by an activist trade policy*b. it is practiced to some extent by most industrial nationsc. it can easily be carried outd. all of the above10. Industrial policy refers to:a. an activist policy by the government of an industrial country to stimulate thedevelopment of an industryb. the granting of a subsidy to a domestic industry to stimulate the development of anindustryc. the granting of a subsidy to a domestic industry to counter a foreign subsidy*d. all of the above11. Trade protection in the United States is usually provided to:a. low-wage workersb. well-organized industries with large employmentc. industries producing consumer products*d. all of the above12. The most-favored-nation principle refers to:*a. extension to all trade partners of any reciprocal tariff reduction negotiated by theU.S. with any of its trade partnersb. multilateral trade negotiationc. the General Agreement on Tariffs and Traded. the International Trade Organization13. On which of the following principles does GATT rest?a. nondiscriminationb. elimination of nontariff barriersc. consultation among nations in solving trade disputes*d. all of the above14. Which of the following was not negotiated under the Uruguay Round?a. reduction of tariffs on industrial goodsb. replacement of quotas with tariffsc. reduction of subsidies on industrial products and on agricultural exports *d. liberalization in trade in most services15. Game theory refers to:*a. a method of choosing the optimal strategy in conflict situationsb. the granting of a subsidy to correct a domestic distortionc. the theory of tariff protectiond. none of the aboveADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART TWO1. From the following figure, in which Dc and Sc refer, respectively to the domesticdemand and supply curves of cloth, and S F and S F+T refer, respectively, to the worldsupply curve of cloth under free trade and with a 50% import tariff imposed by the nation on the importation of cloth, determine:P CFig 6.1(a) the consumption, production effect, and the trade effect of the tariff.(b) the reduction in consumer surplus, the increase in producer surplus or rent, the tariff revenue, and the protection cost or deadweight loss to the economy as a result of the tariff.Answ. (a) The consumption effect is equal to BR=-20c;the production effect is equal to GN=20C;therefore, the trade effect is equal to -(BR+GN)=-40c.(b) The reduction in consumer surplus is FJHB=$90;the increase in producer surplus is FJMG=$30;the revenue effect is NMHR=$40;the protection cost or deadweight loss to the economy is equal to the sum of the area of triangles GMN and BHR or $20.2. (a) Explain why and under what conditions the infant-industry argument for an importtariff is valid.(b) How must this argument be qualified?Answ. (a) The infant-industry argument for tariffs is generally valid, especially for less developed countries (LDCs). It holds that an LDC may have a potential comparative advantage in a particular commodity, say textiles, but that because its initial production costs are too high (due to lack of know-how and the initial small level of output), this industry cannot be established or grow in the LDC in the face of foreign competition. An import tariff is then justified to help the LDC establish the industry and protect it during its "infancy," until the industry has grown in size and efficiency and is able to meet foreigncompetition. At that time, the tariff is to be removed.(b) In order for the infant-industry argument to be valid, not only must the tariff eventuallybe removed and the "grown up" industry be able to compete with foreign firms without protection, but the extra return in the industry (after the removal of the protection) must be high enough to justify the costs involved during the period of protection. These costs arise because the commodity is produced domestically rather than imported for less. It may also be difficult a priori to determine which industry or potential industry qualifies for this treatment, and to eventually remove the tariff once it is imposed. Economistsalso agree that what a tariff can do here, a direct subsidy to the infant industry can dobetter. This is because a subsidy can be varied so as to provide the infant industry with the same degree of protection as an equivalent import tariff but without distortingrelative prices and domestic consumption. However, a subsidy requires revenue, rather than generating it as the tariff does.-51-3. (a) How can strategic trade policy justify trade protection?(b) What difficulties arise in carrying out a strategic trade policy?Answ. (a) According to strategic trade policy, a nation can create a comparative advantage through temporary trade protection in such fields as semiconductors, computers, telecommunica- tions, and other industries that are deemed crucial to future growth in the nation. These high-technology industries are subject to high risks, require large-scale production toachieve economies of scale and give rise to extensive external economies whensuccessful. Strategic trade policy suggests that by encouraging such industries, thenation can enhance its future growth prospects. This is similar to the infant-industryargument in developing nations, except that it is advanced for industrial nations toacquire a comparative advantage in crucial high-technology industries. Most nationsdo some of this. Indeed, some economists would go so far as to say that a great dealof the postwar industrial and technological success of Japan is due to its strategicindustrial and trade policies.(b) There are three serious difficulties in carrying out strategic trade policy. First,it is extremely difficult to pick winners (i.e., choose the industries that will providelarge external economies in the future) and devise appropriate policies to successfullynurture them. Second, since most leading nations undertake strategic trade policies atthe same time, their efforts are largely neutralized so that the potential benefits to each may be small. Third, when a country does achieve substantial success with strategictrade policy, this comes at the expense of other countries (i.e., it is a beggar-thy-neighbor policy) and so other countries are likely to retaliate. Faced with all thesepractical difficulties, even supporters of strategic trade policy grudgingly acknowledge that free trade is still the best policy, after all.-52-。
国际经济学第版课后答案萨尔瓦多杨冰译
国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著) P16页练习题6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。
（2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。
7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。
（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。
8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。
而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。
（2）它们在哪方面相似？答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。
10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益，那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制？答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格，这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利，挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额。
通常在这种情况下，本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单，并且向政府提议限制进口。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(国际贸易的标准理论)【圣才出品】
第3章国际贸易的标准理论一、概念题1．自给自足（autarky）答：自给自足特指在经济上完全依靠自己的力量来满足各种需要，而不与外部世界发生任何贸易关系。
在工业社会以前，大部分国家都处于自给自足的状态，经济发展落后，彼此间交流沟通很少。
这种情况的自给自足是狭隘的，因为本国的生产要素使用没有达到最优状态，且人民物质生活比较贫乏。
当前，随着经济的发展，有些国家由于要素禀赋的充裕以及技术的革新，有些产品生产上已经实现了自给自足。
2．社会无差异曲线（community indifference curve）答：社会无差异曲线是表明一个国家或经济体保持等量的国民消费水平或福利水平的两种商品的各种消费量组合点的轨迹。
或者说，它是显示社会福利水平为一常数的各种消费选择。
每一条社会无差异曲线都代表一定的社会效用水平，曲线上的每一点的斜率表示社会对两种商品的边际替代率；较高的曲线反映较高的满足程度，较低的曲线反映较低的满足程度。
社会无差异曲线凸向原点，斜率为负，而且互不相交。
3．去工业化（deindustrialization）答：去工业化又称为非工业化、逆工业化，指制造业就业比重持续下降。
它有两个主要特点：制造业发展停滞；制造业大规模裁员，就业从第二产业转向服务行业，制造业就业比重急剧下降。
去工业化现象最早始于美国。
一般来说，去工业化现象是出现在一些大城市地区以及那些以资源为基础、传统的衰退产业相对集中的老工业基地。
这主要是因为：①大城市地区土地租金和工资等生产成本较高，劳动和环境保护意识较强，加上市中心区生活和环境质量的下降，导致企业家把制造工厂由发达国家大城市迁移到中小城镇和农村地区，甚至迁移到国外。
②由于资源的枯竭和生产成本的上升，工业发达国家的一些传统产业如钢铁、造船、工程机械和纺织等，逐步走向衰退。
这些衰退产业主要集中在一些老工业基地，由此导致这些地区制造业出现严重的下降。
③随着技术发展，企业可以把生产过程的某些部分，尤其是劳动密集型的加工装配环节，分散到国外工资成本相对低廉的地区，而发展中国家提供的各种优惠政策又加剧了这种趋势。
国际经济学第十版课后答案(萨尔瓦多、杨冰译)
国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著)P16页练习题6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。
（2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。
7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。
（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。
8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。
而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。
（2）它们在哪方面相似？答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。
10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益，那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制？答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格，这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利，挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额。
通常在这种情况下，本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单，并且向政府提议限制进口。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(外汇市场与汇率)【圣才出品】
第14章外汇市场与汇率一、概念题1．升值（appreciation）答：升值是指单位货币所含有的价值或所代表的价值的上升，又称“货币增值”“通货升值”，是“货币贬值”的对称。
货币升值可以从不同角度来理解：从国内角度看，在金属货币制度下，货币升值是指增加本国货币的法定含金属量，提高其对金属的比价，以提高本国货币价值的措施；在现代纸币制度下，它是指当流通中的纸币数量低于所需要的货币需要量即通货紧缩时，纸币价值上升。
从国际角度看，货币价值表示为与外国货币的兑换能力，具体表现为汇率的变动。
这时，货币升值是指一单位本国货币兑换外国货币能力的提高，即本国货币对外汇价的提高。
2．套利（arbitrage）答：套利是指在期货市场上，在买入（或卖出）某种期货合约的同时，卖出（或买入）相关的另一种期货合约，以期在有利时机同时将这两种期货合约平仓，以获取差价收益的交易行为。
套利一般可分为三类：跨期套利、跨市套利和跨商品套利。
跨期套利是套利交易中最普遍的一种，是利用同一商品在不同交割月份之间正常价格差出现异常变化时进行对冲而获利的一种套利方式，可分为牛市套利和熊市套利。
跨市套利是在不同交易所之间的套利交易行为。
当同一期货商品合约在两个或更多的交易所进行交易时，由于区域间的地理差别，各商品合约间存在一定的价差关系，从而为交易者的跨市套利提供了机会。
在做跨市套利时应注意影响各市场价格差的几个因素，如运费、关税、汇率等。
跨商品套利指的是利用两种不同、但相关联商品之间的价差进行交易。
这两种商品之间具有相互替代性或受同一供求因素制约。
跨商品套利的交易形式是同时买进和卖出相同交割月份但不同种类的商品期货合约。
3．抛补套利（covered interest arbitrage）答：抛补套利是指套利者在把资金从甲地调往乙地以获取较高利息的同时，还在外汇市场上卖出远期的乙国货币以防止风险。
它是一种套利与掉期相结合的一种交易，通过这种交易既可以获得利率差额的好处，同时又可以获得较高的利息收入，但是要付出一笔掉期成本。
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题萨尔瓦多
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题萨尔瓦多萨尔瓦多：国际经济学课后答案与习题第一章介绍国际经济学1. 概念与定义国际经济学是研究国际贸易、国际金融和国际投资等国际经济关系的学科。
它主要研究不同国家之间的贸易、资金流动和其他经济交往，探讨国际经济活动的原因、影响因素和政策措施。
2. 国际经济学的重要性国际经济学旨在帮助人们更好地理解国际经济交往的现象和规律，为国家、企业和个人提供参考依据。
它能揭示经济全球化的趋势、国际贸易的利益和风险，并提供决策者制定政策的理论支持。
第二章国际贸易1. 比较优势理论比较优势理论由大卫·里卡多提出，它认为国家应专注于生产自己具有比较优势的商品，然后通过国际贸易以获取其他商品。
这个理论说明了国际贸易的潜在益处。
2. 绝对优势与比较优势绝对优势是指某个国家在生产某种商品上的效率高于其他国家，而比较优势则是指某个国家在生产某种商品上的机会成本低于其他国家。
比较优势是基于机会成本而产生的。
第三章国际金融1. 汇率与汇率制度汇率是一种货币兑换为另一种货币的比率。
汇率制度是指国家对其货币与其他货币之间的兑换比率进行管理和调整的体系。
汇率制度根据不同的货币政策和国家经济状况而有所不同，如固定汇率制和浮动汇率制等。
2. 随机汇率与管理型汇率制度随机汇率是由市场力量决定的汇率，在市场上自由浮动。
管理型汇率制度是由政府或央行干预市场来控制或影响汇率的变动。
第四章国际投资1. 直接投资与证券投资直接投资是指投资者通过购买或建立企业、工厂或设施等方式，在境外进行经济活动。
证券投资则是指投资者通过购买股票、债券或其他金融资产来获得收益。
2. 外国企业与政府投资外国企业可以通过直接投资的方式，在其他国家建立子公司或扩大在其它国家的经营规模。
政府投资则是指政府通过直接投资的方式，参与国际投资活动，以增加国家的影响力和经济实力。
结语国际经济学是一门重要的学科，它帮助我们理解国际经济交往的规律，为决策者制定政策提供理论支持。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著)P16页练习题6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。
（2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。
7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。
（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。
8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。
而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。
（2）它们在哪方面相似？答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。
110．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益，那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制？答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格，这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利，挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额。
通常在这种情况下，本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单，并且向政府提议限制进口。
而由于消费者很多,平均每个消费者只有非常小的进口商品利益，政府就会根据生产商的要求，施加一些进口限制。
第二章比较优势原理P45页练习题1.表2.5列出了在4中假定下，英美两国1劳动小时可生产的小麦与布匹的数量。
支出每种情况下，美、英两国具有绝对优势或劣势的商品。
答：在A情形下，美国具有绝对优势的商品是小麦；英国具有绝对优势的商品是布匹；在B情形下，美国在小麦和布匹都有绝对优势；在C情形下，美国在小麦和布匹生产商都具有绝对优势，而英国在这两种商品的生产中都不具有绝对优势；在D情形下，美国在小麦、布匹这两种商品具有的绝对优势都比英国明显。
2.指出表2.5中每个国家有比较优势与比较劣势的商品。
答：在A情形下，美国具有相对优势的商品是小麦；英国在布匹生产上具有相对优势；在B情形下，美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在C情形下，美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在D情形下，美国、英国在小麦、布匹这两种商品生产上没有相对优势。
3.指出表2.5中每种情况下，贸易的可能性贸易基础。
答：在A情形下，贸易的可能性贸易基础是绝对优势；在B情形下，贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在C情形下，贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在D情形下，没有贸易的可能性，因为美国在这两种商品的生产上都比英国具有绝对优势。
34. 假设在表2.5中的B 情况下，美国用4单位小麦与英国用的4单位布交换： （1） 美国获利多少？ （2） 英国获利多少？ （3） 互惠贸易的范围有多大？（4） 如果改用4单位小麦与6单位布交换，两国分别获利多少？ 答：（1）美国获利1C （2）英国获利3C （3） 3C<4W<8C（4）美国获利3C,而英国获利1w 。
5. 表2.5中的B 情况下，假设劳动是唯一生产要素而且是同质的（即只有一种类型）：（1） 用劳动测度，美、英两国生产小麦和布的成本是多少 （2） 如果工资率为6美元，则小麦和布在美国的价格是多少？ （3） 如果工资率为1英镑，则小麦和布在英国的价格是多少？答：(1)在劳动测度下，生产小麦的成本在美国是1/4，在英国为1；而生产布匹的成本在美国是1/3，在英国为1/2.(2)在美国，小麦的价格w P =1.5美元，而布匹的价格c P =2.00美元； （3）在英国，小麦的价格w P =1.00英镑，而布匹的价格c P =0.50英镑； 6. 参考第5题回答：（1） 若美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元，则小麦与布在英国的美元价格是多少？在此汇率下，美国会想英国出口小麦吗？在此汇率下，英国会想美国出口布吗？（2） 当汇率是1英镑=4美元时情况如何？ （3） 当汇率是1英镑=1美元时又如何？（4） 允许美国向英国出口小麦和允许英国向美国出口布的汇率范围是多少？ 答：（1）在英国，当美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元时，美国会出口小麦到英国，而英国会出口布匹到美国；（2）当汇率是1英镑=4美元时，在英国：$4.00w P =，$2.00c P =，因此美国会出口小麦到英国，而英国不会出口布匹到美国。
（3）当汇率是1英镑=1美元时，在英国，$1.00,$0.50w c P P ==，因此英国会都出口小麦、布匹这两种商品到美国。
（4）$1.50￡1.00$4.00<<7. 假设表2.5中B 情形的数据单位是百万蒲尔式小麦和百万码布：（1） 画出英美两国的生产可能线（2） 美、英两国的小麦相对价格为多少（即c /w P P ）？ （3） 美、英两国的布匹相对价格为多少（即/c w P P ）？ 答：（1）（2）小麦相对价格：在美国，w /3/4c P P =，在英国w /2c P P =； （3）布匹相对价格：在美国，w /4/3c P P =，在英国w /1/2c P P =。
9.（1）如果图2.3左图中的w()US UK D +向上移1/3，则小麦的均衡价格是多少？此时，美、英国生产多少单位小麦和布？5（2）（1）中的答案对右图的()c US UK D +意味着什么？答：（1）此时小麦的均衡价格会从1/3上升到w /4/3c P P =；因为更高的w()US UK D +会和()W US UK S +曲线交叉，美国会继续专门生产小麦180W ，而英国会继续专门生产布匹120C.（2）由于布匹的均衡价格是小麦的均衡价格的倒数，所以如果小麦的均衡价格是4/3,则布匹的均衡价格是3/4.这就意味着图2.3中右图的()C US UK D +将会向右下移1/3。
11.画一张与图2.2类似的图，表明英国现在是一个小国，为图2.2中右图所示的一半，并在c /w P P =2/3时用20单位布与美国的30单位小麦交换。
第三章国际贸易的标准理论P66页 练习题1. 在一个坐标系中，画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线（1） 从生产可能性曲线的中点开始，用箭头表示该国在生产更多X （纵轴表示的商品）和更多Y 时所发生的机会成本递增情况。
（2） 当生产更多的X 时，生产可能性曲线的斜率如何变化？生产更多的Y 呢？这种变化反映了什么？答：（1）（2）当生产更多的X时，则Y 的产量将减少，生产可能性曲线的斜率会增大。
当生产更多的Y时，X的产量也会减少。
这种变化反映了随着生产更多的X或者Y，机会成本是递增的，即：一个国家每多生产以单位该种商品，就必须放弃越来越多的另一种商品的生产以提高足够的资源。
2.在另一个坐标系中，画出三条社会无差异曲线，并令最高两条相交：（1）社会无差异曲线为什么向下倾斜，或者说斜率为负？（2）曲线的斜率代表什么？为什么每条无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小呢？（3）考虑相交的两条无差异曲线，在交点右边的那一条曲线表示的满意程度较高吗？在交点左边呢？为什么和无差异曲线的定义不一致？你可以得出什么结论？答：（1）社会无差异曲线向下倾斜是因为：在无差异曲线上，当消费者购买更多的X时，他们会放弃部分Y。
（2）曲线的斜率代表社会或国家在获得相同的满足程度下，多消费一单位X的同时，必须减少Y 的消费量。
无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小是因为：随着X的增大，Y减小，则从一单位的X得到的满足程度降低，而从一单位Y所得到的满足程度将增大。
（3）当在交点在右边时，满意程度：C>B；当交点在左边是：B>C。
这种不一致是因为无差异曲线反映的是一个给定的满足程度的两种商品的不同组合，因此无差异曲线不能相交。
、而一组特定的无差异曲线拜师的是一国国内一种特定的收入分配，一种不同的收入分配会导致一组全新的无差异曲线，而它很可能与先前的无差异曲线相交。
例如一国开始贸易或扩大外贸规模时，无差异曲线的相交就会发生。
3.在一个坐标系内，画一条生产可能性曲线，再画一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较平坦的地方；在另一个坐标系内，画另一条生产可能性曲线，再画另一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较陡直的地方。
（1）画一条表示各国在孤立情形下的均衡想多商品价格的直线。
（2）各国具有比较优势的商品分别是什么？（3）在什么情况下，两国之间不存在比较优势或比较劣势？答：（1）（2）国家1在商品X上具有比较优势，而国家2在Y商品具有比较优势。
（3）当两国的这两种商品的相对价格线具有相同的斜率时，两国不存在比较优势。
74．（1）在第3题图中，用箭头表示在贸易条件下各国专业化生产的方向，标出各国均衡的产量和消费（2）各国相对自给自足状态有什么额外所得？哪个国家所得更多？为什么？ 答：（1）（2）对于国家1，在E 点到A 点的右上方获利，而国家2从E '超过A '获利。
国家1将从贸易中获得额外所得，因为X 的相对价格比贸易前差别更大。
5.在一个坐标系内，画出国家1对于X 的出口供给曲线，/X Y P P =1/4，X 的共给量X QS =0；/X Y P P =1/2时，X QS =40；/X Y P P =1时，X QS =60；/X Y P P =112时，X QS =70.在同一坐标系内，画出国家2对于国家1出口商品X 的需求曲线。
/X Y P P =112时，对X 的需求X QD =40;/X Y P P =1时,X QD =60;/X Y P P =1/2时,X QD =120.（1）确定出口X 的贸易均衡的相对商品价格。
（2）如果/X Y P P =112，会发生什么？9（3）如果/X Y P P =1/2，又会发生什么？ 答：（1）S 是国家1的出口商品X 的供给曲线，而D 是国家2的出口商品X 的需求曲线，而需求和供给曲线在E 点相交，决定了X 的出口贸易均衡的相对价格为/B X Y P P P ==1，和均衡出口量是60X 。