语言学复习重点第一章

合集下载

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。

虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。

一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。

2．二重性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。

4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

语言学概论(第一章)

比语言来得更好。言为心声，语言的表达效果离不开使用者、使用环境等。
二、语言的思维功能
语言和思维的关系 1.什么是思维
形象思维---抽象思维苹果的例子
2.其他学科对思维的研究
无论是传统的哲学、逻辑学对思维的研究，还是现代科学对思维的探索，语言都始终是不可或缺的要素。
语言是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维成果的贮存所。语言和思维密不可分，语言的思维功能是语言的基本属性。
汉语：红、橙、黄、绿、青、蓝、紫英语：purple, blue, green, yellow, orange, red 汉语：伯父、叔父、姑父、姨夫；伯母、叔母、姑母、姨母英语：uncle, aunt 汉语：一本书、三个人、两支笔英语：one book, three p话语、实词句、成人句
3.儿童语言习得途径论
克拉申的输入假设、斯万的输出假设
4.儿童语言习得关键期论
支持关键期假说的研究、反对关键期假说的研究
二、语言的思维功能
关于聋哑人的语言和思维 1.聋哑人和常人一样，生活在人类社会中，有健全的大脑
和发音器官，他们的大脑也分左右两半球，各有各的分工。 2.大脑是人的一切活动的司令部，人的各种感觉器官由它统
语言学概论
An Introduction to Linguistics
第一章语言的功能
第一章语言的功能
每一语言里都包含着一种独特的世界观。 ---洪堡特
一、语言的社会功能
语言的信息传递功能 1.人类社会中语言信息传递的作用
维系社会成员之间的联系分工协作彼此分享经验感受文化传承
2.人类社会信息传递的其他方式及其与语言的关联
2.儿童语言习得和思维发展的关系

语言学概论完整版复习资料

第一章语言和语言学1.语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语言学必须明确自己的研究对象，才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。

2.任何符号，包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。

3.什么是语言的客观存在形式语言的客观存在形式首先表示为有声的口头语言即口语，而当出现了文字以后，又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。

4.语言符号的强制性正因为语言符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同一社会，同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个人可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际工具的作用。

5.语言与言语的区别语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话只能属于言语。

第二章语音1.声音的四要素：音高，音强，音长，音质2.振幅：也就是发音体振动时离开平衡位置的最大偏移距离。

3.频率：发音体在每一秒钟内振动的次数。

4.音高：就是声音的高低。

它是由频率的大小决定的。

频率同音高成正比。

频率越大，声音越高；频率越小，声音越低。

5.音强：就是声音的强弱。

它是由振幅的大小决定的。

振幅同音强成正比，振幅的大小又决定于使发音体振动外力的大小。

外力大，振幅就大，声音就强；外力小，振幅就小，声音就弱。

6.音长：就是声音的长短。

它是由发音体振动的持续时间决定的。

发音体振动的持续时间长，声音就长；发音体振动的时间短，声音就短。

7.基音：振动中有一个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声音叫做“基音”。

其他振动发出的声音叫做“陪音”。

8.乐音：当基音的频率的陪音的频率之间存在着整数倍的比例关系时，会形成一种复杂而有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声音叫做乐音。

9.噪音：如果基音的频率和陪音的频率之间不存在整倍数的比例关系，就会形成一种杂乱无章的不规则的声波形式，这种声音叫做噪音。

10.语音的生理基础：语音是由人的发音器官协同动作而产生的，人的发音及其运动是“语音的生理基础”，决定着语音的生理特征。

语言学概要复习资料

语⾔学概要复习资料普通语⾔学概要复习资料完整版第⼀章语⾔与语⾔学第⼀节语⾔⼆、语⾔是符号系统1、什么是符号？它有哪些因素构成？符号是⼀个社会全体成员共同约定⽤来表⽰某种意义的记号、标记。

符号包括了形式和内容（意义）两个⽅⾯的要素。

形式和内容互相依存。

2、符号和征候的区分？符号和所标记的事物是具有约定性的（或者是由某些⼈规定，或者是社会习惯），⽽征候与它所标记的事物之间往往具有⾃然（本质或必然）的联系。

3、符号的分类:象征（有⼀定的含义,有⼀定的理据）狭义的符号（没有理据，任意约定的）4、语⾔是⼀种符号系统？语⾔具有符号的⼀切特征：语⾔是由语⾳和意义两个⽅⾯统⼀构成。

语⾳和意义在具体的语⾔中统⼀于⼀体，密不可分，⼆者互为存在条件。

语⾳和语义的联系是社会成员约定俗成的，个⼈不能任意改变这种联系。

注：具体来说语⾔中的词可以分为三种情况：⼀类是“哈哈”“啊”等叹词，它们可以说是⼈类感情的本能的反应，可以归⼊征候。

⼀类是“哗啦”“汪汪”等拟声词，⽤事物所发出的声⾳来记录事物本⾝，和事物间有着⼀定的联系，但同⼀种事物的声⾳在不同的语⾔中往往有着不同的记录，也体现了它的社会约定性，可以归⼊象征。

剩下的语⾔中绝⼤多数的词，它们的⾳和义之间关系完全是社会约定俗称的，没有任何理据可⾔，属于真正意义上的狭义的符号。

5、语⾔符号的任意性和线条性特点？任意性和线条性是语⾔符号的两个最基本的特点。

语⾔符号的任意性是指语⾔符号的⾳义关系是由社会约定的，⽤什么样的“⾳”去表达什么样的“义”⼈们说不出什么道理，完全由社会约定，这种⾳义关系⼜叫约定性。

语⾔符号的任意性是就语⾔创制时来说的，语⾔符号⼀旦形成，在整个社会范围内的执⾏就具有强制性，因⽽也就表现为⼀定的稳固性（可变性）。

——民族性；——时代性语⾔符号的线条性是指符号的使⽤只能在时间的线条上绵延，⼀个符号跟着⼀个符号依次出现。

语⾔符号的排列只能成⼀条线，线条性限制了语⾔在组合时的空间位置。

语言学概论复习资料

第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。

人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。

多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。

二是“用处更大”。

主要:交际功能。

其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。

三是“能够创造”。

具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。

2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。

但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。

这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。

尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。

从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。

3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。

也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。

从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。

可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。

4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。

语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。

语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。

形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。

包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。

如俄语、维吾尔语。

孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。

如汉语。

屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。

语言学复习提纲(完整版)

第一章对外汉语教学基础论第一节第一语言教学与第二语言教学一、四组概念（教材P31）1. 母语和外语母语：从一般意义来讲，母语就是指本国或本民族的语言，通常是指本国或本民族通用的语言。

（周）对于母语的界定，现在还有很多不同的意见。

再具体地说母语就是指自己的父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。

是从亲属关系的角度命名的。

外语：指的是外国的语言。

是从国别的角度命名的，相对于本国语言。

2. 第一语言与第二语言第一语言：（first language）是人们出生后首先习得的语言，多数人的第一语言是母语。

第二语言：(second language)是人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。

第一语言和第二语言的区别是从学习的先后顺序的角度命名的。

3. 本族语和非本族语4. 目的语（Target language）正在学习并希望掌握的语言。

二、第二语言教学（一）第二语言教学的特点（1）第二语言教学主要是以培养运用目的语的交际能力（正确表述与合理表述）为目标；（2）第二语言教学以技能训练为中心，通过大量的练习和反复的实践将语言知识转化为技能；（教学方法）（3）第二语言教学以集中进行强化训练为主要教学形式。

（4）第二语言教学的教学对象有其独特性。

〓来自不同的民族和国家，有不同的文化背景；〓基础也不一样，因此要分班〓对于成人而言，已经形成了自己的认知体系，价值体系，对事物有自己的判断能力，在学习中他们善于总结和分析，并形成自己的学习方法。

（5）第二语言教学注重语言对比，通过与目的语与母语的对比，确定教学的重点和难点；（6）第二语言教学存在着母语对目的语的迁移；（同学们在学英语语音时经常会有这样的问题。

）(7)第二语言教学更加注重文化教学。

（您走好，您慢慢走）从大的方面来讲，文化的差异会影响外国人对异国的一些事物的看法和评价；从小的方面来讲，文化的差异在语言当中有所体现，会影响外国人的表达和理解。

（8）第二语言教学具体的教学目的和教学要求可能不同。

语言学概论第1章语言

“符号学”作为独立的学科出现，是二十世纪中期以[瑞士]索绪尔等人为代表提出的。
符号与征候不同（指的是发生某种情况的迹象）（1）符号的含义：符号就是由社会约定俗成的，由
一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，其作用是指称现实现象。（2）符号的构成：形式和内容
（3）符号的种类很多视觉符号、听觉符号触觉符号
（3）语言符号的特点： a、任意性 b、线条性 C、稳定性 d、可变性、发展性 e、生成性 f、概括性、民族性、时代性
a、任意性（约定性、强制性）和二重性（两面性）
思考：为什么人类会有这样多形形色色的语言？
语言符号的任意性特点具体表现
语言符号的任意性特点具体表现：
第一，语言符号的音义的结合是任意性的，由社会约定俗成的，即什么样的语音形式表达什么样的意义内容，什么样的意义内容用什么样的语音形式表现是任意的；
白花红花蓝花紫花大花小花好花
上层底层
第三级三级第二级
第一级
句子词语素音位
音义结合的符号与符号的序列
性质上的飞跃；数量上的飞跃
思考：
任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是无限的，那么人类为什么能在有限的时间内掌握语言呢？
第一、语言是一种层级结构，最底层的音位（几十个）是很少的；第二、用语素（几千个）组成的词（几万个）的数量也是有限的，而且可以重复使用，这样就通过词的不同组合创造出数量庞大的句子（无数个）来；第三、更加重要的是词和词组合成为句子的规则也是有限的。
B,为什么说组合关系、聚合关系是语言系统中两种最基本的关系？请举例说明。
第一章语言
（三）社会性——人类语言与动物语言的区别（四）全民性——怎样理解语言没有阶级性三、语言的功能 (一)交际职能：语言是人类最重要的交际工具 (二)思维职能 1、思维和思想不同 2、思维能力与思维方式不同 3、语言和思维的关系 4、语言和思维的区别

《英语语言学》复习重点

《英语语⾔学》复习重点《英语语⾔学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语⾔功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function ⼈际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语⾔功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语⾔能⼒.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语⾔的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(⼀个语⾔使⽤者关于语⾔系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语⾔的真实使⽤.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元⾳Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元⾳8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重⾳），length （⾳程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（⾳调），intonation（语调）juncture（⾳渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（⾳素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （⾳位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (⾳位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p? ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类⽐造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as awhole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundGradable antonymy 渐次对⽴关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components 25. Sense relations between sentences 1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不⼀致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction ⾃相⽭盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by moreThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?> I don’t want to tell you what I bought.2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (violation of quantity)Aunt: How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother: Oh, not at all well. Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born.> Her son should not be blamed.1. Do not say what you believe to be false. (violation of quality)He is made of iron.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.A: Beirut is in Peru, isn’t it?B: And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.> It’s ridiculous.Be relevant. (violation of relation)A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year.> I don’t want to tal k about Prof. Wang.1. Avoid obscurity of expression (violation of manner)A: Let’s get the kids something.B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate.2. Avoid ambiguityA: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.3. Be briefA: Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.33.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both lingustic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in thestudy of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is,the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The formar regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; the latter analyses utternaces in close connnection with their contexts of situation.Chapter 9 Language and literature34.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence; -specific devices (asproduced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.35.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 Linguistics & Language Teaching36. As to learning English well, what do you think is the most desirable syllabus for English majors?37. Definition: Applied linguistics; Universal Grammar; syllabus; interlanguage; contrastive analysis.the Input HypothesisApplied linguistics:the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of theways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching.Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that allpossible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggeststhat some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without beingtaught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be.Syllabus:a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually containsthe aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.Interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who arestill in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis:A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purposeof isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy tolearn and what will be difficult.Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.the Input Hypothesis:according to krashen's input hypothessis,learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguistics38.Transformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramCHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1 rationalism 2innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence7.strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。

语言学导论复习纲要

区分辅音：发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况和气流节制。掌握英汉中元辅音的特征：元音差别： • 除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一个处在相同部位的。英语中的元音都是舌面音，没有舌尖元音和卷舌元音。 • • 英语元音分布比较均匀，而汉语元音分布不够均匀，高元音居多。英语中的元音有长短的差别（如 beat 和 bit，fool 和 full），而汉语没有。 • • 英语前元音没有圆唇音，而后元音多为圆唇音。汉语中的元音元音基本上在极限位置上，而英语中的语音并非如此。 • 辅音差别： • 英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然有诸多相似之处，但它们的发音方法和发音机制有着细微的差别。 • 英语辅音有清浊之分，而汉语辅音的区别并不全在清浊，除了几个个别的浊音，如鼻音、边音，其余的擦音、塞音和塞擦音的区别在于送气与否。 • 此外，英语辅音时长较短，单念时不允许延长；汉语辅音无论是清是浊，无论送气不送气，单念时听起来较长，似乎后面跟了一个短暂的/ə/音。音位和音位变体： • • 音位：某种语言或方言中具有区别意义功能的最小语音单位。音位变体：属于同一个音位的各个音素叫音位变体。音位变体就是音位在语音环境中的实际发音。音系规则的描述方法：斜线表示变化产生的环境，横线（称为焦点线）表示目标音段的位置。例子如图：汉语还有鼻化元音。
原则与参数理论 XP 规则是一个普遍规则，语言之间的差别在于参数不同。 The fact that Japanese and English differs due to the parameter of variation among languages, or parameter, for short.
移位与疑问句移位的起因通常为话题化，就是根据不同的话题而将句子成分改变位置，通常是提前。比如一般疑问句中，会出现 I-to-C movement，（屈折语转为补足语；一个假设：A null C triggers the movement in English questions. ）；而特殊疑问句中会出现 Wh-movement（基于 I-to-C movement 的移位，形成补足语短语的标志） Principle C C-command: A node alpha c- commands a node beta iff: the mother of alpha dominates beta, and alpha does not dominate beta. Principle C: If a pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y, x and y may not be coreferent. What do we get: Although syntactic structure is independent of meaning in many ways, they do interact in many ways.

语言学概论—重点知识总结

语言学概论—重点知识总结第一章：语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.只有人类才有语言；与动物鸣叫的区别：内容更多、用处更大、能够创造；语言与民族、国家的关系？——三者关系复杂语言是最直接、最易识别的民族标志；同一民族可以有多种语言；2.语言的类型历时-谱系分类：亲属关系——英语、德语都属于日耳曼语系；汉语、藏语都属于汉藏语系；共时-形态分类：孤立语（汉语：突出语序和虚词的作用）；形态语（英德俄-屈折语；日韩维-黏着语）3.语言的表现形式：语言和言语、本体和外围、口语和书面语1)语言和言语语言：说话的工具，是约定成俗的；比如：普通话、英语；言语：说话，包含言语作品和言语动作，比如：说：“翠花，上酸菜”；2)选择/名词：本体和外围本体：语言内部包含的要素，比如：语音、语法、语义；外围：语言和其他事物的关系，比如：语言和思维、语言和历史、语言和民族文化；3)口语和口语口语：说的话；第一性的，是书面语产生的基础书面语：写的字；第二性，在口语的基础上，加工提炼而成；第二节语言符号和语言结构1.语言符号必须同时具有表示具体意义的物质实体（红绿灯）和物质实体所表示的特定意义（红灯停绿灯行）；2.语言的符号特性：能指和所指、约定和任意、不变和可变；1)能指和所指（口诀：能声所意）能指：把语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音称为“能指”；所指：把语言符号中有特定声音表示的意义称为“所指”；2)约定和任意约定：人为的规定任意：符号表示意义没有必然联系，只需人人都认定或气就行3)不变和可变可变性的根本原因在于任意性3.语言的结构特性：线性和离散、组合和聚合、层次和层级1)线性和离散：构成语言结构的基础条件；线性：语言符号只能一个一个按工夫顺序成一条线排列；离散性：语言符合可以分解还原成一个一个的符号（词）；2)组合和聚合组合：哪一个成分在前、哪一个成分在后的结构特征；（又叫句法功用）聚合：同一类成分可以相互替换的结构特性；3)层次和层级层次：一个小单位内部的成分组合叫做“层次”；（语素组合成词、词组合成词组、词组组合成句子）层级：各个小单位之间的联系叫做“层级”；（词和词一级的内在分别）第三节研究语言的科学1.学科研究的方向分类：本体研究、语言与心理、语言和使用；1)本体研究：对语音、语汇、语法、语义的研究；2)语言与心理研究：语言和心理之间的关系和相互影响；3)语言与应用研究：语言学和信息处理，把理论在实践中的运用；2.语言与哲学1)“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜……”出自XXX的《正名篇》；2)“小学”包括：《文字学》、《音韵学》、《训诂学》；3.语言研究1)XXX的《通俗语言学教程》提出了“结构主义语言学”“能指和所指”，是结构语言学的奠基人；2)XXX：北美结构主义学家，间接成分分析法；3)乔姆斯基的“转换生成语法”，包括普遍语法、句法自治等观点；第二章语言的物质载体——语音第一节语音概说1.语音：“人说话的声音”，更严格地说，语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)

语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。

语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。

2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。

3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。

（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。

（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。

语言学概论复习

语⾔学概论复习语⾔学概论第⼀章语⾔及其发展1．试从语⾔的结构体系和交际功能谈谈什么叫语⾔？（⼀）结构体系：（1）词汇是语⾔的建筑材料，由词和熟语组成。

（2）语法是语⾔的组织规律。

语法规则可以把词素组成词或词形，把词构成词组，把词和词组构成句⼦。

（3）语⾔体系是⾳义结合的，语⾔体系是客观存在的，具有稳固性、民族性和普遍性。

（⼆）语⾔的社会功能：（1）语⾔作为交际⼯具是⼀种特殊的社会现象。

（2）语⾔是社会现象，它是全民性的，没有阶级性。

（3）语⾔的社会作⽤：帮助⼈们脱离动物界、结成社会、发展思维、组织社会⽣产，是促进⼈类⽂明的⼒量之⼀。

（4）语⾔对社会具有依赖性，是为了满⾜社会的交际需要⽽产⽣、存在和发展的。

（5）语⾔是交流思维和传递信息的⼯具。

（6）语⾔具有⾃我调节功能，个体之间的调节功能，个体与群体、群体之间的调节功能，族际交际功能（涉及双语现象）和⼈机之间的调节功能。

2．谈谈语⾔和⾔语的关系。

（⾔语是在特定的⾔语环境中为完成特定的交际任务对语⾔的使⽤，语⾔存在于⾔语之中。

）（1）语⾔体系是⾔语的基础，⾔语活动要选择语⾔中的词汇和语法⼿段，组成话语。

（2）⾔语活动中，说写活动建构话语，听读活动理解话语。

（3）⾔语活动中产⽣的、存在于话语中的新的语⾔现象不断补充到语⾔体系中，使语⾔处于构建和不断丰富和发展之中。

（4）在语⾔体系中，词汇和语法处于经常的相互作⽤之中。

3．什么叫语⾔的分化和统⼀？（1）语⾔的分化：是指⽅⾔之间和亲属语⾔之间差别扩⼤、语⾔增多的过程。

以社会的分化为前提。

（2）语⾔的统⼀：是指各⽅⾔、各亲属语⾔之间差别缩⼩，不同语⾔相互混合，语⾔减少的过程。

社会政治、经济、⽂化的接近导致语⾔的统⼀。

4．语⾔的统⼀有哪⼏种情况？（⼀）⽅⾔集中为民族共同语。

（如：现代汉语普通话就是以北⽅⽅⾔为基础的汉民族共同标准语。

）（⼆）语⾔交融。

（1）侵略者的语⾔同化了当地居民的语⾔；（2）侵略者的语⾔被同化；（3）两种语⾔同时使⽤，形成双语制。

语言学复习重点

语言学复习重点Chapter 1 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching andlearning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950?s.He defines competence as the ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4.What is language? 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, tr eats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky?s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior towriting. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world?s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

语言学复习重点第一章

Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。

语言学概论（考试重点归纳）

语言学概论（考试重点归纳）语言学概论目录第一章语言和语言学 (3)第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6)第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10)第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13)第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19)第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22)第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25)第八章语言的发展和演变 (27)第九章语言的获得和学习 (30)第十章语言与文学写作 (32)第十一章语言与民族文化 (34)第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型P491.只有人类才有语言P49（1）内容更多（2）用处更大：①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能（3）能够创造2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51（简答）“语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的，至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志，同时也是国家的标志，但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间，“民族”和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系，才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客观事实的结论。

3.语言的特点和类型P52（单选）（1）从历时的角度看：语言的谱系分，也叫“语言亲属关系分类。

根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类，就是语言的谱系分类。

语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小：“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。

”（2）从共时角度看：语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。

二、语言的表现形式P541.语言和言语P54言语：说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。

语言：说话所使用的工具，是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。

言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象，是全社会约定俗成的产物。

言语是语言的表现形式，语言是抽象的，言语是具象的。

（单选）2.本体和外围P55本体知识：语言系统内部的各要素；语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。

外围知识：语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。

语言学纲要笔记第一章：语言学概论语言学纲要笔记第一章：语言学概论

缺点是无法解释the shooting of the
hunters歧义。
转换的意思是：一个长句子可以转换成各种短句子例如：无形的上帝创造了有形的世界。这句话是有三个核心句子构成：
上帝创造了世界上帝是无形的世界是有形的
转换语法可以分解the shooting of the hunters的义。因为它可以转换为： 1 they shoot the hunters。 2 the hunters shoot a tiger。
• 数理语言学：用代数、计算机科学、统计学等领域中的概念和方法研究语言的数学属性等问题。
• 计算语言学：用计算机科学的技术和概念研究语言，特别是研究语言的理解和处理、机器翻译、情报检索等问题
• 实验语音学：用各种实验仪器分析语音，研究语音的识别和合成等问题。
第一章语言的社会功能第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具
一部解释词义的书，是中国古代的词典。
• 扬雄《方言》、刘熙《释名》 • ——小学：文字、音韵、训诂
印度的语言研究
古代印度人研究语言主要是为了保存口头相传的婆罗门教义《吠陀经》的原文和梵语文学，使之不致因时间的流逝而面目全非。例：波尼尼（潘尼尼、巴尼尼 Pānini）《八书》。
古印度语言学最突出的成就表现在语音学上。例如：
雅科布逊（1896年— 1982年）（区别特征学说）《语音分析初探》（1951）
马德修斯（1882年—1945年）
该学派于1926年创建。其研究重点是：把语言作为一种功能体系来进行研究和分析。特别重视音
• 哥本哈根学派 • 成立时间：1931 • 代表人物：叶尔姆斯列夫 • 代表作：《结构语言学》（布龙达尔1931）《语言理论
导论》（叶尔姆斯列夫 1953）、《语符学纲要》（乌尔达尔 1957）、

语言学一至三章重点

语言学一至三章重点Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.1 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 What are the design features of language?The features that refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication can be called design features.1]ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are different levels of arbitrariness.2] Duality aBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. We call sounds here primary units as opposed to such secondary units as words, since the primary units are meaningless and the secondary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.3] CreativityCreativity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4] DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent at the moment of communication.1.3 What are the functions of language?1] Informative functionIt is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.2] Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3] Performative functionThe perfomative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.4] Emotive functionIt is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against some or something. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.5] Phatic functionThe phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or marinating social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas. It refers to the social interaction of language.7] Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.1.4 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science which takes language as its object of investigation.1.5 What is the difference between descriptive study and prescriptive study?A linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on high written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It believes that whatever occurs in natural speech should be describe in the analysis.1.6What is the difference between synchronic description and diachronic description?The description of a language at some point of time is a synchrony study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.1.7 What are langue and parole? What is the difference between them?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizes language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints.For F. de Saussure parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instancesof parole, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.8 What are competence and performance? What is the difference between them?According to N. Chom sky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sound2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected.2.2 What is IPA?On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in 1888.2.3 What’s the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Narrow transcription is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, while broad transcription is intended to indicate only those sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.2.4 The description of English consonantConsonant Description = voice/voiceless + places of articulation + manners of articulation[p] voiceless bilabial stop2.5 What is phonology?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.2.6 What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair for example, pill and bill, pill and till, till and dill, till and kill.2.7 What are phone, phoneme and allophone?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is unit that is ofdistinctive value.The phones representing a phoneme are called its allophones. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is morpheme?Morpheme: it is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?A free morpheme is one that ma y constitute a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree” and “sing”.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”.3.3 What are compound word and derivation word?It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.According to semantic criteria, compounds fall into two classes:The first class is called endocentric compounds comprising words like armchair (a kind of chair) and houseparty (a kind of party). In each, one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.The second class is exocentric compounds, consisting ofwords like redskin and birdbrain, in which there is no focal element and the whole refers to something else rather than what either the constituents. Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.3.4 What are lexical changes? Explain them respectively.(1) InventionPeople can create new word coping with the new entities appeared during the social and economic development.(2) BlendingIt is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(3) AbbreviationA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial and final parts.(4) AcronymIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head word.(5) Back-formationBack-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is,a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to create a new one.(6) Analogical creationIt can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.(7) Borrowingi. loanwords: ii. loanblend：iii. loanshif：iv. loan translation：。

语言学复习重点第一章

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学概论(第一章)

语言学概论完整版复习资料

语言学概要复习资料

语言学概论复习资料

语言学复习提纲(完整版)

语言学概论第1章语言

《英语语言学》复习重点

语言学导论复习纲要

语言学概论—重点知识总结

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)

语言学概论复习

语言学复习重点

语言学复习重点 第一章

语言学概论（考试重点归纳）

语言学纲要笔记 第一章：语言学概论语言学纲要笔记 第一章：语言学概论

语言学一至三章重点

语言学复习重点第一章

语言学纲要笔记第一章：语言学概论语言学纲要笔记第一章：语言学概论