27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
【自学考试】江苏省自考英语语言学概论(27037)填空题与选择题题库及中文翻译最新
第一章绪论填空题或选择题1. A symbol consists of two parts : a concrete form and the meaning which it conveys.一个符号由两个部分组成：一个具体的形式和它所表达的意思。
2.By saying language is arbitrary ,we mean we can’t give a sound reason why such a form ispronounced in this way rather than in that way, and why a particular meaning should be indicated by this form rather than by that form..当说语言是任意的，我们指我们不能合理地解释为什么这个音以这种形式而不是以那种形式发音。
并且为什么以这种形式而不是以那种形式来表明某种特殊的意义。
3. Language has two levels .They are grammatically meaningful level and sound meaninglesslevel.语言有两个层次：语法上有意义的层次和声音上无意义的层次。
4.Human languages have such design features asproductivity ,discreteness ,displacement ,arbitrariness ,cultural transmission ,duality and interchangeability . 人类语言具有以下的甄别性特征：能产性，离散性，不受时空限制的特性，任意性，文化传递性，双重性和互换性。
nguage is a system because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’sactual speech or writing .语言是一种体系，因为每种语言都是由一套规则组成的，这些规则表明了人们的真正语言或书面形式。
自考语言学教程何兆熊
现代语言学笔记Chapter 1: Introduction（1）Chapter 1: Introduction1. Define the following terms:1). Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2). General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3). Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4). Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of t he English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.5). Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g.a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.6). Language competence: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7). Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.8). Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9). Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the applicationof the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10). Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11). Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12). Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13). Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14). Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15). Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.16). Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2. Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3. What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。
江苏省自学考试英语语言学概论27037判断题题库及中文翻译
江苏省自学考试《英语语言学概论》（27037）正确判断题题库及中文翻译nguage is primarily speech ,and not the written form.语言主要是口语形式而不是书面形式。
2.The relationship between the sounds and their meanings is arbitrary .声音和他们的意义之间的关系是任意的。
3.Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs .语言符号是通过人类语言器官形成的。
4.English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics .英语语言学是一种描述性语言学。
ngue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable .语言比言语更加抽象，因此是不能直接观察的。
（2009年10月考题）6.General linguistics deals with the whole human language .普遍语言学研究的是所有的人类语言。
7.All the English words are not symbolic .不是所有的英语单词都是有符号的。
8.Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language .描述性语言学研究的是一种具体的语言。
9.The spelling of words is not a reliable means of describing the English sounds .单词的拼写不是描述英语语音的一种可靠方式。
10.In terms of tension of the muscles at pharynx ,vowels are grouped into tense vowels andlax vowels .根据咽喉肌肉的松弛状态，元音可以分成紧元音和松元音。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理chapter4phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanin gs in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sou nd system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a streamof speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 6 Syntax(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
chapter 4 phonology
Rule 3: deletion rule(省略规则) A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. eg.(1) signature, designation, paradigmatic • (2) sign, design, paradigm deleted • In the second group, /g/ is _______.
• 音位有时还可能有free variants
互补分布
当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体 不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位 置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。 [p]/[pʰ]是两个不同的音子，即音位/p/的变化 形式。[p]只出现在[s]之后，而[pʰ]只出现在其 他位置。 /p/→[p]/[s]͟ [pʰ]剩余位置 注：——是/p/出现的位置
phonetics and phonology
Phonetics General (concerned with speech sounds as such without reference to their function in a particular language). Descriptive Classificatory Particular (having a particular language or languages in view) Functional (concerned with the working or functioning of speech sounds in a language or languages) Functional phonetics p137
自由变体
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示_百度文库
英语语言学概论》重、难点提示整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。
第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。
第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。
第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter One language(word文档良心出品)
English Linguistics:An Introduction 英语语言学概论(王永强支永碧)Chapter One language• 1 What is language?• 2 What are the features of language?• 3 What are the functions of language?The definition of language•Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
•First ，language is a system: sound ,words, rules, meaningsElements of language are combined according to rules. Every language contains a set of rules. By system ，we mean the recurring patterns or arrangement or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. The sounds and the words which form sentences are used in fixed patterns that speakers of a language can understand each other. It is because every language has its system that it conveys the same meaning to its speakers. 语言的元素组合根据规则。
每一种语言包含一组规则。
英语自考本科语言学概论
Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature （识别特征） refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal systemof communication。
2. Productivity（能产性） refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantitiesof sentences in their native language。
3. arbitrariness （任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between alinguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol （符号） Symbol refers to something such as an object, word， or sound that represents something else by associationor convention.5. discreteness (离散性） Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement(不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about thingsthat are not in the immediate situations of its users。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
自考英语语言学概论大纲考核章节精华中文版教材
第一章语言（Language）●本章主要考点●课文理解与重点内容分析：本章介绍语言的基本知识，包括语言的定义、语言的识别性特征和语言的功能。
1. 语言的定义语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
该定义有五个要点，即系统、任意性的、发音/声的、系统、用于人类交际。
2. 语言的识别性特征语言的识别性特征指人类语言区别于任何其他动物交流系统的特点。
主要包括：1）能产性：能产性也称创造性，人们能用语言创造新的意义，并立即被从未接触过它的人所理解。
创造性归因于语言的二重性和递归性。
2）离散性：3）不受时空限制的属性/位移性：人类语言可以让使用者表达说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体、事件和观点。
这一特性赋予人们概括和抽象的能力。
4）任意性：任意性是语言的核心特征，指符号的形式或声音与意义间没有理据或逻辑关系。
任意性有不同的程度。
5）文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过教与学，由人们接触的文化代代传递的。
6）结构二重性：二重性指底层有限的语音结构是上层词、句和语篇结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则，使语言拥有强大的能产性。
7）互换性：互换性指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接收者。
3. 语言的功能按照韩礼德的表述，幼儿语言有如下七个功能：1）工具功能：说话人可以使用语言做事情。
2）调节功能：语言可用来控制事件。
3）表现功能：语言可用来传达知识、汇报事件、进行陈述、说明、解释关系、传递信息等。
4）互动功能：语言可用来与周围的人进行交际。
5）自指性功能：语言可以用来表达个人的情感并展示个性。
6）启发功能：使用语言可以获得知识、了解世界。
语言可以用于学习，语言可以用于问答、用于争辩，用于验证假设、推导结论和新奇发现。
7）想象功能：语言用于创造想象系统，可以是文学作品、哲学领域里，也可以是空想、白日做梦和发呆遐想。
成人语言有三大元功能：人际功能、概念功能和语篇功能。
国内著名学者胡壮麟等人在其《语言学教程》中，用如下词语来表达语言的七大功能：1）信息功能：被认为是语言最主要的功能。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。
Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。
1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。
英语语言学概论 Chapter4 Phonology(音位学)
Phonology(音位学)Phonetics is a study of the production,transmission and perception of speech sounds, and their physical properties.Phonemes音位are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. Allophones 音位变体are the different realizations of a particular phoneme in a language. Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment in a stream of speech.Minimal pair最小对立体：a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.3 conditions: 1 the two forms are different in meaning; 2 the two forms are different in one segment; 3 the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words: teach---cheat, read—dearIf two or more sounds never appear in the same enviornment, that is, each sound only appears in the enviornment where the other never occurs, they are in complementary distribution.互补分布pen—pet, pat—spat—tap, lead—realIf two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.Will—till 对比分布When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, they are in free variation. 自由变体A distinctive feature区别性特征is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,like /nasal/,/voiced/. put forward by Jakobson.The assimilation rule同化原则the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.Deletion rule删除: delete a sound although it is orthographically represented Sequential rules顺序:state the possible combination of phonemes and the constraints over such a combination for a language.suprasegmental features(超切分特征) features that have effect on more than one segment, which also known as prosody(韵律语音特征): stress, tone, intonation and juncture.stress(重音,重读) some nouns are stressed on the first syllables while the verbs are stressed on the second syllables:Tone(声调): the level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive ways.Tone language: ma ma ma ma(妈,麻马骂)Intonation(语调) 5 intonations: the falling tones: certainty; the rising tones: uncertainty, the level tones: undecided yet whether known or unknown,juncture(连音): the boundary features that may demarcate grammatical units:A name an aimnarrow transcription(严式音标):symbolizes all the possible speech sounds, broad transcription(宽式音标): transcribes or indicates only the only those speech sounds that distinguish one word from another in a language . It is phonemic.。
英语语言学教程课后整理
What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)Prescriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics)Diachronic study---- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用（定义）Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of this languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competen ce is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学（区别）Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based frameworkThe design features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联Productivity/Creativity（能产性）Duality（双层性）Displacement（移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传承）Phonetics语音学(定义和分类)Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.Three branches of phonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics----fr om the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.Classification of vowels（元音）Monophthongs or pure/single vowels（单元音）Diphthongs or gliding vowels （双元音）According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the。
语言学导论课后习题答案
Chapter 4 MorphologyWhat is morphology?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structur e and the formation of words.Morphemes and allomorphsThe smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesSome countable n ouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.Some verbs have irreg ular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.Free and bound morphemesSome morphemes constitut e words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes. The distinct i on between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Inflexional and derivational morpheme sInflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. English affixes a re divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Conclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sSuffixesFormation of new wordsDerivationDerivation forms a wo rd by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.CompoundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes. The majority of E nglish compounds are the combination of words from the three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.ConversionConversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.ClippingClipping is a process that shortens a pol y syllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television asthat suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.Acronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbrevia tions are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of org anizations and scientific terminology.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86983.html Chapter 3 PhonologyWhat is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses o n three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Pho nemes and allophonesA phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.We use allophones to realize phonemes.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophonesSounds that are not found in the sam e position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual subs titution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinc tive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.Phonological rulesPhonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as exam ples.[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_Syllable structureA syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.Every syllable h as a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.Sequence of phonemesNative speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.When new words are coined, they may fill some accident a l gaps but they will never fillsystematic gaps.Suprasegmental featuresFeatures that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a sec ondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distin guish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.ToneTone is the variation of pitch to disting uish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.-转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsAuditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the cavities?O ral cavityPharyngeal cavityNasal cavityTranscription of speech soundsUnits of representationSegments (the individual sounds)Phonetic symbolsThe widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcripti o n (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Description of speech soundsDescription of English consonantsGeneral feature: obstructionCriteria of conson ant descriptionPlaces of articulationManners of articulationV oicing of articulationPlaces of articulationThis refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodental: [f] [v]Interdental: [ ] [ ]Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]Palatal: [ ] [ ] [t ] [d ] [j]Velar: [k] [g] [ ]Glottal: [h]Manners of articulationThis refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]Fricatives: [s] [z] [ ] [ ] [f] [v] [ ] [ ] [h]Affricates: [t ] [d ]Liquids: [l] [r]Glides: [w] [j]Nasals: [m] [n] [ ]V oicing of articulationThis refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.V oiced soundsV oiceless soundsDescription of English vowelsGeneral feature: without obstructionCriteria of vowel descriptionPart of the tongue that is raisedFrontCentralBackExtent to which the tongue rises i n the direction of the palateHighMidLowKind of opening made at the lipsPosition of the soft palateSingle vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsPhonetic features and natural classesClasses of sounds that share a feature or features a re called natural classes.Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习1. 解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreet3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology
Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。
Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。
1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter-4PPT课件
Deep structure (深层结构): formed by the
XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties (由XP规则按 照中心语的次范畴特征而构成的)
Surface structure (表层结构): the final
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Phrase elements (短语成分) P47-49
Specifiers 标志语 1) Semantic role: help make more precise the meaning
of the head; 2) Syntactic role: mark a phrase boundary (left) Complements 补语
Two levels: phrase level, word level.
Phrase structure rule (短语结构规则) p45
The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP:
NP: (Det) N (PP)…
VP: (Qual) V (NP)… AP: (Deg) A (PP)…
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Assignments
Review this chapter (P42-61). Do the revision exercises on p60-61. Preview the next chapter.
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Written Work
Chapter 4 1. Draw a tree structure for each of the
Head
The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)
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Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。
③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。
Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realization of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。
pairs 最小对立体The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaking, distinctive.Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.Three conditions（情况）:1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。
identifying phonemes 识别音素4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation对比分布，互补分布和自由变异The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。
1）contrastive distribution对比分布If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning，they are said to be in contrastive distribution.如果两个或更多的声音可以发生在相同的环境并且一旦一个声音替换另一个会改变的意思,那他们就是处于对比分布。
2）complementary distribution互补分布If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment，that is，each sound only appears in the environments where the other sound never occurs，then they are said to be in complementary distribution.如果两个或更多的声音从未出现在相同的环境中,也就是每一个声音只出现在其他的声音不出现的环境中,然后他们被称为处在互补分布。
3）free variation 自由变异When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning，they are said to be in free variation.当两个声音可以出现在相同环境但是替换一个其他不会导致任何意思的改变, 然后他们被称为处在自由变异。
4.4.2 Principles of identifying phonemes 识别音位的四个原则（1）If two sounds are found to be in contrastive distribution,they are separate phonemes. 如果两个音处于对比分布，那么它们是两个独立的音位。
（2）If two sounds are always in free variation, then they are two allophones of the same phoneme. 如果两个音总是处于自由变异，则这两个音是同一个音位的音位变体。
（3）If two phonetically similar sounds are in complementary distribution, then they are two allophones of the same phoneme.如果语音上相似的两个音处于互补分布，则它们是同一个音位的音位变体。
（4）If two sounds are in complementary distribution but have no phonetic similarity, then they are two different phonemes.如果两个音处于”互补分布”，但没有语音相似性，他们肯定是两个不同的音位。
Procedures:过程1 check principle (1) and find minimal pairs. If yes, then two sounds are phonemes.2 If no minimal pair is found, check principle（2）. The answer is always NO, direct3 Check principle （3）. if yes, phonemes. If no, come to principle 44 Check principle （4）, if yes, phonemesDistinctive features 区别性特征定义：A distinctive feature is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,区别性特征就是把两个音位相互区分的特征like /nasal/,/voiced/.Phonetic features are used to describe allophones, or phones.The distinctive feature theory is put forward by Jakobson.Phonological rules 音位规则4.6.1 Assimilation rule 同化规则定义：An assimilation rule is a phonological rule that is to describe the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.同化规则是描述一个特定音子下语音上下文和情形效果的一个语音规则。
It assimilates one segment to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme to another, thus making the two phones more similar.它通过“模仿”一个序列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音子变得相似。
4.6.2 Deletion rule 省略规则定义：The deletion rule in phonology concerns the relation between letters and sounds within the phonetic condition.在音位学中省略规则是关于在语音条件下字母与声音的关系。