语言学期末(这份是正确的)

一. What is language?

1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.

Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare

Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.

The design/defining /distinctive features of human language:

Arbitrariness (任意性）

Productivity/Creativity(创造性）

Duality （二元性、二层性）

Displacement （移位性）

Cultural transmission（文化传递性）

2.语言&言语

Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers

Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.

3. Synchronic vs. diachronic

Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.

Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.

二．语音学（选择题）

三．音位学Phonology

1.音位变体

Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布.

[p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.

In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context:

[p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.

/p/ [p] / [s] _____

[ph] elsewhere

2.互补分布Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.

dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].

四．形态学

**Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical

system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed:

chairman: chair, man

townhall: town, hall

boys: boy, -s

checking: check, -ing

disappointment: dis-, appoint, -ment

Free morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素

Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “ed”in “recorded”, etc.

**Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生语素和屈折性语素

Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. correct---incorrect, edit---co-edit, modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.

Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.

a) number: tables matches factories

b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked

c) case: John/John’s

d) comparison: tall/taller/tallest

1.构词法word formation

●Compound：smartphone, cutting-edge, domain name, cloakroom 衣帽间, state-of-the-art顶尖的, nursing

home, self-control, armchair

●Derivation派生法：un + conscious →unconscious,

nation + al →national,

national + ize →nationalize

nationalize + ation →nationalization

●Invention(新创词语): Facebook, Twitter, drones, microblog, e-tailer, smartphone, tsunami

●Blending(混成法):

smoke + fog> smog

motorist + hotel> motel

breakfast + lunch> brunch

modulator + demodulator> modem