工程造价外文翻译
工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照
本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low-carbon Development 文献、资料来源：Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表（出版）日期：\院（部）：\院专业：\外文文献China’s Pathway to Low-carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China’s current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon (LC) development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings –The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co-benefit approach are needed for China’s transition to a green and LC economy, and that, especially for developing countries, it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation. Instead, a concrete roadmap towards a LC future is needed that addresses key issues of technology transfer, institutional arrangements and sharing the costs in the context of a global climate regime. In this light, it is argued that China should adopt an approach for low-carbon development centred on carbon intensity reduction over the next ten years.Originality/value –The paper thus provides a unique summary, in English, of the arguments supporting China’s current low-carbon innovation policies from one of the authors of this policy. Keywords：Carbon, Sustainable development, Environmental management, Government policy, ChinaPaper type – Research paperClimate change has become the most significant environment and development challenge to human society in the twenty-first century. Responding to climate change is the core task to achieving global sustainable development, both for today and for a rather long period of time from today. International negotiations on prevention of global warming and related actions not only concern the human living environment, but also directly impact the modernization process of developing countries. Although the process of global climate protection depends on the consensus of our scientific awareness, political wills, economic intere sts, society’s level ofacceptance, as well as measures adopted, a low-carbon (LC) development path is, undoubtedly, the critical choice of future human development.The science basis of climate change and its extended political and economic implicationsGlobal warming of the climate system has become an unequivocal fact. According to a large amount of monitoring data, global average land surface temperature has risen 0.748C over the last century (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d). And the rate of rising has been sped up. In the meantime, global average sea level has been constantly rising too. Global warming has posed a serious challenge to China’s climate, environment and development. In the global context of climate change, China’s climate and environment are changing too. For instance, in the last century, the land surface average temperature has witnessed an obvious increase; though the precipitation has not changed too much, its interdecadal variations and regional disparity have been big. In the last 50 years, there have also been major changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather and climate events (Editorial Board of China’s National Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2007).The IPCC (2007a, b, c, d) integrated assessment shows that since 1750, human activities have been a major cause of global warming, while in the last 50 years, most of the global warming is the consequence of human activities, with a probability of more than 90 per cent, in particular from the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions due to the human use of fossil fuels. It is forecast that before the end of the twenty-first century, global warming will continue, and how much the temperature will rise depends on what actions humans will take. According the Third Working Group Report of the IPCC fourth Assessment (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d), human actions to mitigate climate change are feasible, both economically and technologically. Actions to deploy key mitigation technologies in various sectors, adopting policy and administrative interference and shifting the development pathway could all contribute greatly to mitigation of climate change.With China becoming the world’s largest CO2emitter, China faces increasing pressure to reduce its emissions. Being a responsible country, China will take actions to tackle climate change. When developing its mitigation target, China will consider such factors as level ofdevelopment, technology know-how, social impact, international image and a new international climate regime underpinned by fairness and effectiveness. China will move into a win-win development path to achieve climate protection, quality economic development and other related policy targets.To develop LC economy – background, opportunities and challengesAs illustrated above, systematic solutions are required to tackle climate change, due to the complexity of the global climate system as well as its coverage of broad social and economic issues. After nearly two decades’ exploration, human society has realized that in order to effectively mitigate and adapt to climate change, we have to fundamentally reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which means that we have to achieve the shift to a LC future from the way we produce and consume to how global assets are allocated (including industries, technology, capitals and resources) and how they are transferred. From the perspective of the limited storage capacity of GHGs in the climate system as a global public good, both a high level of human wisdom and a new international climate regime to deal with market failure are required, which also demands the participation of all stakeholders and together they shall charter a new development pathway. Human society has to pay the economic prices to solve climate warming. Thus, the three flexible “mechanisms” in the Kyoto Protocol ( joint implementation, emissions trading and clean development mechanism) demonstrate a meaningful experiment for the Annex I countries to decrease their emissions reduction costs. What is needed is to move forward from where we are now to explore a more universally applicable mechanism that would effectively allocate the resources among the key responsible stakeholders. The LC development path embodies an integrated solution strategy. It aims to build up a LC society through LC economic development, tries to achieve the restructuring of all the key elements discussed above and offers new opportunities for human society in response to climate change through collaborations.As a fundamental venue to coordinate social and economic development, guarantee energy security and respond to climate change, development of LC economy is gradually gaining the needed consensus from more and more countries. Though without a fixed academic definition, the core of developing a LC economy is to establish a development pathway that has high-energyefficiency, low-energy consumption and low emissions. Under a fair and effective international climate regime, the efficiency of energy exploration, generation, transmission, transformation and use is expected to be increased greatly and energy consumption greatly reduced, so that the carbon intensity in energy supply for economic growth is dramatically reduced, along with the carbon emissions from energy consumption. Through increasing carbon sink and using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, the GHG emissions from fossil fuels that are hard to reduce can be offset. In the meanwhile, through the establishment of reasonable and fair technology transfer and financial support mechanisms, developing countries can undertake the costs of shifting towards LC patterns while being at the lowest end of the value chain in the international trade structure. The perspectives of development value need to be changed in order to promote the transition of consumption towards a sustainable and LC future.What needs to be clarified is that, due to the differences of various countries’ social and economic contexts, the starting points towards a LC future might vary, as might the pursued goals. For developed countries that are taking the lead to commit to reduction targets, their first objective to develop a LC economy is to reduce emissions. For developing countries whose economies are still at a fast growing stage, their first priority is development and their per capita energy consumption is expected to continue to grow. The objectives shall be multiple. At the current stage, it is hard to mainstream the climate change policies domestically. What is possible is to reduce energy intensity and increase carbon productivity in order to gradually decouple economic growth and carbon emissions. What is equally important is that there exist many uncertainties in development of LC economy, particularly for developing countries. Tremendous difficulties and barriers need to be overcome in the process. At the international level, the uncertainties of developing LC economy include:Costs and markets – at this moment we could hardly be able to estimate the whole costs that are required to develop a LC economy. It is far from being as simple as calculating the direct costs of adopting LC technologies. It also takes time to establish LC technology and product markets, especially now, when the global financial crisis has hit everyone hard and when no one can give a good estimate about when the world economy could turn around and recover; though many experts and scholars hold that the response to the long-term climate change could bring new opportunities to economic recovery (Stiglitz, 2009; Wang, 2008b). What makes the situationmore complicated now is how the USA, China, India and other key countries would participate in the establishment of a LC market.Establishment of a fair international climate regime and mid- to long-term targets to tackle climate change – the development of a LC economy also depends on the international climate negotiation process and its result, of which the most critical element is whether it will result in legally binding global emissions reduction targets and the corresponding mechanisms of technology transfer and financial support, even if this was not established at Copenhagen.To date, even though some EU countries have achieved the decoupling of economic growth and carbon emissions, LC economy has not generated universally applicable, successful experiences; and what those experiences mean to developing countries still needs to be figured out and tested overtime.For developing countries, the difficulties and barriers to devel oping a LC economy are obvious, including current stage of development, international trade structure, economic costs, inadequate market, technology diffusion system, institutional arrangement, incentive policy and management system. From the historic evolution of the relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions in industrialized countries, most countries experienced successively the inverted U-shape curves of carbon intensity, per capita carbon emissions, and then total carbon emissions. But different countries or regions vary greatly in economic development level or per capita gross domestic product (GDP) relative to the carbon emissions peak. This shows that there does not exist a single, exact turning point between economic growth and carbon emissions. If you examine those countries or regions that have passed the carbon emissions pe ak, roughly 24-91 years, on average 55 years, are required between the peak of carbon emissions intensity and that of per capita carbon emissions. Some driving forces to reach different peaks have been shown in Figure 1 in terms of experience in the past and scenario analysis in the future. The point is, without strong mandatory emissions reduction measures and external support, developing countries will need relatively longer time to reach the peak of carbon emissions growth and then stabilize and decreaseStrategic measuresOn the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, the LC path with Chinese characteristics shall also focus on gradually setting up “resource-e fficient, environment-friendly and LC-oriented” society. Guided by LC development strategy and its targets, efforts shall be made to develop relevant institutional arrangements, improve management systems, stipulate development plans, accumulate experience from demonstrations and pilots, and push forward LC economic development in an orderly manner, so that a sustainable and LC future can be shaped for China. Four major aspects are the key starting points to structure a LC social and economy system:(1) Establish a legal and regulatory framework addressing climate change and improving the macro-management system. The legislative feasibility and legal model of “Law to Address Climate Change” shall be debated and articulated. Also, in the legislation process of other laws and regulations, articles related to response to climate change shall be included. For instance, a technical guideline of strategic environmental assessment shall include articles related to climate change impact assessment. A legal and regulatory framework of responding to climate change will gradually emerge. Owing to the fact that China’s administrative authority in charge of climate change remains weak and lacks capability, first, the Leading Group of the State’s Response to Climate Change and Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction Work shall play its full roles when a more flexible and diverse departmental coordination mechanism is established; and the group shall put forward strategic measure recommendations in response to climate change. Second, capacity building shall be strengthened and more administrative resources shall be allocated, so that better preparation is made for the next round of government restructuring to further improve the administrative level of the government department in charge of climate change.(2) Establish long-acting mechanism framework of LC development and stipulate related LC development policies in an orderly manner. Institutional innovation is the key to embarking on a LC development path. China shall become more pragmatic in developing a long-term incentive mechanism and policy measures that are in favour of energy saving, environmental protection and climate protection, guided by the balanced development framework and achieve the LC transition at government and business levels. At this moment, many regions and citieshave expressed their interest and enthusiasm toward LC development. As well as the complexity of LC economy and the diversity of models, related guidelines shall be rolled out to guide the macro policy and regulate the content, model, direction of development and assessment indicator system of a LC economy. Experiences and lessons from other countries can be examined and learned in order to move forward LC development in an orderly and healthy manner. Special planning and programs shall be developed at national level, and then some representative regions and cities, as well as some key sectors, can be selected for LC piloting purpose. When the market matures, LC markets shall be set up through regulating the pricing mechanism and stipulating fiscal and incentive policies.(3) Strengthen collaboration and establish a healthy LC technology system. Technological innovation is the core element in LC development. Government shall adopt integrated measures to offer a relaxed and favourable policy environment for business development and create and provide better institutional guarantees for technological innovation. As a result, the R&D and diffusion of high-energy efficiency and LC emissions technologies can be strengthened in both production and consumption. A diverse LC technology system will be gradually built for energy saving and energy efficiency, clean coal and clean energy, renewable energy and new energy, as well as carbon sinks. The level of commercialization will be improved. Thus, a strong technological foundation will be provided for LC transition and shift in the ways of economic growth. China shall also further strengthen international collaboration, not only through the climate-related international cooperation mechanism to import, absorb and adopt advanced technologies from other countries, but more importantly, through participating in the stipulation of related internation al sectoral energy efficiency standards and standard of carbon intensity, as well as benchmarking. China could consider voluntary or mandatory benchmarking management to elevate some key LC technologies, equipment and products to international leadership level.(4) Establish collaboration mechanism with all stakeholders’ participation.Low-carbon development is not just for government or business; instead, it requires all related stakeholders’ as well as the whole society’s participation. Owing to the fact that there exist some inadequacies in the general public’s awareness of climate change, publicity, education and training are required in combination with policy incentives to transform the public’s perception and thinking, increase the public’s awareness on response to climate change and gradually reach consensus on focusing onLC consumption behaviours and models. Joint actions with all the stakeholders are needed to resist the potential risks from climate change.References：EIA (2008), International Energy Outlook, EIA, USDOE, Washington, DC.He, J. (2008), “Addressing climate change through developing low carbon economy”, Keynote Speech in Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change, Beijing October 23. IEA (2008), World Energy Outlook 2008, IEA, Paris.IPCC (2007a), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, available at: www.ipcc.chIPCC (2007b), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, available at: www.ipcc.ch IPCC (2007c), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, available at:www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdfIPCC (2007d), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Jiang, K. (2007), “A scenario research on China’s greenhouse gas emissions”,International Climate Change Regime: A Study on Key Issues in China, China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing, pp. 8-24.Stiglitz, J.E. (2009), “Three ways to global economic recovery”, available at:/pl/2009-01-13/082317033320.shtmlWang, Y. (2008a), “A low carbon path with Chinese characteristics”,Greenleaf, No. 8, pp.46-52.Wang, Y. (2008b), Summary of Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change: Not to Delay Climate Change Progress by Financial Crisis, available at: /news/gjcj/200810/t1981142.htm中文翻译：中国低碳发展的途径摘要：目的：这篇论文的是探索中国现存的政策和针对低碳发展政策的其他可选方向。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照教学内容
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes theproject's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized set ting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and da ta to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). • Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll cometo in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accou nting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where differe nt corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the tot al Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we ha ve the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for t he cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule act ivities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Per formed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价专业中英文资料外文翻译文献
工程造价专业中英文资料外文翻译文献外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects ar e involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddl e through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). • Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at co nstitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to t he project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, th ere may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Ex ecutive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Pack ages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoin gwork is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You c an plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include theBusiness Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• EvEry projEct starts with somEonE idEntifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• to dEtErminE thE suitability of thE potEntial projEct, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its"Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• thE cost of thE work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• if thE businEss casE has sufficiEnt mErit, approval will bE givEn to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• thE objEctivE of t he Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• in a formalizEd sEtting, EspEcially whErE big projEcts arE involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• this rEquirEs thE collEction of morE dEtailEd rEquirEmEnts and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• in a lEss formalizEd sEtting, EvEryonE just triEs to muddlE through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• if thE dElivErablE consists of a numbEr of diffErEnt ElEmEnts, thEsE are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each wp involvEs a sEt of activitiEs, thE "work" that is plannEd and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• this projEct managEmEnt plan, by thE way, should bEcomE thE "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• thE cost of doing thE various activitiEs is thEn EstimatEd and thEsE estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the totalwork of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• howEvEr, an EstimatE of thE work alonE is not sufficiEnt for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• in addition, it may bE nEcEssary to convErt thE Estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• in practicE all thE data for thE typE of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. Forexample:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects Parametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• whichEvEr approach is adoptEd, hopEfully thE sum thus arrivEd at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• if sEnior managEmEnt approvEs thE rfa as prEsEntEd, thE sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• for thE approvEd rfa, thE projEct sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• thE nEt sum thus arrivEd at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• oncE this approvEd projEct budgEt is rElEas ed to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongstthe various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• on a largE projEct whErE diffErEnt corporatE production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• obsErvE that, sincE thE total projEct budgEt rEcEivEd formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• in such a casE thE projEct's sponsor will EithEr draw down on thE management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• now that wE havE thE projEct budgEt monEy allocatEd to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• this providEs us with thE basE of rEfErEncE for thE cost controlfunction. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• if wE havE thE nEcEssary dEtails anothEr control tool that wE can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• but EssEntially, you takE thE costs of thE schEdulE activitiEs and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• this plannEd reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• now, as thE work progrEssEs, you can plot thE "actual cost of workPerformed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• you can plot othEr things as wEll, sEE diagram rEfErrEd to abovE, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价_英语_短语翻译
⏹（一）1.政府机构governmental agency2.承包商contractor3.分包商subcontractor4.建筑师architect5.保险公司insurance company6.担保公司surety company7.材料商material dealer/supplier8.施工现场construction site⏹（二）项目规划设计和施工project planning, design and construction 临时设施temporary job facilities项目预算project budget投资和合同授予过程bidding and contract award process质量控制quality control项目的监督project supervision7.进度款progress payment合同变更contract change满足业主要求suit the individual owner's requirements 以业主的名义in the name of the owner◆（三）卷入诉讼------ be involved in litigation公共工程------ public work承包商的注册-- contractors’ register某此因素------ certain factors合同工期------ duration of contract相对重要性---- relative importance担保能力------ bonding capacity现有工作任务-- current workload⏹（四）投标公告notice to bidders招标邀请函invitation to bidders标书格式bid forms标书分析bid analysis主要供应商major supplier投标保函bid bonds未预见情况unforeseen circumstances质量保证期quality guarantee period标书接收的地点和时间the time and place for the receipt of bids警察，消防和街道代表police, fire, and street department representatives●（五）材料价格material price分包商的报价subcontractor's quotation机具设备租赁费equipment hire rates向供应商询价enquire supplier工程量清单bill of quantitie s墙砖wall tiles / brick防潮层damp-proof courses水泥cement粗骨料coarse aggregates回扣discount◆（刘）平面布置图和立面图schematic layouts and elevations规划许可planning permission建筑业管理许可building regulations approval工程质量project quality装修工程的造价the cost of decoration projects合同文本contract documents合同图纸contract drawings承包人义务contractor's obligations指定供应商和分包商specified suppliers and subcontractors 开工和竣工时期the start and completion dates中期付款interim payments缺陷责任期the defects liability period⏹（七）法律框架legal framework相关各方parties concerned标准文本standard forms标准条款standard clauses特殊条款special clauses业主姓名the name of the employer工料测量师quantity surveyor公共机构public bodys签名和印章signature and seal印花税stamp duty●（八）投标明细或价值明细表bid breakdown or schedule of values 污水处理厂wastewater treatment plant地下管线underground utility lines道路改建roads improvements开挖与回填excavation and backfill筑堤embankment延长英尺linear feet平方英尺square feet延期罚款条款liquidated damages clauses for delay 工程造价construction pricing /cost of construction 管理费和利润overhead and profit合同管理contract administration（九）造价师/工料测量师quantity surveyor建筑设计阶段building design stage可行性分析阶段feasible analysis stage概算approximate estimate施工图设计阶段construction drawing design stage 建筑面积floor spac e成本效益分析cost and profit analysis养护费maintenance cost◆（十一）项目经理project manager现场管理Management of construction field项目成本和时间控制project cost and time control 技术复杂性technical complexity施工方法construction methods设计阶段design stage材料替代material substitute/alternatives管理机构regulatory agency材料和设备供应商material and equipment suppliers材料和设备的运输时间the delivery times of materials and project equipment●Twelve总承包商the general contractor业主the owner影响费用impact costs间接损失consequential damages项目总进度计划overall project schedule项目网络图project network变更条款change clauses备忘录memoranda延迟提交索赔defer claims submission提出索赔file a claim。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executivemanagement responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential pro ject, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become t he "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive ata capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addi tion, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data • Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project Note: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior ma nagement approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes theresponsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget. Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EVprocess designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价英语
工程造价英语工程造价英语是指相关于工程造价方面的英语词汇和句子，主要涉及到工程项目的估算、预算、投标、合同、支付等方面。
在工程造价领域中，英语是必不可少的语言工具，因为许多国际工程项目都需要使用英语进行沟通和交流。
以下是一些常见的工程造价英语词汇和句子：1. Estimate - 估算2. Budget - 预算3. Bid - 投标4. Contract - 合同5. Payment - 支付6. Cost breakdown - 成本分析7. Quantity surveyor - 工料测量师8. Bill of quantities - 工程量清单9. Variation order - 变更单10. Cost control - 成本控制例句：1. We need to estimate the cost of this project before we can proceed.我们需要在继续进行之前估算一下这个项目的成本。
2. The budget for this project has been approved by the board.这个项目的预算已经被董事会批准了。
3. Several companies have submitted bids for the project.几家公司已经为这个项目提交了投标书。
4. The contract for the project has been signed and is now in effect.这个项目的合同已经签署并已生效。
5. Payment for the completed work will be made within 30 days.完成的工作的支付将在30天内完成。
6. We need to do a cost breakdown to see where we can save money.我们需要进行成本分析，看看哪里可以节省费用。
(完整版)工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants。
Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis， must also be considered important。
Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design。
But this need not be so。
If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe。
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital)Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).•This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter•If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate•However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.•In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data•Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital•If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility•Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan. •On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for theseparate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management. • Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject. • But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in. The Cost Baseline•This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).•Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changesthe project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action". CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照(20200610064406)
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, youmonitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then youmake adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle atsuitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, youmay have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidencedby the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significantamount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So letus follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the properplaces for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the WorkBreakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan,Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization'sability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They mustalso recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase?Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and thatperson often becomes the project's sponsor.? To determine the suitability of the potential pr oject, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify thevalue of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted inthe Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization'smanagement of the entire project portfolio.? The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that arenot so carried forward??If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase? The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of thework involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capitalfunding for the actual execution of the project.? In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application forfunding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriati on Request (CAR).? This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish whatwork needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in adollar figure to be included in the request.? In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter? If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified。
工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照
本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low—carbon Development文献、资料来源: Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表（出版）日期:V ol。
2 No。
3, 2010院（部)：管理工程学院专业：工程造价外文文献China’s Pathway to Low—carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China's current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon （LC）development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings – The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co—benefit approach are needed for China's transition to a green and LC economy，and that, especially for developing countries，it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation。
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关于全面造价管理的研究文献综述1．前言建设项目全面造价管理是一种全新的建设项目造价管理模式,全面造价管理就是有效地使用专业知识和专门技术去计划和控制资源、造价、盈利和风险。
简单地说，全面造价管理是一种管理各种企业、工作、设施、项目产品或服务的全过程造价的系统方法。
全面造价管理是一个工程实践领域，在这个领域中，工程经验和判断与科学原理和技术方法相结合，以解决经营管理和工作计划，造价预算，经济和财务分析，造价工程，工作与项目管理，计划与排产，造价与进度的情况度量与变更控制等问题。
2．研究现状“美国造价工程师协会（AACEI）”指出：全面造价管理的理论与方法是与建设工程项目的特点所分不开的。
建设项目全面造价管理的理论与方法包括以下四方面内容：工程项目全过程造价管理、工程项目全要素造价管理、工程项目全风险造价管理和工程项目全团队造价管理。
2.1 建设项目全过程造价管理工程项目是人类通过自己的生产技术活动，将各种资源转化为人们所需工程设施的一种独特的过程。
一个工程项目的全过程是由许多个分过程和许许多多子过程构成的。
譬如通常把一个工程项目的建设分为投资决策、可行性研究、设计、招投标、施工及竣工阶段等。
而每个过程、分过程、子过程又是由许多不同的具体活动构成的。
所以一个工程项目的全过程造价是由各个分过程、子过程的造价构成的，而这些分过程和子过程的造价又是由许多项具体活动的造价构成的。
因此，工程项目的全过程造价管理必须是基于活动与过程的，必须是按照工程项目的过程与活动的组成与分解的规律去实现对于项目全过程的造价管理。
在这样一个过程中，又包括两个工作内容：①基于各项具体活动造价的确定。
其工作的具体步骤如下：明确要确定的具体活动的造价种类，是估算、概算还是预算等；根据所需造价的精确程度，收集相应精确程度的工程技术资料和其它信息；对项目的全过程所包含的各项活动进行分析；确定各项具体活动的造价；将各项具体活动的造价进行整理汇总，最后得到基于活动的整个项目的总造价。
在以上步骤中，最重要的是活动分析和确定各项具体活动的造价这两个步骤. ②基于建设项目活动过程和全过程的造价控制。
其工作的核心包括两个循环，即全过程的控制与持续改善循环和具体活动过程的控制与持续改善循环，其中具体活动过程的控制与持续改善循环可描述如下：确定要控制的过程；对控制对象开展活动分析；找出具体活动过程中存在的问题；分析和改进现有的具体行动方法，以使其达到最佳；对“未使用能力”进行分析，以确定是否有闲置的占用性资源；结束当前的分析过程，开始新的循环。
全过程的控制与持续改善循环是由许多个个体活动过程的控制与持续改善循环所构成的。
其具体阶段如下：2.1.1 建设前期工程造价控制项目建设前期,是指项目立项、进行可行性研究的投资决策阶段。
这一阶段对建设项目工程造价的控制,在总体上起到决定性作用。
建设厂址的选择、投资方案的选择以及项目在技术上和经济上是否可行,无一不对工程造价产生重大影响,决定着项目未来的命运,特别是厂址选择和矿山开采项目的矿点选择、选定厂址和矿点的水位和地质情况、厂区地形和地面高程、土地价格、外部建设条件都直接影响到建设工程造价的高低、建设工期的长短以及项目建成投产后的营运成本和经济效益。
2.1.2设计阶段的工程造价控制设计方案优化程度,设计图纸是否完整清楚,都会影响工程总造价。
在投资确定的基础上,应该采取限额设计,在设计的每一个阶段,及各个专业设计时都要具有造价控制的意识。
在可研阶段和初步设计阶段,应将限额设计与价值工程中的功能分析相结合,遵循PDCA循环的模式,既要做到以最少的投资换取最大效益,又要保证设计质量,从而达到合理降低工程造价的目的。
在结构设计当中,应对不同结构方案分别做出经济分析,根据使用功能选择最合理的结构方案,大幅度降低工程造价。
项目管理论坛2.1.3招投标阶段的工程造价控制工程招标投标是按竞争方式以合理的最低造价来择优选择施工企业的一种有效机制。
通过投标竞争来择优选择承包商,不仅有利于确保工程质量和缩短工期,更有利于降低工程造价,是造价控制的一个重要手段造价咨询单位应注意做好如下工作:协助业主制定招标计划,充分了解业主的要求选择不同的招标方式,使业主认识到合理的工程造价;协助业主综合考虑施工单位的信誉、人员素质、工程施工组织设计、质量保证措施等条件。
由于投标企业施工方案的优劣.直接影响工程的建设安装造价,应特别注意不能忽视施工方案对造价的影响;协助业主签定合同。
合同作为贯穿整个施工过程的结算过程的合约,是确定工程造价的主要依据,对工程造价的控制起着十分重要的作用。
初步明确工程项目的结算方式,合同价变更的规定,材料、设备的供应方式,分包工程的管理等方面的内容,避免“低报价、高索赔”的发生;提醒业主注意建设工期对工程造价的影响。
业主要求的建设工期往往比正常工期大大压缩,应让业主认识到加快施工进度来缩短工期,会增加人力或机械设备及高费用。
从而增加工程造价。
所以,与合理工期相比。
延长和缩短工期都会增加造价。
2.1.4施工实施阶段的工程造价控制实施阶段工程造价的控制，是建设全过程工程造价控制不可缺少的重要一环。
首先，应认真做好建设工程招投标工作，完善招投标制度，优选施工队伍，实行工程总承包；严格执行建筑市场管理条例，选用合理的建筑材料及制品，加强施工管理；加强对隐蔽工程的验收，合理组织施工，是控制工程造价的关键。
促使施工单位采取措施精打细算，压缩各项费用开支，降低成本，提高市场竞争力，为施工企业健康发展，增添压力和活力。
其次，严格按规定和合同拨付工程进度款，严格控制工程变更。
最后，及时处理索赔工作，做到这些就能够有效地进行工程造价控制。
2.1.5 竣工结算阶段对工程造价控制有一定的影响竣工结算阶段是项目建设全过程的最后一个程序，是全面考核建设工作，检查设计、工程质量是否符合要求，审查投资是否合理的重要环节，它对保证工程质量，促进建设项目及其投产，发挥投资效益，总结经验教训都有重要作用．在此阶段，工作人员应全面汇集在工程建设中实际花费的全部费用，编制好竣工决算，以达到工程造价的全过程控制．2.1.6 建设项目后评价是工程造价全过程控制方法的必要补充后评价是在项目投资完成以后，通过对项目目的、执行过程、效益、作用和影响所进行的全面系统的分析，总结正反两方面的经验教训，使项目的决策者、管理者和建设者学习到更加科学合理的方法和策略，提高决策、管理和建设水平．实际上，工程造价控制归根结底是对人的行为的控制，而后评价是增强工作者责任心的重要手段．由于后评价的透明性和公开性特点，通过对投资活动成绩和失误的主客观原因分析，可以比较公正客观地确定投资决策者、管理者和建设者工作中实际存在的问题，以提高人们的责任心和工作水平，进而达到控制工程造价的目的．2.2建设项目全要素造价管理由于工程项目的实现过程中每项活动都受三个基本要素：造价、工期与质量的影响。
因此工程项目的造价不仅需要从全过程造价管理入手去考虑对于一个项目造价的全面管理，而且还需要从管理好影响工程项目造价的全部要素人手，去考虑对于一个项目造价的全面管理。
在工程项目全过程中，上述三个要素是相互影响和相互转化的，一个工程项目的工期和质量在一定条件下可以转化成工程项目的造价。
项目工期的长短和质量的高低都会直接造成工程造价的变动。
例如，当需要缩短工期时，就需要增加额外的资源投入，这样工期的缩短就转化成了造价的增加。
同样，当需要提高工程质量时，也需要增加资源的投入，这样质量的提高就转化成了造价的增加。
因此对于工程项目的全面造价管理而言，还必须从影响造价的全要素管理的角度，去分析和找出一套从全要素管理人手的全面造价管理具体技术方法。
要实现对于建设项目的全要素管理，其工作内容主要包括两个方面：即分析和预测各要素的变动与发展趋势以及控制这些要素的变动以实现造价管理的目标。
全要素造价管理同样是一个不断循环往复的过程。
因为对于一个建设项目来讲，在其实施的过程中，经常会发生对目标和控制指标进行修正的情况，与此相应的全要素造价管理中也必须要有目标和控制指标的重新修订，通过不断的修订过程，逐步开展各项全要素造价管理活动循环过程。
2.3建设项目全风险造价管理建设项目的实现过程和一般的产品生产过程不同，它是在一个存有许多风险的不确定性外部环境和条件下进行的，由于这样一个特点，使用建设项目的造价中就包含了三种不同的成分：确定性的造价、风险性的造价和完全不确定性的造价。
这些不同性质的造价一直贯穿于建设项目实施的全过程，只有到项目完成时，才会最终形成一个完全确定的工程造价，因此对于建设项目的全面造价管理还必须从全面管理确定性造价、风险性造价和完全不确定性造价的角度去开展工作。
建设项目全风险造价管理包括三个方面的工作内容：其一是分析、识别和确定风险事件和风险性造价；其二是控制风险事件的发生与发展；其三是直接控制全风险造价。
对风险性造价进行控制，又包括造价变动的分析、造价的控制、造价的报告和不可预见费等工作。
建设项目全风险造价管理仍然是一个循环的过程，它在建设项目的全过程中要不断地重复风险识别、风险控制、风险性造价控制，直到项目结束为止。
2.4建设项目全团队造价管理在工程项目实现过程中会涉及到参与项目建设的多个不同的利益主体。
这些利益主体包括：工程项目的项目法人或业主，承担工程项目设计任务的设计单位或建筑师与工程师，承担工程项目监理工作的工程监理咨询单位或监理工程师，承担工程项目造价管理工作的造价工程咨询单位或造价工程师与工料测量师，承担工程项目施工任务的造价工程咨询单位或造价工程师与工料测量师，承担工程项目施工任务的施工单位或承包商及分包商，以及提供各种工程项目所需物料、设备的供应商等等。
这些不同的利益主体，一方面为实现同一工程项目而共同合作，另一方面依照分工去完成工程项目的不同任务，而获得各自的收益。
在一个工程项目的实现过程中，这些利益主体都有各自的利益，而且有时这些利益主体之间的利益还会发生冲突。
这样就要求在工程项目的造价管理中必须全面协调各个利益主体之问的利益和关系，将这些利益相互冲突的不同主体联合在一起构成一个全面合作的团队，并通过这个团队的共同努力，去实现对于工程项目的全面造价管理。
在全团队造价管理中，造价工程师起着特殊作用，既是造价信息的记录、收集、处理与提供者，也是各种造价管理行动方案的评价者，造价管理沟通和决策的辅助者，是合作各方的造价管理执行者。
总之，造价工程师是全团队造价管理中主要的决策辅助人员和造价管理作业人员，需要具有很高的专业知识与技能。
工程造价管理是一项不确定性很强的工作，在项目实施的过程中，会出现许多不可预见的事项,而对这些事项或者说风险的防范，仅仅靠投资(成本)的控制是很难能做好的,需要对工程造价管理的全过程、全要素进行系统的计划与控制。