新编简明英语语言学教程笔记必备

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戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第二语言习得)【圣才】

language’(e. g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across the two languages to spot the mismatches or differences.
第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系 2. Contrastive analysis
对比分析 3. Error Analysis
错误分析 4. Interlanguage
中介语 5. The role of native language in second language learning.
本族语在第二语言学习中的作用 6. Second language learning models and input hypothesis
1. Overgeneralization 2. Cross-association V. Interlanguage VI. The role of native language in second language learning VII. Second language learning models and input hypothesis VIII. Individual differences 1. Language aptitudes 2. Motivation 3. Learning strategies 4. Age of acquisition 5. Personality IX. Second language acquisition and its pedagogical implications
第二语言习得(SLA )在二十世纪七十年代左右被正式确立为一门学科，是指对一个人习得其母语之后如何习得一门第二语言的系统研究。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。

本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记，旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。

本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。

一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和接收。

在英语语音学中，我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念，以及发音方式和音系结构。

其中，音素是语音的最小单位，音节是由音素组成的单位，音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。

在语音学的学习中，我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。

国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。

通过学习国际音标，我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。

二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。

在形态学中，我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。

英语中的词缀是词的构成要素，可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。

词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。

此外，我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则，如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。

了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。

三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。

在句法学的学习中，我们学习了句子的基本成分，如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。

我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系，以及句法规则的应用。

在英语句法学中，我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。

通过短语结构分析和句子树，我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。

四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。

在语用学的学习中，我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。

我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则，如请求、邀请、命令等。

了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。

结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本重要的英语语言学教材，其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。

本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结，并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。

新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1-u6期末笔记整理

●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结Company number：【WTUT-WT88Y-W8BBGB-BWYTT-19998】一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总(word文档物超所值)

新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.arranged and combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of words semantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines. sociolinguistics language and societypsycholinguistics How infant acquire mothertongue,processinformation……（language and brain）Applied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisition1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive descriptiveAims to lay down rules for“correct &Describe and analyze the language actually use(modernstandard”;i.e.to tell people what they should sayor notlinguists believe thatwhatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed)synchronic diachronicThe description of a language at some point oftimeThe description of a language as it changes through timeModern linguistics are most synchronic:①Difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development;②Synchronic description are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of humanspeech,which is authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole 言语Abstract linguistic system; Relatively stable The realization of language in actual use; Concrete; Vary from person to person & situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageThe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky ,Similar toSaussure,what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence,not the performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and hi s notion of langue is a matter of socialconvention;while Chomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;written language is primary; Force language into a Latin-based framework;Descriptive;Spoken language is primary; Trying to set up a universalframeworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of F.de Sassure’s book course in general linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and whatit stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation ofnew signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught andlearned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit]h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in] 2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds 2.2.4.1 classification of English consonantLiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVD w j （滑音）2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs：front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phonetics2.3.4 some rules in phonology2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone：四声Intonation： different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2) the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3) ContextualismJ.R Firth。

新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记赶考秘籍)

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

《新编简明英语语言学》重点总结

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and itmakes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑴ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑴DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑴DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑴Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖　should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

戴伟栋新编简明英语语言学教程笔记【精选文档】

戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。

No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。

I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。

Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。

新编简明英语语言学教程整理1~4

12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competencelanguage.Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结The pony was revised in January 2021一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
全国547所院校视频及题库全收集
考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试
第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。

新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记

Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (Lead in)Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.Language is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing system. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:(Speech production-----------------speech transmission---------------speech perception)⏹Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）----from the speakers‟point of view, “how speakers produce speechsounds”⏹Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”⏹Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from oneto another.2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs, also known as V ocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The diagram of speech organs:1. Lips 7. Tip of tongue2. Teeth 8. Blade of tongue3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 9. Back of tongue4. Hard palate 10. V ocal cords5. Soft palate (velum) 11.Pharyngeal cavity6. Uvula 12. Nasal cavityThe important cavities:☆The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔---- the throatLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‟s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur. The larynx contains the Vocal folds, also known as Vocal cords or Vocal bands. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam‟s apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move to various positions. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, (c) totally closed.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced (V oicing): when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.☆The oral cavity 口腔---- the mouthThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification of the air stream. ([k]/[g], [t]/[d], [θ]/[δ], [f]/[v], [p]/[b])☆The nasal cavity 鼻腔---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized. If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--- broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）e.g. clear [l]Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] (Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.)E.g. : [l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic); [l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h表示送气)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:⏹V owels⏹ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤ Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥ Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [n], [η]By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]→(velar)②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the p alate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars软腭音:the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]Conclusion: Factors to describe a consonant(1) State of vocal cords (VL/VD)(2) Manner of articulation (MA)(3) Place of articulation (PA)2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.Highest Part of the tongue (front, central, back)Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:] [Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:][u] Openness of mouthRounded or unrounded lipsrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:].unrounded vowels: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.Length of the vowellong vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as [i:] and [ɑ:]short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e], [ə] and [æ].monophthongs: individual vowelsdiphthongs: produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. (集中/合口)2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsWhat does English phonetics deal with?English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how these sounds are produced and how they are described and classified.What does English phonology deal with?English phonology investigates the sound system of English. Different from English phonetics, English phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in the abstract aspects:A. the function of sounds--- whether a sound can differentiate the meanings of wordsB. their patterns of combination--- how sounds are combined to form a permissible sound sequence⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used toconvey meaning in linguistic communication.(Speaker‟s mind--- Mouth--- Ear--- Listener‟s mind)2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhoneme: minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language; a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit; not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment; the realization of phoneme in general. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‟t. For example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[t h a:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7 phones: [f],[i:],[ł], [l], [t h]. [t], [a:], but [ł] and[l] do not distinguish meaning, [t h] and [t] do not distinguish meaning as well.Allomophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme; realizations of a particular phoneme.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‟re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.E.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.E. g. mail vs. nail beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.⏹If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.⏹If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey thefollowing three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, screama) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.⏹The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ]are not to be followed by anothersibilants.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleAssimilation: articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more features.Nasalization: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/[-nasal]→ [+nasal]/_______ [+nasal]Dentalization: /ð/, /θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]V elarizatio n: /k/, /g/, / ŋ/: Word-final /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives/k, g/: ten cups; ten girls[-velar]→ [+ velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5 Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonationsegmental features（切分特征）--- the distinctive features which can only have an effect on one sound segment are called segmental features.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that involve more than single sound segments (larger than phoneme)2.3.5.1 StressWord stress⏹The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part ofspeech of a word:verb: im‟port; in‟crease; re‟bel; re‟cord …noun: …import; …increase; …rebel; …record …⏹Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the sameelements:compound: …blackbird; …greenhouse; …hotdog…noun phrase: black …bird; green …house; hot …dog…⏹The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms andnouns:modifier: …dining-room; …reading room; …sleeping bag…doer: sleeping …baby; swimming …fish; flying …plane…Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.2.3.5.2 T oneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.⏹English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used (first three types):falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the rise-fall toneHe is not ↘ there. What did you put in my ↗ drink, ↘ Jane?He is not ↗ there? What did you put in my ↘ drink, ↗ Jane?For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Ss exercise: Explain the meaning of the following words or phrases or sentences when marked with different stress or with different intonation.Assignments1. Ss complete the review questions during the classes.2. Ask students to do the exercises 1-10 on Page 30.。

新编简明英语语言学(第二版)学习笔记

1、 Linguistics studies languages in general, but nit any particular language ,eg .English,Chinese,Arabic,and Latin,etc.2、 By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.3、 Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.4、The meaning of the word “seal” in the sentence “the seal could not be found” cannot be determined unless the context in which the sentence occurs is restored.5、 An lnnatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmedfor language.6、 The same word may stir up different association in people under different cultural background.7、 A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learnthe new language without the trace of an accent,8、Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.9、Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principle and theories to language teaching and learning.10、A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.11、All the affixes belong to bound morphemes.12、A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.13、When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific cultureand becomes socialized in certain way.14、Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.15、Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme16、The meaning of an utterance is ,in a sense, richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived.17、People in the west tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese do.18、Auditory phonetics studies the perception of sound s by the human ear.19、Synonymy and polysemy are relations between form and meaning.20、People in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese.21、A broad transcription is used generally in dictionaries and language textbooks.22、The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.23、Strictly speaking, according to F.palmer, there are no real synonyms and no two words have exactly the same meaning.24、The standard dialect is not related to any particular group of language users.25、A children who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four learns the new language without the trace of an accent.26、One learns his first language directly from relity.1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as the natural or primary medium of human language.2.In narrow transcription, we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols only while in broad transcription we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.3.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.4.According to co-operative principle, the conversational participants have to strictly observe the four maxims, so that the conversation can go on successfully.5.In communication it will never be the case that what is grammatical is not acceptable, and what is ungrammatical may not be inappropriate.6.Since there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, language is absolutely arbitrary.7.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to the manner of articulation.8.Accoring to the innatist view of language acquisition, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.9.According to Austin, the performative utterance is used to perform an action, it also has truth value.10,Children can learn their native language well whenever they start and whatever kinds of language samples they receive.11.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.12.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13.More than often we use bound morpheme alone.14.Human children everywhere develop a language with instruction, unless they suffer from extreme mental deficiency.15.The first language is acquired consciously.16.All vowels in English are voiceless.17.The inflectional morphemes are morphemes which add lexical meaning to the words they are attached.18.According to semantic theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.19.In acquiring their first language. children always concentrate on structure.20.Children must have parents to instruct them in order to learn to speak.第一章语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of study of language.语音学phonetics:it studies of sounds used in linguistic communication音位学phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to conveymeaning in communication语言学内部形态学morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds 的主要分支are arranged and combined to form words句法学syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to fromgrammatically permissible sentences in languages.语义学semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language.语用学pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.社会语言学sociolinguistics:The studies of all these social aspects of language and itsrelation with society form the core of the branch call sociolinguistics. 跨学科分支心理语言学psycholinguistics:relates the study of language to psychology.应用语言学applied linguistics:The study of such applications is generally known asApplied linguistics.规定性与描写性Prescriptive & DescriptivePrescriptive:If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.Descriptive:If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language.共时性与历时性Synchronic & DiachronicSynchronic:The description of a language at some point of time in history is asynchronic study.Diachronic:The description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic study.言语与文字Speech & Writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. 语言学中的一些重要语言与语言Langue & Parole区分Langue:refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:refers to the realization of language in actual ues.语言能力与语言运用Competence & PerformanceCompetence:is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance:is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.传统语法与现代语言学Traditional grammar & Modern linguisticsThe different between Traditional grammar and Modern linguistics1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it 语言的识别from any animal system of communication.的特征作者：Charles Hockett (查尔斯·霍凯特)（1）Arbitrariness:It means that there is no logical connection between meaningsand sounds（2）Productivity:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.（3）Duality:Linguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels（4）Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.（5）Cultural transmission:While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.语言的功能Three main functions are often recognized of language:(1) The descriptive function,also referred to differently as the cognitive,or referential,orpropositional ,is assumed to be the primary function of language.Eg.The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.(2) The expressive function, supplies information about the user’sfellings.preformances,prejudices ,and values.Eg.I will never go camping with Mike again.(3) The social function,also referred to as the interpersonal funcation,seves to establishand maintain social relations between people.Eg.How can I help you,sir?There are six elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson are:Addresser,Addressee,Context,Message,Contact,Code.They are associated with six basic functions of language as shown below:(1)Addresser---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Eg.I hate whatever they are planning for me.(2)Addressee---ConativeThe addressee aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.Eg.Why not go and see another doctor?(3)Context---ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Eg.As far as I know,(4)Message---PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty oflanguage itself. Eg.poetry.(5)Contact---Phatic communionThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee.Eg.Hi.How are you this morning?(6)Code---Metalinguistic’s experience of the real or第二章语音学的定义:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Three branches of phonetics articulatory phonetics语音学分支：auditory phoneticsacoustic phoneticsThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:Organs of speech: pharyngeal cavity----the throatOral cavity---the mouthNasal cavity---the noseOrthographic representation of speech sounds:Broad transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.Narrow transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics iscall narrow transcriptionThe speech sounds in English into two broad categories: Vowels and Consonants音素phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.音位phoneme:A phoneme is a phonological unit.it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位对立phonemic contrast:[pit]和[bit]，[rəup]和[rəub] 中的/p/./b/互补分布complementary distribution:清晰的舌边音[ l ],模糊舌边音[ㄨ]最小对立体minimal pair:pill&bill,除了词首的辅音外形式完全相同序列规则Sequential rules：This indicates that there are rules that governthe combination of sound in a particular language.Some rules in phonology 同化规则Assimilation rules:This assimilation rule assimilates one soundto another by “copying” a sequential phoneme,thus making thetwo phones similar.省略规则Deletion rule:Another phonological rule is the deletion rule.Ittells us when a sound is to be deleted although it isorthographically represented.Suprasegmental features---The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments arecalled suprasemental features;these are the phonological properties ofsuch units as the syllable ,the word,and the sentence.(1) Stress:(2) Tone: are pitch variations, which are called by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords(3) Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.第三章形态学morphology：refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Open class word: nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary.They are content words of a language.Closed class word:conj,perp.art and pron consist of the “grammatical” and “functional” words.free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morphemebound morpheme: A morpheme must attached to another one is a bound morpheme.Allomorphs定义:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.（The allomorphic variation involves different pronunciations of the plural morpheme –s.）–ic are thus called derivational morphemes.morphological rules: un + accept + able]Derivation定义：is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.Compounds复合词：Syntax定义：is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencs.Categories范畴：refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfil the name or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.句法范畴syntactic categories: A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Here word level categories are divided into Two kinds:1) major lexical categories 2)minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed:1)Namely, 2)meaning 3)inflection and distributionPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following element:1)head 2)specifier 3)complementThe word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiersThe words on the right side of the heads are complements.Phrase structure rule:Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.(specifier)X(complement)X*Con XPhrase elements1.specifiersplements3.modifiersSentencDes Transformations Auxiliary movement Do insertionDeep structure: The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub categorizationproperties, is called deep structure.(D-structure)Surface structure: The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which语义学的定义：1. The naming theorySome views concerning 2.The conceptualist viewthe study of meaning 3.Contextualism关于意义研究的一些观点 4.BehaviorismSense :is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic word of experience.,1.dialectal synonyms2.Stylistic synonymsSynonymy .3.emotive or evaluative meaning4.Collocational synonyms5.Semantically different synonymsPolysemy: While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.1.homophoneHomonymy 2.homographsplete homonyms1.superodinateHyponymy 2.hyponyms3.co-hyponyms1.Gradable antonymsAntonymy plementary antonyms3.relational opposites1.X与Y同义X is synonymous with Y句子之间的关系 2.X与Y不一致X is inconsistent with Y3.X预设Y X presupposes Y（Y是X的先决条件）Y is a prerequisite of X4.X自我矛盾X is a contradiction5.X语义反常X is semantically anomalous1.成分分析法Componential analysis-----is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyzeword meaning,意义分析 2.述谓结构分析法Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning.Pragmatics定义：A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication,Context定义：It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,Austin’s model of speech acts(论述)Eg.You have left the door wide open.1.Locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words“you”,have”,”door”,”open”,etc.thus expressing what the words literally mean,2.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i,e.asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.3.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real word he has intended to ,then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.Searle’s classification of speech acts(赛尔对言语行为的分类)The five types of illocutionary acts are:1.阐述类representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.2.指令类directive: trying to get the hearer to do something.3.承诺类commissive: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4.表达类expressive: expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.5.宣告类declaration: bring about immediate changes by saying something.(新内容-论述)Searle’s indirect speech actAccording to Searle,when a speaker is using indirect language,he is performing two speech acts simultaneously;One is the primary speech cat and the other is the secondary speech act.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication.The secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.The example provided by Searle to illustrate his idea is the following brief exchange between two students:Student X:Let’s go to the movies tonightStudent Y:I have to study for an examObviously, by saying“I have to study for an exam “student Y is saying ‘NO’ to student X’s suggestion to go to the movies. According to Searle’s indirect speech act theory. The primary speech act student Y performs with his utterance is the act of rejecting student X’s suggestion and the secondary speech act he performs is the act of making a statement about the fact that he has to study for an exam. So the relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The four maxims of the CP:1) the maxim of quantity2) the maxim of qyalityWhat is CP?In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP.（新内容）Pragmatic failure语用失误Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmatics failure may occur inintra-cultural background.Pragmatics is assumed to have two dimensions:Pragmalinguistics: is applied to the more linguistic and of pragmatics. i, e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes.Sociopragmatics：is the sociological interface of pragmatics; it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.第七章Historical linguistics: as a branch of linguistic, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.Morphological and syntactic change1)Addition of affixesFusion: refers to this type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.2) Loss of affixes3) Change of word order4) Change in negation ruleAddition of new words(要记例子)P981.创新词Coinage: A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects.2.缩写词Clipped words: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.3.紧缩词Blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4.词首字母缩略词Acronyms: are words derived from the initials of several words.5.逆词构法Back-formation：New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting ”an affix thought to be part of the old word.6.功能转换Functional shift: Word may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion.7.借用Borrowing: When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another.Semantic changes1. Semantic broadening2. Semantic narrowing3. Semantic shift第八章(定义)Sociolinguistics is the subfield of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(言语社区)speech community : the social group that singled out for any special study is called the speech community.(言语变体)speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.(地域方言)a regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(个人言语)idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.(语域)register: Thy type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:Field of discourse: refers to what is going on,Tenor of discourse: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question.Mode of discourse: refers to the means of communication.(标准方言)The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.(洋泾浜语)Pidgin: is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.(克里奥耳语)Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to that become a creole.(双语现象)Bilingualism: It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.第九章Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that Characterizes the life of the human community.Culture, in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(SWH): Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now knows as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways:A strong version and a weak one.While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak on holds that the former influence the later.Contacts: between peoples with different cultures usually lead to change in one or both systems. Traditionally, three forms of culture contact are indentified:1)acculturation: is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when on group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.2)assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society---not always completely.3)amalgamation: occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.(文化重叠)Cultural overlap: between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.(文化传播)Cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about culture diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly,(语言帝国主义)Linguistic imperialism: is a kind of linguicism which can be defined sa the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.(跨文化交际)Intercultural communication: also known as cross—cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.第十章(语言习得)Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.儿童语言习得理论（theories of child language acquisition）1)the behaviorist view行为主义者观Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.2)the innatist view天赋主义者观The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.3)the interactionist view互动主义者观The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and environment in which the child develops.Critical period Hypothesis(CPH)Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time---a specific and limited time period for language acquisition---which is refered to as the Critical Period Hypothesis.(外延缩小)Under-extension: Children do not learn the meaning of a word “all at once”. When a child learns a new word, he may well under-extend it or overextend it.(过度延伸)Over-extension: Overextension happens when a children takes a property of a object and generalizes it. It is likely to occur later rather than immediately following the acquisition of a word.(听力损伤)Hearing impairment:which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language.(智力障碍)Mental retardation：which may cause a delayed language acquisition(自闭症)Autism: language impairment from the very beginning(口吃)Stuttering:repetition of sound, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not “release” the words.(失语症)Aphasia: partial or total loss of language due to brain damage第十一章Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得Formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s,refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.(错误分析)Error analysis involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learner’s interlanguage.(that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself),then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches)(中介语)Interlanguage：is defined as an abstract system of learner’s target language system, it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones,.(过渡概括)Overgeneralization: is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situation.第十二章(神经语言学)Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language.(心理语言学)Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing.。

新编简明英语语言学教程知识点总结

新编简明英语语言学教程知识点总结“哎呀，这英语可真难学呀！”我嘟囔着。

有一天，我和小伙伴们在公园里玩耍，阳光洒在我们身上，暖暖的。

我们正玩得高兴呢，突然听到旁边有两个大哥哥在说英语，哇，那流利的程度，让我好羡慕呀！我就跑过去问：“大哥哥，你们英语怎么说得那么好呀？”其中一个大哥哥笑着说：“因为我们学了很多英语知识呀。

”我好奇地追问：“都有啥知识呀？”大哥哥想了想说：“就像英语的发音啦，单词啦，语法啦，好多好多呢。

”我似懂非懂地点点头，心里想着：我也要学这些知识，把英语学好。

回到家，我就迫不及待地跟妈妈说：“妈妈，我要学英语语言学的知识！”妈妈笑着说：“好呀，那咱们就找找相关的书来看看。

”于是，妈妈给我买了一本《新编简明英语语言学教程》。

哇，打开书，里面的知识可真多呀！就像进入了一个英语的奇妙世界。

我知道了英语的语音，原来每个音标都有它独特的发音方式，就好像每个人都有自己独特的性格一样。

还有单词，它们就像是一个个小士兵，组合起来就能表达好多好多的意思呢！语法呢，就像是一个大框架，把单词都组织起来，让句子变得有条有理。

我一边学一边跟小伙伴们分享，“嘿，你们知道吗？英语的音标可有意思啦！”小伙伴们都围过来，七嘴八舌地问：“快说说，怎么有意思啦？”我兴致勃勃地讲起来：“就像那个长元音和短元音，就像跑步的快慢一样！”大家都哈哈大笑起来。

在学习的过程中，我也会遇到困难呀，有时候那些复杂的语法会让我头疼。

我就会自言自语地说：“哎呀，这可真难呀，我能学会吗？”但每次想到公园里那两个大哥哥流利的英语，我就又有动力了。

学习英语语言学知识不就像是攀登一座高山吗？虽然过程中会有困难，会有汗水，但当我们登上山顶，看到那美丽的风景时，一切都值得啦！我觉得呀，只要我们坚持，就一定能学好这些知识，把英语说得棒棒的！我现在可喜欢研究这些英语语言学知识啦，我相信，我一定能学好英语！。

(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目　录第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记1.2　课后习题详解1.3　考研真题与典型题详解第2章　音位学2.1　复习笔记2.2　课后习题详解2.3　考研真题与典型题详解第3章　形态学3.1　复习笔记3.2　课后习题详解3.3　考研真题与典型题详解第4章　句法学4.1　复习笔记4.2　课后习题详解4.3　考研真题与典型题详解第5章　语义学5.1　复习笔记5.2　课后习题详解5.3　考研真题与典型题详解第6章　语用学6.1　复习笔记6.2　课后习题详解6.3　考研真题与典型题详解第7章　语言变化7.1　复习笔记7.2　课后习题详解7.3　考研真题与典型题详解第8章　语言与社会8.1　复习笔记8.2　课后习题详解8.3　考研真题与典型题详解第9章　语言与文化9.1　复习笔记9.2　课后习题详解9.3　考研真题与典型题详解第10章　语言习得10.1　复习笔记10.2　课后习题详解10.3　考研真题与典型题详解第11章　第二语言习得11.1　复习笔记11.2　课后习题详解11.3　考研真题与典型题详解第12章　语言与大脑12.1　复习笔记12.2　课后习题详解12.3　考研真题与典型题详解第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结Prepared on 22 November 2020一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

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