英语语言学笔记讲解

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新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。

本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记，旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。

本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。

一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和接收。

在英语语音学中，我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念，以及发音方式和音系结构。

其中，音素是语音的最小单位，音节是由音素组成的单位，音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。

在语音学的学习中，我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。

国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。

通过学习国际音标，我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。

二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。

在形态学中，我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。

英语中的词缀是词的构成要素，可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。

词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。

此外，我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则，如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。

了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。

三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。

在句法学的学习中，我们学习了句子的基本成分，如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。

我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系，以及句法规则的应用。

在英语句法学中，我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。

通过短语结构分析和句子树，我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。

四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。

在语用学的学习中，我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。

我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则，如请求、邀请、命令等。

了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。

结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本重要的英语语言学教材，其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。

本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结，并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备讲解

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

英语语言学概论第八章笔记

Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。

nguage variation 语言变异a)Speech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。

英语语言学笔记第四章

句法（syntax）这个单词，来自希腊语，由两个语素构成：﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。

﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同"，﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列"，因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。

在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。

因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。

不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。

这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。

4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。

因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词功能的描写，等等。

这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。

但是"范畴"这个术语，更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。

例如：常说名词有数、性、格的范畴，动词有时、体、态的范畴。

在这里，我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。

名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。

4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数（number），主要是名词和代词的范畴，如：a book（一本书）；some books（一些书）；I（我），we（我们）；he（他），they（他们）。

英语动词也反映了数的范畴，如：He speaks English.（他说英语）；They speak English.（他们说英语）。

在法语等语言中，形容词和冠词也有数的变化，如：le cheval royal，les chevaux royaux。

数一般有两种：单数和复数。

但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似于英语中的both（双方，两者）。

斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖　should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

英语语言学笔记

第一章【2 】Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么进修说话A tool for communication交换的对象An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生涯和人道中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.假如不能完整懂得说话的本质和构造,我们就会对人类的本质一窍不通.1.2 What is language?什么是说话1.2.1 different senses of language 说话的不赞成义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 经由过程言语来交换的才能c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning isattributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交换思惟和感到的一套声音及这些声音互相联合的体系d. the written representation of such a system 体系的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简练的界说:说话是言语交换的一种方法.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiosticand communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interaction including such associated factors asnonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes usfrom animals.因为说和写的交换方法是一种有目标的行动,所以说话是适用性的;因为说话是社会符号,说话的交换只能在所有参与者广泛懂得了人类的那些非言语的暗示,念头,社会文化脚色等等互相接洽关系的身分之后才能有用进行,是以说话又是社会的,商定俗成的.说话使人类差别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal(receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically,rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the tablecleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which thesesounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that differentlanguage have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of thearbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance andconcept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. Atypical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotationfrom shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样喷鼻的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms tosymbolize what they wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later thanthe spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn tospeak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language isprimarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 说话的构造特点Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决议了人类说话性质的特点.例如随意率性性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?随意率性性a. arbitrariness【 'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】---- arbitrariness(随意率性性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指说话符号的情势与意义之间没有天然的接洽.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The linkbetween them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning说话的音和义之间的随意率性性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 说话的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系.A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描述的声音的词c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either.“type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.随意率性性和拟声可以同时起感化.Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏季傍晚,群蝇嗡嗡地非.(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的随意率性性According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于体系功效说话学家和美国功效说话学家来说,说话在句法上长短随意率性的.Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是根据语法安排造句之法.(3) Aribrtary and convention随意率性性和商定性The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.说话学上的符号和它的意义之间是商定俗成的关系.The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.随意率性性的相不和,即商定性.conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.随意率性性付与说话潜在的创造力,而说话的商定性又使进修说话变得辛苦.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality【djuː'ælətɪ】 (二重性):--- one design feature of human language, which refers tothe property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary levelare composed of elements of the secondarylevel and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指失去两层构造的这种特点,底层构造是上层构造的构成成分,每层都有自身的组合规矩.)duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number ofsound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy经济原则Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.). At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位构成很多个句子.(Note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到说话的二重性,我们必须留意说话的等级性.lic. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-humansignals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指说话的能产性,因为说话有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们可以或许应用说话华夏有的规矩来懂得从未碰着过的说话符号的特点.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the lo cation is really ‘new’ .In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source,and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message wasconveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the freefood. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. Theproblem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set ofsignals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he canunderstand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky) Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类说话的举世无双的特点.d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language, which means humanlanguage enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts whichare not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.(指人类说话可以让应用者来表示在措辞时(时光和处所)并不消失的物体,时光和不雅点.) Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of thisnectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The otherbees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Beecommunication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, itmust be the most recent food source.Displacement , as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does thingspresent. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of thepast, of the present, of the future.人类说话可以被用来指不在当时当地产生的工作,这就使得人类可以或许谈论很多工作而不受时空限制.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something thatis occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now andthere. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’ssystem, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it’s anunspeakable tiny sharee. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next isdescribed as cultural transmission.This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic bas is, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.（人类进修说话的才能有遗传基本,但任何具体的说话体系都必须经由过程传授和进修才能获得,这解释说话具有文化传递性,它不是靠人类的本能而获得的.）If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫体系的.f. interchangeability 交换性interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?Arbitrariness----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation. Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did no t make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.1.4 Origin of language 说话的来源1.5 functions of language 说话的功效Jakobson defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊界说了言语行动的六个要素：措辞者,受话者,语境,信息,语码,接触.Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:Referential function-----to convey message and information所指功效：传达信息Poetic function -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功效：完整就说话而说话Emotive function ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 情感功效：表达立场.感到和情感Cognitive function ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功效：经由过程敕令和请求去说服和影响他人Phatic function ----to establish communion with others 交感功效：与他人建议交换Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元说话功效：弄清意图.词语和意义They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交换运动的元素相对应,如语境,信息,措辞者,受话者,接触和语码等.Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出说话元功效的理论,即说话有：Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功效：建构了经验模子和逻辑关系Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功效：反应了社会关系textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功效：创立了说话与语境的关系Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他经由过程不雅察儿童说话的成长提出了说话的七种功效,他们是对象功效,掌握功效,表达功效,交互功效,自指性功效,教诲功效和想象功效.Function(功效): the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle informative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.(用说话交换,思虑等.说话功效包括信息功效,人际功效,施为功效,情感功效,交感性功效,娱乐性功效和元说话功效.)language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang (1988), language has three main functions:a tool of communications,a tool whereby people learn about the world;a tool by which people creat art.1.5.1 Informative function信息功效What is the informative function?Language serves an “informative function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.Informative function is also called ideational function i n the framework of functional grammar. 在功效语法的框架中,信息功效也被称为概念功效.Halliday notes that “language serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“说话为表达‘内容’办事：这个‘内容’就是措辞者的真实的经验世界,包括他自我意识的内部世界.“It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它须要人类的批示从其他的不同角度对待事物,而不是按照说话提醒给我们的那样去做.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功效1.5.3 Performative function 施为功效This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.1.5.4 Emotive function 情感功效1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类说话的功效之一,指说话的社会交互性.)broadly speaking, phatic function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说,交感性功效是指那些有助于解释,保持人际关系的表达,如俚语,打趣,行业话,礼仪性的外交,社会地域方言的转化等等.The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language(e.g., “how are you?” “fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi” , you ruin your friendship.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功效What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功效？The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issuer but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元说话功效metalanguage(元说话): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一说话等的说话或一套符号.What is the direct function?The “direction function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Mos t imperative sentences perform this function. E.g. “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J.Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”What is the interrogative function? 什么是疑问功效？When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g. “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s /listener’s answer.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!”;Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.6.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 说话学是对说话进行科学地研讨的学科.它所研讨的并不是某种特定的说话,而是人类所有的说话的共性.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conductedwith reference to some general theory of language structure.Observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryA linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of language, but toinvestigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how aperson learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study andgive them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned.(2) Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of thetotal statement.(3) Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguistshould be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics说话学的重要分支Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.说话学至少包括五个分支：语音.形态.句法.语义.和语用.General lingusitics 通俗说话学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把说话作为一个整体来研讨的学科被称为通俗说话学,它是说话学研讨中摸索人类说话的广泛性质和纪律的学科.1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研讨语音,包括言语的产生（也就是言语在实际中如何形成,传递和接收）,言语的声音,语音的描述和分类,词语和话语衔接等等.Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研讨的是语音和音节的构造,散布和序列,它将音位视为起止点,来处理说话的语音体系.音位是语音的最小的说话学单位,它可以或许区分意义的不同.英语精确有45个音位.Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研讨在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音,而音系学则是研讨这些语音中能形。

英语语言学概论第五章笔记

Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。

2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。

该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。

2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。

英语语言学笔记第三章

（2）是支配一组形式的共同因素
当人们在统计一篇文章或一段话中的频率时，看到一组名词如boy、boys或一组动词如check、checks、checked、checking，会分别把它们当作两个词、四个词计算。可是，在词典里它们各自被看作一个词，如这两个名词形式共用词根"boy"，四个动词形式全都共用词根"check"。因此，词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
为了减少"词"这一术语的含糊性，词位（lexeme）被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。例如，"write"和"fat"分别是例3－3中两组词的词位。
例3－3
write fat
writes fatter
wrote fattest
writing
written
ⅱ.助动词
以前习惯于把助动词（auxiliary）看作动词。因为其特有的性质，很难让人们将它们看作动词，现在语言学家倾向于把它们当作一个单独的词类。下面我们比较一下助动词和其他普通动词的用法：
例3－10
否定I（can't）come.
* I（wantn't）come.
倒置（Is he）coming?
*（Keeps he）coming?
（4）词类
上面所说的类别似乎是普遍的。要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似性来给词分组。在传统语法中词类（part of speech）是封闭的。基于拉丁语法的传统，一般建立八个或九个词类，如"名词"、"代词"、"形容词"、"动词"、"副词"、"介词"、"连词"、"感叹词"和"冠词"。

英语语言学导论笔记

一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。

英语语言学笔记（2）

⼆、⾳系学语⾔的声⾳媒介什么是语⾳学发⾳器官⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法英语语⾳的分类⾳系学和语⾳学语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴⼏条⾳系规则超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳，这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。

Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳，which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。

英语语言学第十一章笔记

英语语言学第十一章笔记以下是英语语言学第十一章的笔记：英语语言学第十一章：句法学1、句法学简介句法学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究句子的构造和规则。

它涉及词汇、词序、短语和句子等不同级别的语言单位，以及这些单位之间的关系。

2、句子的构成句子由主语和谓语构成。

主语通常由名词或名词短语担任，而谓语则描述主语的动作或状态。

例如，“The cat sat on the mat.”（猫坐在垫子上。

）中，“The cat”是主语，“sat”是谓语。

3、词序和短语词序是句子中词语的排列顺序。

在大多数情况下，英语中的主语、谓语和宾语的顺序是固定的。

此外，短语是一种由两个或更多词语组成、共同表达一个意思的语言单位。

常见的短语类型包括名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。

4、句子结构英语中的句子结构可以分为简单句和复杂句两种。

简单句是由一个主语和一个谓语组成的句子，例如“I am a student.”（我是一个学生。

）复杂句则包含一个或多个从句，从句通常是名词性从句或定语性从句。

例如，“The cat that sat on the mat is black.”（坐在垫子上的猫是黑色的。

）是一个包含定语性从句的复杂句。

5、转换语法转换语法是句法学的一个重要分支，研究如何通过改变词语的属性或结构来改变句子的意义。

例如，“I like eating pizza”和“Pizza is delicious”是两个意义不同的句子，但它们可以通过转换语法相互转化。

6、语言习得和句法学句法学在语言习得中扮演着重要的角色。

研究发现，儿童在习得语言时通常会先学会基本的词汇和短语，然后逐渐学习更复杂的句子结构和语法规则。

句法学的研究有助于我们更好地理解儿童语言习得的过程，也为二语习得提供了重要的理论依据。

英语语言学笔记清华大学

英语语言学笔记清华大学英语语言学笔记(1)一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。

The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2）a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation fromShakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性英语语言学笔记(2)二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

英语语言学概论第十章笔记

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。

人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。

儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。

b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。

英语语言学概论第十章笔记

人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。

儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。

英语语言学概论笔记(期末复习资料)

英语语言学概论笔记（期末复习资料）【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?―Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languag es have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English,―livre‖ in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, ―check‖ in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or―new‖. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?―Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell thedifference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque orunmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguist s refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into aninfinite更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person totalk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking si tuation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he cansay it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (byN.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?―Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. Ifa human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak thewolf’s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, ―Please do something to make me happy.‖ Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that 更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 ―speaking‖ and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ whichanimal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F.Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a hum an child. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the ―Wolf Child‖in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin etal., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic langua ge (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, orif you don’t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., ―Tell me the result whenyou finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin an d J.Searle’s ―indirect speech act theory‖(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278)at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s―Cooperative Principle‖(see HuZhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I’d liketo know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I’m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urgecustomers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions theutterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average socialindividual may do for the construction. The j udge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?―Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, butto investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave nolinguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjectivein the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes partof the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if itstopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle oflinguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speechis primary; because it existed long long before writing systems cameinto being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing aswritten codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if itonly describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguisticstudies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or reli gious) written records. Modernlinguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believesthat whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers ―langue‖to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. Thelangue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. Aspeaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造native language.(3) C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on manytopics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?―Phonetics‖ is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods fortheir description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin etal., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch ofphonetic research from the hearer’s point ofview, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and theresonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g.Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unroundvowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phoneticvariation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The form er was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) ―Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speechsounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the更多精华请登陆考研1号网【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. T he speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and threedifferent[p]’s, readily making possible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖,i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are theallophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g.,―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖,―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation‖. Theplosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.更多精华请登陆考研1号网。

英语语言学笔记第二章

英语语言学笔记第二章言语产生和言语感知人类可以发出各种声音，但只有其中一部分成为语言系统的单位。

正如我们从前面对语言的讨论中所看到的，语言首先是一个"语音符号系统"，语音远远早于文字而存在，并且，即使是今天，在世界的某些角落，还有些语言是没有文字系统的。

因此，语音的研究是语言学的一个主要组成部分。

在这一章中，我们将考察语音研究的方法以及使用的模式。

我们将从语音研究，即"语音学"开始，然后进入语音模式，即"音系学"的研究。

可以想象，语音被说话者A发出，然后，它被传递并被说话者B接收，语音如图2.1所示经历了3个阶段。

言语产生言语感知（说话者A）→（说话者B）图2.1 言语产生和言语感知过程语音研究自然地分成三个主要领域，一个领域就是一个步骤。

●发音语音学研究语音的产生。

●声学语音学研究语音的物理特征。

●听觉语音学和语音感知有关。

在本书中，我们只集中讨论发音语音学，不涉及其他的研究领域。

语言学教程2.2 言语器官言语器官，如图2.2所示，也经常被称作发音器官。

它们是人体中参与制造言语的部分。

这些器官，并非仅仅用在言语中，它们的主要功能其实是满足呼吸和进食等基本生理需要。

虽然如此，这些器官看起来是经历了长期的进化以适应言语的各种特定的需要。

因为它们的形成保证了其能有效地在言语行为中发挥作用。

如果去考察人体有多少部分参与了言语行为，你会大吃一惊，它们是：肺，气管，喉，鼻和口。

在口里，我们需要辨别舌及腭的不同部分。

在喉里，我们还要辨别咽（喉的上部）和喉头（喉的下部，包括声带）。

咽、口和鼻组成了声道的三大腔，口和鼻常被分别称为口腔和鼻腔。

图2.2 言语器官（略）发音以气流作为其能量来源。

大多数情况下，气流来自于肺部，它从肺里被挤出，然后通过细支气管和支气管（通往气管的一些管道分支）。

以这种方式产生的语音叫做"肺闭塞音"。

气管的顶端是喉头，喉头的前端是喉结。