重庆交通大学工程造价外文翻译
外文翻译----工程造价管理浅论
the stage of the project cost managementAbstract：Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：project cost；the current stage of the project；project cost management；Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community，China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However，the current budget for the construction projects - estimate，budget，Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process，stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage，the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages，use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s，1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget，content，methods and approval，the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation，approval，management authority，and so on.With the historical process，after recovery，reform and development，formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However，as the socialist market economic development，the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking，the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. Enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy，and，at the time under the conditions of productivity，will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions，as long as a certain level of investment，will be certain outputs. In this environment，the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices，wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment，the budget estimate for the system approved project cost，help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established，requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years，international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China，the traditional practice in an objective light onthe cause decision-making，implementation heavy，light the economy and technology，First，the consequences of victimization，Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control，cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second，the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances，My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept，building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal，learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries，and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system，efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence，The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price，and focusing only on the construction process of cost control，neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. Ithas a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects，the information cannot be fully，comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small，estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost，many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue，and should be a number of factors，a combination of practical，comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits，with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage，rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study，the work is done well，returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise，invest more，less effective，resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present，some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue，false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors，actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems，lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project andhad to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective，even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore，in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs，we must do the following aspects: Implementationof the construction project and corporate accountability，Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.A realistic approach to market analysis，to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making，reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness，design task more scientific and reliability.Capital financing must have a formal commitment document，the parties must do investment funds in place，and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.To strengthen the engineering geology，hydrology，geology and land，water，electricity，transport，environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research，comparison of similar projects，seriously functional analysis，multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation，and the final technologically advanced，functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects，thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of theamount of investment，so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time，China's building control very effective，- investment projects is not uncommon，this will affect owners of investment returns，it adds to the owners and within budget，as well as difficulties in fund owners，the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears，and so on. Hence，the control of the project cost is of great significance，however the project cost is the primary means of control design，Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control，and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact，it is wrong，on the contrary，Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design，construction methods，materials and equipment types，models of the project cost is of critical significance，design optimization phase of the program or minor changes，project cost will have a significant impact，Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: As the owners must design，the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level，and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between，We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design，Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget，certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same，and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than30%，and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost，and good design is often low cost，We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels，the design works naturally，therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method，the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements，cost control targets，and so on.Otherwise，in the subsequent design process design units will put an increase in the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market，compared to select the best design units.Promoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France，in accordance with applicable，economic，aesthetic principles and advanced technology，reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements，comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design，selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology，unique novelty，adaptability，as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea，contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality，strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.Strengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design，maturetechnology，reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program，in the effective control of the project cost will play a role. 1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved，excluding unfavorable factors may generally is excluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control，construction began at best to save and invest 20%，the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates，to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of the Commissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options，the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study，to the design staff costs，to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.Design actively promote the so-called cap limit design，even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates，guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget，according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits，and every one professional，each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process，designers should progress to more programs，design optimization，ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable，innovative，stylish，and do not break the limit investment objectives，thus eliminating theengineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards，or only consider the technical feasibility of the program，rather than economic rationality phenomenon，the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis，is a modern scientific management technique，is a new techno-economic analysis，is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on cost reduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies，construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period，a lot of wastage，poor quality，high-cost problems. Value Engineering laws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object，on average; From comparison choose the best design.Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise，in the investment decision-making stage，the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits，strive in various construction projects rational use of human，material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy，to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex，this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process，it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The implementation phase of the projects. The implementation phase of the project cost management is theimplementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management，construction management and settlement management.Bidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means，bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects，shortening the construction cycle return on the investment，construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in bidding for projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise，in the tender document to include not only the usual content，like tender notes before schedule，tender notes，the conditions of the contract，the contract terms of the agreement，contract format，technical specifications，drawings，tender documents and other reference format，it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory，Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory，in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects，unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules，according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged，obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective，impartial，scientific，and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget，and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience，and the material and mechanical construction technology forcomprehensive scientific knowledge，in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules，and the sub-projects division engineering units，and in accordance with design drawings，design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general，the entries must be simple，while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division，the situation was different; We may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers，seriously study design drawings，Analysis of the tender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements，all familiar with the process，and to the scene of serious investigation，is forecast to make possible the construction of the case，right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition，because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units，clearly paying the price for the same overall price，the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements，and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineeringassessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work，construction program，a comprehensive technical evaluation process，thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract，while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable，legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A，B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract，effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract，to do the management contract documentation，contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved，in addition to establishing a technical files，Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis，results of the analysis to take proactive measures.Construction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target，Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small，but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.Construction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work，a reasonable construction plan，shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project，improving economic efficiency，Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared，through qualitative and quantitative analysis，the quality，time，Cost three technical and economic indicators，be rational，and effective use of manpower，material and financial resources，achieve better economic efficiency，good construction management relations，a comprehensive cost management is an important way.Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budget. Construction of the changes caused by many reasons，including works poorly designed，so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; The current market supply of materials does not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore，in the construction process，we must tighten customs change，through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents，the best implementation of the "grade control，visa quota" system. Right to change the design，particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units，construction units scene representatives，supervision engineers common signature，and should be ahead of this type of change，reduce losses，because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents，it is bound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore，the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site，to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction project supervision system，the establishment of specialized departments，Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas，not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building，Supervisor，the construction site together representatives signed the way toensure that change，visa authenticity，legitimacy，economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction，the construction units to enhance on-site construction management，supervision and construction side according to the drawings，and strictly control the change of the negotiations，materials substitution，the scene visas，and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards，after money，Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level，things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record，particularly concealed records and visas，reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious，works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble，lead to considerable economic losses，the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review of inventories，Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project. BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects，occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology，life and safety aspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original，itemized checking identification，inconsistent make revisions.Control material consumption，rationally define material prices. Cost of the project control materials price control is the main，the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion，usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%，representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices，so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels，variety and price range materials，construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates，with the progress of the scene，the market，hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.Technology and economic integration，strengthening investment control. Effective control of the investment，from organizational，technical，economic，contracts，and other measures. Therefore，the construction units must strengthen management，engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept，the quality of education，Training pragmatic working style，the construction side to help improve construction design，reasonable security，financial，and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked to choose both economic and scientific potential solutions，overcome the waste caused by command，to give due attention to the importance of investment in conservation，is responsible for the engineering technician with the combination of economic officers from the tender，contract negotiations，costing the budget，signed paid to the progress of the completion of the accounts，a cost analysis，the whole process management and strictly control the cost of the project.。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照教学内容
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes theproject's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized set ting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and da ta to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). • Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll cometo in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accou nting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where differe nt corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the tot al Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we ha ve the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for t he cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule act ivities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Per formed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价外文文献
工程造价外文文献IntroductionAs the construction industry continues to grow, the importance of engineering cost is becoming more and more significant. Engineering cost refers to the cost of the materials, labor, and overhead necessary to complete a construction project. It is important for engineers to have a thorough understanding of engineering cost in order to accurately estimate and budget for projects. In this paper, we will review some of the key concepts and factors that influence engineering cost.Factors Influencing Engineering CostThere are a variety of factors that can influence engineering cost, including:1. Material costs: The cost of the materials used in a project can have a significant impact on the overall engineering cost. The cost of materials can be affected by a number of factors, including availability, location, and quality.2. Labor costs: The cost of labor is another key factor in engineering cost. Labor costs can be influenced by the level of expertise required for the project, as well as the location and availability of labor.3. Overhead costs: Overhead costs include expenses such as rent, utilities, and insurance. These costs can vary depending on the size and location of the project.4. Design complexity: The complexity of the project design can also impact engineering cost. More complex designs may require specialized materials and labor, which can increase costs.5. Project location: The location of the project can also impact engineering cost. Projects in urban areas may have higher labor and material costs, while projects in rural areas may have higher transportation costs.6. Timefra The timeframe for completing a project can also influence engineering cost. Projects that need to be completed quickly may require additional labor and materials, which can increase costs.ConclusionEngineering cost is an important factor to consider when planning and budgeting for construction projects. By understanding the key factors that can influence engineering cost, engineers can develop more accurate estimates and budgets. Additionally, by monitoring engineering cost throughout the project, engineers can identify potential cost overruns and take corrective action to keep the project on track.。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include theBusiness Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• EvEry projEct starts with somEonE idEntifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• to dEtErminE thE suitability of thE potEntial projEct, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its"Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• thE cost of thE work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• if thE businEss casE has sufficiEnt mErit, approval will bE givEn to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• thE objEctivE of t he Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• in a formalizEd sEtting, EspEcially whErE big projEcts arE involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• this rEquirEs thE collEction of morE dEtailEd rEquirEmEnts and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• in a lEss formalizEd sEtting, EvEryonE just triEs to muddlE through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• if thE dElivErablE consists of a numbEr of diffErEnt ElEmEnts, thEsE are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each wp involvEs a sEt of activitiEs, thE "work" that is plannEd and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• this projEct managEmEnt plan, by thE way, should bEcomE thE "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• thE cost of doing thE various activitiEs is thEn EstimatEd and thEsE estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the totalwork of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• howEvEr, an EstimatE of thE work alonE is not sufficiEnt for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• in addition, it may bE nEcEssary to convErt thE Estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• in practicE all thE data for thE typE of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. Forexample:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects Parametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• whichEvEr approach is adoptEd, hopEfully thE sum thus arrivEd at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• if sEnior managEmEnt approvEs thE rfa as prEsEntEd, thE sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• for thE approvEd rfa, thE projEct sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• thE nEt sum thus arrivEd at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• oncE this approvEd projEct budgEt is rElEas ed to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongstthe various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• on a largE projEct whErE diffErEnt corporatE production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• obsErvE that, sincE thE total projEct budgEt rEcEivEd formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• in such a casE thE projEct's sponsor will EithEr draw down on thE management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• now that wE havE thE projEct budgEt monEy allocatEd to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• this providEs us with thE basE of rEfErEncE for thE cost controlfunction. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• if wE havE thE nEcEssary dEtails anothEr control tool that wE can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• but EssEntially, you takE thE costs of thE schEdulE activitiEs and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• this plannEd reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• now, as thE work progrEssEs, you can plot thE "actual cost of workPerformed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• you can plot othEr things as wEll, sEE diagram rEfErrEd to abovE, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价与管理论文英文文献中英对照
英文文献Engineering cost managementProject cost control emphasis should be transferred to the project construction early days, is transferred to the project decision and design stage. Project cost control in construction projects throughout the entire process, the key lies in the pre construction investment decision-making with design phase, whereas in the investment decision is made, the key lies in designing. According to expert analysis: architectural design, in the preliminary design stage, design stage, construction design stage to the engineering effect were 75% ~ 95%, 35% ~ 75%, 5% ~ 35%; while in the construction phase, through the optimization of construction organization design, construction cost saving the possibility of only 5% to 10%. We should put the focus shifted to the design stage, in order to get twice the result with half the effort.Pay attention to the technical and economic optimization combination. The combination of technology with economy is most effective way to control engineering cost. China engineering fields for a long time did not do this. The lack of technical personnel economy idea, design thought is conservative, the design of the outcome of the economy are not fully reflect. Therefore, we should solve the problem is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, in the construction process, organization, technology and economy organic ground union rises. Through the economic analysis, comparative study and effect evaluation, correct processing of advanced technology and reasonable in economy between the relation of unity of opposites, strive to advanced technology under the conditions of economic rational, reasonable in economy based on advanced technology.Carry out "limitation is designed" method. To be consciously put the application of value engineering to the specific design, actively promote quota design in engineering design contract, by way of bidding. This has been proven in practice is an effective way, it is not only an economic problem, more precisely a technical and economic problems. This "limitation is designed" to effectively control the project cost. In order to make the "limitation is designed" to achieve the desired objectives, should be involved in the design personnel must be experienced skilled economic designer. Their design results must be practical, advanced and reasonable cost. Control of engineering cost on the other hand is the need for comparison, because the outcome is a process of gradual improvement, and not to decide, so the comparison is a measure of its practical, advanced and economical means.Do good project cost control in the process. ( 1) compilation of economic and feasible construction scheme. Before construction, construction enterprises should be combined with the construction drawings and the actual situation at the scene, their mechanical equipment, construction experience, the management level and technical specification acceptance criteria, a set of practical and feasible construction scheme. The construction scheme is engineering implementation of the programme of action. ( 2) to technical personnel, materials, machinery and personnel staff communicationand coordination. In the process of construction, construction technology, materials and mechanical personnel should cooperate closely, understand each other, to management as the core, to reduce costs for the purpose of. ( 3) to the project completion settlement. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.To establish and perfect the independent project cost advisory body, cultivate a Zhi De have both engineering team. To establish a real sense of independent engineering cost consulting agencies. Through improving the laws and regulations, normative behavior, separate government functions from enterprise management, the establishment of independent business partnership, share-holding system, the limited responsibility system and other forms of organization, an industry-based, diversified services integrated project consulting company, build and development and reform the engineering cost intermediary service institutions, make construction project management of a gradual transition by an independent specialized agency in charge of project cost whole process tracking management, truly between owner and contractor plays an intermediary role. To strengthen engineering cost consulting industry association construction, establish project cost consulting industry self-discipline mechanism, and constantly improve the Engineering Cost Association in engineering cost consulting industry status, to be truly representative of the interests of the majority of the industry practitioners, government and enterprises to become connection link and the bridge. At the same time to strengthen the project cost specialty in higher education and in service education. As a result of project cost management in construction projects and various economic interests are closely related, and the whole social economic activities play a very important role, it requires the cost engineering technical personnel should have different levels of knowledge, in addition to their professional knowledge and have a deep understanding, also deal with the design content, design process, construction technology, project management, economic laws and regulations have a comprehensive understanding of. Therefore, the project cost management, project cost per unit of society groups, has already obtained a cost engineer qualification personnel, in order to carry out plan, has the goal, multiple levels of continuing education and training, to understand and master Chinese bilateral agreements with countries project cost technology, regulations, management system and its development trend, to expand domestic and foreign exchanges, and actively participate in international or regional engineering activities, improve their professional quality, so that the current practitioners in intelligentstructure, theory and working experience three aspects can meet the needs of engineering cost management. Cost engineering professionals need to strengthen their own learning, in addition to the professional knowledge to upgrade, should also work in combination with a broad understanding and master the relevant engineering and technical expertise, educational organizations and industry regulatory bodies constitute a complete education system, so as to the field of engineering senior talent development to create good conditions.中文译文：工程造价与管理工程造价控制重点应转移到项目建设的前期，即转移到项目决策和设计阶段。
工程造价毕业论文外文文献
工程造价毕业论文外文文献————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：外文文献：Construction Standards and CostsUC Irvine new construction pursues performance goals and applies quality standards that affect the costs of capital projects. Periodic re-examination of these goals and standards is warranted.Construction costs are not “high” or “low” in the abstract, but rather in relation to specific quality standards and the design solutions, means, and methods used to attain these standards. Thus, evaluating whether construction costs are appropriate involves: • first, determining whether quality standards are excessive, insufficient, or appropriate;• second, determining whether resultant project costs are reasonable compared to projects with essentially the same quality parameters.“Quality” encompasses the durability of building systems and finishes; the robustness and life-cycle performance of building systems; the aesthetics of materials, their composition, and their detailing; and the resource-sustainability and efficiency of the building as an overall system.Overall Goals and Quality StandardsUC Irvine, in order to support distinguished research and academic programs, builds facilities of high quality. As such, UC Irvine’s facilities aim to convey the “look and feel,” as well as embody the inherent construction quality, of the best facilities of other UC campuses, leading public universities, and other research institutions with whom we compete for faculty, students, sponsored research, and general reputation.Since 1992, new buildings have been designed to achieve these five broad goals:1. New buildings must “create a place,” rather than constitute stand-alone structures, forming social, aesthetic, contextually-sensitive relationships with neighboring buildings and the larger campus.2. New buildings reinforce a consistent design framework of classical contextual architecture, applied in ways that convey a feeling of permanence and quality andinterpreted in ways that meet the contemporary and changing needs of a modern research university.3. New buildings employ materials, systems, and design features that will avoid the expense of major maintenance (defined as >1 percent of value)for twenty years.4. New buildings apply “sustainability” principles -- notably, outperforming Title 24 (California’s energy code) by at least 20 percent.5. Capital construction projects are designed and delivered within theapproved project budget, scope, and schedule.UC Irvine’s goals for sustainable materials and energy performance were adopted partly for environmental reasons, and partly to reverse substantial operating budget deficits.The latter problems included a multi-million dollar utilities deficit that was growing rapidly in the early ‘90s, and millions of dollars of unfunded major maintenance that was emerging prematurely in buildings only 10-20 years old. Without the quality and performance standards adopted in 1992, utilities deficits and unfunded major maintenance costs would have exceeded $20 million during the past decade, and these costs would still be rising out-of-control.UC Irvine’s materials standards, building systems standards, sustainability and energy efficiency criteria, and site improvements all add cost increments that can only be afforded through aggressive cost management. Institutions that cannot manage capital costs tend to build projects that consume excessive energy, that cost a lot to maintain, that suffer premature major maintenance costs, and that require high costs to modify. Such problems tend to compound and spiral downward into increasingly costly consequences.Every administrator with facilities experience understands this dynamic. Without effective construction cost management, quality would suffer and UC Irvine would experience all of these problems.The balance of this document outlines in greater detail the building performance criteria and quality standards generally stated above, organized according to building systems component classes. Each section discusses key cost-drivers, cost-control strategies, andimportant cost trade-offs. Design practices cited are consistently applied (although some fall short of hard and fast “rules”).Building Organization and MassingConstruction cost management starts with the fundamentals of building organization and massing. UC Irvine’s new structures’ floor plates tend to have length-to-width ratios<1.5, to avoid triggering disproportionate costs of external cladding, circulation, and horizontal mechanical distribution. Our new buildings tend to be at least three floorshigh -- taller if floor plate areas do not dip below a cost-effective threshold, and generally taller in the case of non-laboratory buildings (but not so tall that a high-rise cost penalty is incurred). Other design ratios are observed, such as exterior cladding area/floor area <0.5, and roof+foundation area/floor area <0.4.Architectural articulation is generally achieved through textured or enriched materials,integral material detailing (such as concrete reveal patterning), and applied detailing (e.g.,2window frames and sills), particularly at the building base. Large-scale articulation is concentrated at the roofline (e.g., shaped roof forms) and at the pedestrian leve l (e.g.,arcades), where it will “create the biggest bang for the buck,” rather than through modulating the building form, itself. This is more than a subtle design philosophy, as the cost impact is substantial.Lab buildings completed in the past decade separate laboratory and non-laboratory functions into distinct, adjoined structures (although such a building may look like one structure). Consolidated non-laboratory functions include faculty, departmental, staff,post-doc, and graduate student offices; restrooms; circulation (elevators, lobbies, primary stairways); classrooms, seminar rooms, conference rooms, and social areas designed tofoster interaction and to provide a safe area for eating and drinking; dry labs and dry lab support functions; and general administrative support.Consolidating these functions into a separate structure provides considerable cost savings: lower-cost HV AC (heating/ventilation/air-conditioning) system, wider column spacing, lower floor stiffness (less stringent vibration criterion), lowerfloor-loading,fewer fire-control features and other code requirements, steel-framed or steel/concrete hybrid structural system with concrete flat-slab flooring system, smaller footings, and(typically) curtain wall fenestration. This approach usually enables offices to have operable windows.This two-building approach can be seen clearly at Gillespie Neurosciences Building, the Sprague Building, Hewitt Hall, and the UCI Medical Center Health Sciences Laboratory,where consolidating and separating non-laboratory functions saved 7-10 percent in overall construction costs and 15 percent/year in energy expense. (The non-laboratory building incurs a small fraction of the energy expense of the laboratory block.)A set of design strategies, applied in combination, has proven effective in controlling the cost of laboratories:• Utilizing a consistent lab module• Utilizing a reasonable vibration criterion and locating ultra-sensitive conditions at-grade or employing benchtop vibration isolation• Using 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing• Concentrating fume hoods and utility risers into a central “wet zone,” thuslimiting horizontal mechanical distribution• Concentrating laboratory support areas into the central core of a laboratory structure, where utilities are available but daylight is not needed, thus enablinglab structures to be 110-132 feet wide• Utilizing dual-usage circulation/equipment cross-corridors through this central lab support zone, with sufficient width (typically 11 feet) to line the corridors with shared equipment while providing cross-circulation through the lab support zone• Utilizing open laboratory layout with one or more “ghost” corridors for intra lab circulation• And, most importantly, concentrating non-laboratory functions into an adjoining, lower-cost structure (as discussed in detail above).To further control laboratory construction costs, non-standard fume hood sizes are minimized, “generic” lab casework is specified, laboratory-grade movable tablessubstitute for fixed casework in some lab bays, building DI systems provide intermediate water quality (with localized water purity polishing in the lab, rather than building-wide),facility-wide piped services do not include gases that can be cost-effectively provided locally via canisters, and glass-wash facilities are consolidated -- typically, one glass wash facility for an entire laboratory building. Finally, our design philosophy leans toward generic, modular laboratories supported by a robust building infrastructure, rather than highly customized spaces with limited capacity to make later changes. This is an important trade off. Although some post-occupancy expenses may be necessary to “fine-tune” a laboratory to a PI’s requirements, building infrastructure elements – typically over sized twenty percent, including HV AC supply ducts, exhaust system capacity, emergency generator capacity, and electric risers and service capacity – seldom limit the ability to modify labs to meet researcher needs.Structural and Foundation SystemsFor both cost-benefit reasons and past seismic performance, UC Irvine favors concrete shear wall or steel braced-frame structural systems. The correlating foundation systems depend on site-specific soil conditions. Past problems with undiscovered substrates and uncharacterized soil conditions are minimized through extensive, pre-design soil-testing. This minimizes risk to both the University and the design/build contractor. When feasible, design/build contractors are allowed flexibility to propose alternate structural or seismic-force systems. All structural system designs must pass a peer review, according to Regents’ policy. This process results in conservative structural design, and an associated cost premium. However, the seismic performance of University of California buildings constructed since this policy went into effect in 1975 appears to substantiate the value of the Regents’ Seismic Review Policy.Structural vibration is carefully specified in research buildings where vibration-sensitive protocols and conditions must be maintained on above-grade floors. The most cost effective tools to control vibration are generally employed: first, to program vibration sensitive procedures at on-grade locations or to isolate them at the bench; second, to space columns at a distance that does not entail excessive structuralcosts. In laboratory 4buildings we typically utilize 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing. Conversely, where vibration is not problematic a beam/column system can be cost-optimized and lighter floor loading can be tolerated. Design/build contractors are, accordingly, allowed more flexibility under such conditions.To control costs, UC Irvine avoids use of moment-resisting structures; unconventional seismic systems; non-standard structural dimensions; inconsistent, unconventional, or non-stacking structural modules; and non-standard means and methods.Roofs and FlashingsUC Irvine specifies 20 year roofing systems and stainless steel or copper flashings whenever possible. At minimum, we specify hot-dip galvanized flashings.Why this emphasis on flashings? Our roof replacement projects typically double in cost when the old roofing is torn off and it is determined that the flashings have deteriorated. Moreover, many roof leaks of recent years have been due to faulty flashings, rather than roofing membranes or coatings, per se. Saving money on flashings is false economy. Another special roofing expense we may have to incur in order to attain the Regents’Green Building Policy is that of reflective roofing. It is too early to understand the potential cost impact.中文翻译：建设标准和成本加州大学欧文分校新建筑追求性能目标和适用的质量标准,影响资本成本的项目。
工程造价外文及翻译
.The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealingcomprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical designdeterminants. Structural considerations were cast as important physicaldeterminants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if theyare to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmentalcontrol design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structuralconsideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important.Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design.But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship betweenstructural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can beenhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors' observation that mostenhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors' observation that mostcreative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and notbecause of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases ofextravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designerwho is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within theconstraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a needto recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation ofthe parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers mayevaluate the overall economic implications of their structural andarchitectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total costof building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is buta part of a total project cost, one could include additional considerationfor land(10～20percent),finance and interest(100～200percent),taxesand maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion ofthese so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, andwe will focus on the cost of construction only.文档资料Word.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percentof total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditionalto discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find thatarchitectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessaryfor the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction costcategory andrefers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and otherservice systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type ofbuilding. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost ofproviding forair-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well asother services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical lightand power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, upto now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost ofconstructing a typical design solution could be considered asarchitectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interestcosts and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leanerdesigns. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches thedesigner may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that whereverarchitectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously,a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate areluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purelyarchitectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, evenwhere money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied tofulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be appliedto fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cutback. The second approach achieves economy through an integration ofservice and structural subsystems to round out one's effort to producea total architectural solution to a building design problem. The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually文档资料Word.takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost ofmaterials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phaseof the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented forthe project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. Thearchitect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but shouldperhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally pricedand made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but theycan suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The followingsections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to adiscussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use inrough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages thatcan be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected,highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowestpercentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost.In this case the structural costs might drop to 10～15percentof the totalbuilding cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic componentsare conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However,where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with achurch or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to besomewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolicindustrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, thenonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, aswill as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, andtherefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartmentbuildings(5～10stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percentfor structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say,of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple文档资料Word.erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15～20 percent oftotal building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals,represent another category. They can require long spans and a more thanaverage portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e.,30～50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purelystructuralcosts. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-spanbuildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structuralcosts (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as ameasure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if alow, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percentfor the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design maybe comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect shouldbe aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practicalability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the designand construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress instructural design is often limited more by the designer's or contractor'slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than bythe idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add coststo hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both thearchitect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area ofconstruction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid.At the least the architect must be capable of working closely withimaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricatorswherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiencyalways requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these areessential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating totalconstruction costs if the assumption is made that structural design isat least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total officebuilding construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25percent is the“standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system文档资料Word.should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficientdesign wererealized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average”efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),wouldthen be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.Ifthe ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 couldbe applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the totalarchitectural designconcept can result in either a reduction in purely construction designconcept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs ormore architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possibledepends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of thedesigners and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will nowfurnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Twoalternative means will be provided for making an approximate structuralcost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, andanother onvolumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to geta rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards”for efficientdesign given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hopedthat the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with thetype of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with.At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternativesystems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similarconstruction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designsare possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor touse materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings averagebetween﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩文档资料Word.14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans andlow buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans andmoderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normallyproducesquare-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the moretypicalapartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures aregenerally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier,they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls,partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words,simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost forlonger span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings. Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits ofvariation depend on a system's complexity, span length over “normal”and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the CrownZellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco isan exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However,in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns atthe bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well asthe special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soilconditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design wasalso unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higherthan normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spacesand for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion ofstructural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The“usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartmentbuildings,16 to25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50～75 psf) loads(i.e.,similar tothose for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled,the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers anotherinsight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual”standards. Ifthe loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e.,文档资料Word.two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the orderof another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs usingefficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economicaldesign appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressedconcrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel orprestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steelspans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems arespecial cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on isadded, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from designto design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge andcreativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potentialfor achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on thevolume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem thatthe architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of materialrequired in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But itis possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capabilityfor making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to thepounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressedconcrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminaryestimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example,in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework,reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication anderection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. Forlow-risebuildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that requireminimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50per pound.More complicated systems requiring much cutting andwelding(such as acomplicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per pound文档资料Word.and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf,which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psfwould require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration ofstructural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from anin-place lowof ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 percu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. Thislarge range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are morecomplicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, theerection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for anycast-in-placeconcrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cuyd, only thesimplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require littlecutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced thatrequire special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steelbars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, ina developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, thisresults in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systemsto keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility ofmass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring asaving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter resultsin savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractorplus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types ofpoured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimumbeing for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderatelycomplicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate thatignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are importantand essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineersand others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!文档资料Word.建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知，建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程，其中既包含处理很多物质因素，又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。
交通工程专业外文翻译外文文献英文文献
土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a longtime. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later，the Romans built an extensive road system，using thesame principles we use today。
Some of these roads arestill in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building，youwill create a road that will last。
The ten commandmentsof a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes(6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready(8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the road35324 89FC 觼30582 7776 睶21205 52D5 動/34600 8728 蜨6sWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of aroad'sproblems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of aroad’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure。
毕业设计英翻译(英)(工程造价类)
The impacts of change management practices on projectchange cost performanceIntroductionMany researchers have conducted statistical analyses to reveal the correlations between project management best practices and project performance, and they have provided valuable recommendations to the industry about how to improve project performance. Among many project management best practices, change management practice is one of the most important practices (Lee et al., 2004; Zou and Lee, 2006).Further, project change cost performance is one of the most essential metrics used as a measure of project success (Williams, 2000; Eden et al., 2005).However, the previous studies concentrated on the overall change management practices implementation level, and none of them looked into individual change management practice elements. In addition, project budget was generally adopted as the basis for comparison when measuring project change cost magnificence, which entails a problem of accuracy, as will be elucidated later in this paper. This paper resolves these problems, and its intention is to show construction managers how each individual element of change management practices can improve project change cost performance. A secondary aim is to explore the correlation between overall change management practice implementation and project change cost performance.BackgroundThe Benchmarking and Metrics (BM&M) programme of the Construction Industry Institute (CII H) has been committed to providing construction industry ‘quanti tative data essential for the support of cost/benefit analyses’ (Construction Industry Institute, 2007). CII commenced the BM&M datacollection in 1996, and the database currently represents over 1200 projects for which CII best practices and project performance indices have been or are being recorded. In 1990, the CII Cost/Schedule Controls Task Force published a research report about the impact of project changes on construction cost and schedule at the operational level. Sanders (2000) also explored the impacts of change management practices on certain projects.CII started to include change management practice in its database in 1997, which included 14 elements. This study is aimed at investigating the relationship between usage of these 14 change management practice elements and project change cost performance. The BM&M database is the source of data analysis, and the data analysed in this research can be basically classified into three categories of metrics: project characteristics, project performance and change management practices use. Table 1 illustrates the demographic composition of the BM&M database based on respondent type, project nature and industrial group.As can be seen in Table 1, most of the projects are in the heavy industry sector. Such an extremely uneven sample population distribution poses difficulty in the subsequent data analyses, and it is therefore one of the primary considerations when the analysis techniques are selected. Appendix II presents the 14 questions used in this research.Research scopeCost and schedule are frequently the biggest concerns in a project, and they are also the project performance facets most sensitive to project changes. However, the impact of project changes on project schedule is far less significant than the effect on cost, and the reason is that cost is additive, while schedule is not. A project’s duration is determined by its critical paths, and all noncritical paths contain floats (slacks) of one size or another. If a change consumes some of the floats on non-critical paths but not so much that it changes the critical path, the total durationof the project will not be changed, and thus project schedule performance is not negatively affected by the change. In addition, change management practices have been found to be the most influential element affecting cost savings in the majority of projects (Construction Industry Institute, 2003). With all of these considerations, this research only focuses on the impacts of change management practice on project change cost performance.Research objectivesIt is worth noting that this research is to be explanatory instead of confirmative or predictive. In other words, the purpose of this research is to reveal potential correlations1 among project characteristics, change management practice and project change cost performance. The two main objectives of this research are (1) to investigate the effectiveness of individual change management practice elements in terms of improving project change cost performance—e.g. for a particular change management practice element, could the construction project using it have a high probability of achieving better and more predictable change cost performance than with other elements; and (2) to explore the correlation between overall change management practice implementation and project change cost performance while controlling for project characteristics variables.Answers to the first question could highlight which change management practice elements can singly influence project change cost performance significantly and thus deserve particular attention. By exploring the second relationship, the effectiveness of change management practice in controlling project characteristics can be validated.A few more words about changeFirst, i t is necessary to clarify the definition of ‘change’. In this research, ‘change’ refers to project changes that have been mutually agreed upon by both the owner and contractor. There are two types of projectchanges—project-development changes (PDCs) and scope changes (SCs). PDCs ‘include those changes required to execute the original scope of work or to obtain the original process basis’; in contrast, SCs‘include changes in the base scope of work or the process basis’ (Construction Industry Institute, 2007).The absolute monetary value of project change is less meaningful to this research than the ratio of it to the baseline because of different project scales. There should be some baseline against which change cost can be compared, and thus project change cost performance can be assessed. Such a denominator can be either project budget (initial predicted project cost) or project actual cost (the amount a project has spent at completion). Some researchers have used the former (Hsieh et al., 2004), but here the second metric is employed because the accuracy of the initial predicted project budget cannot be guaranteed and there is no information from the database to evaluate the accuracy of the project initial estimate.Research limitationsAs with any study employing statistical data analysis techniques and tools, the reliability of the raw data is crucial. Considerable opinion-type data in this research are collected based on the Likert scale. Therefore, the data are influenced by respondents’ biases. Some preparation of data has been done prior to the data analysis process (e.g. transforming the original 0–10 project complexity measure in the BM&M database into only three levels—low, medium and high).2 In this way, some of the original data are truncated and become fuzzier, which means that some bias can be eliminated to alleviate the subjectivity of the data.It is necessary to point out that because this research is basically carried out by statistical means, the research processes and results are inherently vulnerable to the statistical limitations of the selected data analysis techniques and the available data. This paper relies onstatistical analysis, and thus further research is suggested, including qualitative analysis of the implied relations.Research methodThe two objectives of this research can be interpreted as finding two types of statistical correlations: (1) the relationship between each of a group of bivariant indicator variables3 (change management practice element question with answers Yes or No) and a single interval variable (project change cost factor); and (2) the relationship between two interval variables (change management practice index and project change cost factor) within each category of categorical variables (project characteristics).ANOVA is intrinsically ideal for investigating the first type of relation, so multiple one-way ANOVA tests are conducted. For the second correlation, linear regression is conducted because there is no theoretical or empirical support for a non-linear (curvilinear) correlation, and because the primary purpose of this research is to evaluate the effect rather than predicting.Data analysesMeasuring project change cost performance: change cost factor As discussed earlier, project change cost performance cannot be measured by the absolute value of changes but rather is measured by the ratio relative to project actual total cost. Therefore, change cost factor is used in this research to measure the performance of project change cost. This metric measures the total cost of changes as a fraction of actual total project cost (Construction Industry Institute, 1998). For industrial sector owner projects, actual total project cost includes total installation cost at turnover but excludes land costs; for building sector owner projects, it is the total cost of design and construction to preparethe facility for occupancy; and for contractor projects, it is the total cost of the final scope of work.The impact of individual change management practice element implementation on project change cost performanceThere is no theoretical support for hypothesizing the existence of interaction effects of change management practice elements on change cost factor, nor are there any sound practical or empirical indications. From the perspective of the practitioner, whether owner or contractor, any of these change management practice elements can be implemented independently, although it may be convenient to use some of them in combination with others. For this reason, multiple one-way ANOVA rather than k-way ANOVA is conducted to examine the effect of each single change management practice element on change cost factor.According to Stevens (1996), influential points rather than outliers should be of greatest concern because their involvement impacts significantly on the statistical result. A Cook’s distance greater than 1 usually flags an extremely influential point,4 and so cases with Cook’s distance over 1 are precluded from further analysis here. The remaining cases are subjected to a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test to check data normality, and the hypothesis of data normality is rejected by the result. Meanwhile, a basic descriptive statistic demonstrates that cell sizes of projects using or not using a certain change management practice element are extremely uneven. For some change management practice elements, such as 1 and 2, less than 10% of all cases answered ‘No’. In view of these violations to assumptions of ordinary ANOVA, Brown and Forsythe’s F-test of equality of means is performed as a substitute for an ordinary F-test because it is robust against non-normality, unequal group sizes and heterogeneity of variances (Garson, 2006).In addition to the ANOVA test for the equality of means, Levene’s testis used to test the equality of the variances (in Yes and No groups). The incentive for performing this test is that change management practice elements are able not only to reduce the average level of change cost but also to control the variation range of change cost, thus making the project’s change cost performance more predictable. Table 2 shows the significant results of the two tests on change management practice elements.For change management practice elements 4, 5, 6 and 10, the Brown–Forsythe F-test statistic is significant. In addition, the observed mean change cost factor values of the No group are higher than those for the Yes group. This indicates that the projects using each of these change management practice elements achieved significantly better change cost performance than the projects that did not use the elements. Although it cannot be certain that these elements are the sole reason for better change cost performance, the result statistically ascertains that there is an undeniable correlation between using these change management practice elements and better change cost performance. Further, because the Levene statistic is significant and the observed standard deviation of the No group is higher than that of the Yes group, the probability of suffering an outrageously high change cost is significantly lower for projects following change management practice elements 4, 6 and 10 than for others.The impact of overall change management practice implementation on project change cost performanceProject characteristic variable selectionThe efficacy of overall change management practice in different types of projects can vary widely depending on project nature, industrial type, project complexity, project size, contract methods and the level of experience of project participants. In order to separate out the effects of project characteristics and focus on the partial effect of changemanagement practice on project change cost factor, it is necessary to categorize and group projects based on different characteristic factors and then investigate the correlation between overall change management practice and change cost factor.Theoretical and empirical information is employed to select which project characteristic variables should be considered. Although the database includes a number of project characteristic metrics, only the following five variables are selected: respondent type, project nature, industrial type, transformed complexity and cost category. Table 3 shows detailed categories of the five variables.Measuring overall change management practice implementation: change management practice indexThe overall implementation of the change management practice elements is measured by the change management practice index, a continuous variable scored on a 0 to 10 scale, with 0 meaning no use and 10 meaning extensive use of all of the elements.The data analysis is conducted with two continuous variables—change management practice index and change cost factor—while controlling for the five project characteristic variables. As an independent variable, the change management practice index value is not spread from 0 to 10 because this index is calculated by the implementation of individual change management practice elements, which are measured as categorical variables. This makes many data points cluster on several change management practice index levels. However, since there are more than 15 change management practice index levels, it can be deemed to be a quasi-interval variable. Therefore, linear regression is used instead of ANOVA, and in order to retain the pristine quantitative information in project change costs, non-parametric or ranking regression methods are not used.The correlation between change management practice index and change cost factor in different project categoriesBefore fitting the model, influential points are detected (Cook’s distance D.1) and deleted. Normality of error terms is not a serious assumption for a bivariate linear regression (Wesolowsky, 1976). According to Wesolowsky, formal tests of normality are not necessary with large sample sizes (in this case, n.50 for each project characteristic category) because ‘in large samples lack of normality has no important consequences’(Wesolowsky, 1976). Meanwhile, linear regression is robust in the face of small or medium violations against the homoscedasticity of variances assumption.Table 4 shows the significant findings of the bivariate linear regressions in each project characteristic category. In the table, for both contractor and owner projects all of the significant beta coefficients are negative for add-on projects, heavy industrial projects, medium- and high-complexity projects, and projects with budgets between US$15m and $50m. This indicates that higher change management practice index values are associated with lower change cost factor values in the corresponding project characteristic categories. These results are acceptable for such an exploratory non-physical-science study because even the smallest sample size of these regressions is over 50 and the power of the test5 is almost over 0.50, which is acceptable (Stevens, 1996).ConclusionsAlthough there has been a consensus in both academia and industry that project change management practices can improve project change cost performance, it is shown that individual change management practice elements are not equally effective. Generally, for those projects in which a ‘contingency plan for changesusceptible areas in the early phases has been prepared, all changes are required to go through a formal changejustification procedure, and the contract specifies how to manage changes’, the possibility of incurring an extremely high project change cost compared with actual project cost is significantly lower than for other projects. In addition, those pro jects in which ‘changes are evaluated against project business drivers and success criteria’ perform better on average than other projects in terms of project change cost performance. Therefore, these four change management practice elements are highly recommended for construction projects.The impact of project ownership on change management practice implementation is not noticeable because for both contractor and owner projects a high overall change management practice implementation score is associated with better project change cost performance. However, this relationship can be further fortified in some specific project types. The analysis shows that add-on projects have better correlations between overall change management practice implementation and change cost performance than do grassroots and modernization projects. The results also indicate that heavy industrial, highly complex, and US$15–50m projects have better correlations than the other categories.。
(完整版)工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants。
Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis， must also be considered important。
Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design。
But this need not be so。
If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe。
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
工程造价工程变更毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
工程变更中英文资料外文翻译文献Highway engineering change reasonanalysis and cost of the project of influenceAbstract: in the implementation stage because of highway engineering design factors, environmental factors, the influence of various engineering changes happened is more common, combining with engineering practice, this paper discusses the causes and engineering change of project cost.Keywords: engineering change, Reason, CostDue to the highway project period, long, long line, so broad in construction of various causes by the engineering change is inevitable. Engineering change could lead to increase of construction cost or time limit of the owner and the contractor, between the claim will claim and the cost of the project.Owner of change and the causes of the costAnd when the owner change engineering bidding of construction conditions of commitment. "SanTongYiPing" referred to in the preceding paragraph, the engineering tight finish, delay purpose will increase the contractor's settlement fee, but little impact on total cost, the owner or project quantity change projects. Increase the project content or quantity, will increase the cost, Project content or cancel or reduce the number will reduce cost, but may affect the use function of engineering, because the owner with agreements for the existence of incomplete, or in the contract when division, can increase content of missing the contract cost, and the owners' requirements, and shorten delivery of finished ahead of the original contract period, invest more in construction unitcost of manpower and material resources, to increase, and improve the design standard requirement owner, beautiful Angle from security requirements of engineering structure change type, elevation, baseline, location, size and strength, make cost increase, and the owner to change in the construction organization design has approved the construction plan, cost increase, and the owner of the contract with the owner of the materials or equipment supply for the category and quantity, cause cost increase or decrease, and the owner of the contract specifies unreasonable, can make the cost is increasedThe design of change and the causes of the costThe design adopts the new standard, new technology, new technology, to replace the original design of the project, and put to use more favorable for owner reduce project cost, the depth of the design documents, cannot satisfy the relevant provisions of the relevant design phase of engineering change and requirements, cost increase or decrease, and when designing units in the preliminary design to fully consider the network planning, and in local government and related departments (e.g., environmental protection, water conservancy, electricity, gas, communication, navigation, etc.) and the requirements of the project, the main structure change shape and size change etc, make the cost increase, and design personnel errors or omissions caused engineering change. Due to the "two SanShen school system to implement the change that cost is increased, Unit, uncoordinated cooperation between designers, or the highway facilities with the principal part of the project design, cause sync job change, make cost increase, and the design drawing not timely delivery time delay, provide, construction, make the cost compensation shutdown caused by increased.Tthe contractor to change and cause the influence. CostThe contractor is unable to perform the contract or can't completely, the contractor shall take remedial measures proposed change, this kind of change of engineering cost, can increase by contractor burden loss, the contractor has been approved changes when bidding of construction project, this kind of change of cost, but almost no effect for the contractor may save construction cost, and the contractor for construction is convenient, or to shorten the construction period, or to reduce the investment of construction, and puts forward such reasons, and more economical and reasonable, optimizing design scheme, this kind of change if owner recognized, can reduce the construction cost, also can reduce the cost of the owner and the contractor, mutually beneficial, According to the contract, the contractor couldn't finish, engineering construction contractextension, the owner may terminate the contract terms, according to the content of construction contract in whole or in part, by the contractor, this kind of other changes generally does not make owner cost increase, but will make the contractor under loss, due to the contractor technology or management of the error caused by engineering change, this kind of change to the contractor, the owner may claim generally do not increase the cost, stipulated in the contract, the contractor change by owner procurement materials, using other kinds of materials, and therefore model brand damage by contractor, unless the owner to approbate, generally do not add costthe supervisor of change and the causes of the costSupervision by the owner, commissioned by the cause of the change of the owner or expenses directly influence the cost. 1 and supervision engineer in order to coordinate the contractor's operation, or section of this project contractors to coordinate with relevant departments or units where the relations of production, easy cause engineering change caused by increased cost. the site supervision engineers in actual situation in the contract and the technical specification for the design, according to local modification and perfect or by design, this kind of change unit may cause increased cost. and supervision engineers work and coordination ability damage caused by lack of rework, engineering cost change work. and supervision engineer proposed optimization design or construction, the design optimization or contractor agree, can reduce engineering changes caused by the project cost.The environment factors and impact on the cost of changeEngineering geology unknown or insufficiency in design, engineering cost increased to. and highway engineering construction projects from the construction, project feasibility study, design and construction drawing design to construction, due to various reasons, the project in the declaration and approval process, some problems existing in the construction stage, these problems caused by exposure to change, and engineering cost increase. and national policies, laws and regulations and standard, the change of change, resulting in increased cost. Four, the local government of the people's production and life convenient scheme adopted by engineering change after that cost increase. whose house is caused by delay, the work of engineering change, could lead to increased cost.Highway engineering change of a variety of reasons, this means that the appraisal work for engineering changes are complex and difficult to decrease the cost, the change of the effects are also different. Through the analysis, is looking for engineering changes the various causes, andthrough the analysis of the cost control are not isolated, control cost, the key is to establish and perfect the scientific management system. Based on control cost, quality assurance and accelerate the progress, the principle of efficiency to determine the necessity and feasibility of engineering change. Only in this way can we truly achieve the effective control of the construction project cost and improve the economic benefit and social benefit.公路工程变更原因分析及其对工程造价的影响摘要：公路工程在实施阶段由于设计因素、环境因素等多方面的影响，发生工程变更是较常见的，文章结合工程实践，探讨工程变更的原因及其对工程造价的影响。
工程造价外文文献
毕业设计外文文献翻译院系：土木工程与建筑系年级专业：08级工程管理姓名：x学号：xOn the whole process of construction 附件：project cost control指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日On the whole process of construction project cost control 【Abstract】: This article mainly introduced the engineering project cost control throughout the whole process of project implementation, including project decision-making, project design, project bidding, project construction and completion of the settlement this five stages.【Keywords】: Project, the construction cost, engineering, project, construction, project costEngineering project cost control throughout the whole process of project implementation, including project decision-making, project design, project bidding, project construction and completion of the settlement this five stages. According to the statistics show that, in the project decision-making stage and design stage, and the influence of construction project cost is a 40% chance-75%; and in construction stage, influence the possibility of construction project cost is only 5%-25%.Obviously, control the cost of the key link is in the project implementation of decision-making and design stage before. And from a stage program speaking, construction management can play a decisive role. To control the engineering cost is in the design phase, project decision stage, stage of construction, project bidding, completed the stage of the settlement construction engineering cost incurred amount of control in the approval within the limit, and correct the deviation of at any time, ensure division breakdown their investment goal the realization, to get the best economic benefit and social benefit.1 whole process cost control each phase of the basic situationThe whole process of construction project cost control can be divided into the following basically five stages:1.1 construction project cost control decision-making stageP roject investment decision is choice and decided to invest action process, is aiming projecton the necessity and feasibility of technical and economic the authentication, correct decision-making is reasonable and the premise to control the engineering cost, including feasibility study, investment estimation, financial foundation estimates and evaluation data. Project investment decision stage cost control and management of the key is:1) Completes the project decision-making before preparation. Comprehensive collecting have material, including equipment operation, equipment technical parameters, the construction market dynamic and other related content of the original records and information. To do the scientific research work and then find out need emphasizes to solve the problems.2) to do a project proposal and feasibility studies reports. Must according to the market demand and development prospects, reasonably determine the scale of the project and construction standards. Two applications should be strong conviction and feasibility. In the fight for early project at the same time, should be completed as soon as possible of the feasibility study.3) science to develop the construction projects of benefit analysis of activities of investment estimate and work. The preparation of investment estimate to have the basis, to be as careful as possible and reasonable. From reality, full consideration to during the project that may arise during the process of all kinds of accidents and unfavorable factors, as well as their cost of the project may produce negative effects, want to consider the market situation and construction of the reserve price during the floating coefficient, like this can make the investment basically accord with the actual and leave room, make the investment estimate really play the role of control the total investment in the project.1.2 project cost control design stageThe government in accordance with the examination and approval according to regulation, design institute of professional elaborate design, the strict control of cost engineers, the engineering construction cost control design stage "trinity" optimal combination. The construction project design is by plans to reality decisive significance of the work phase,design work is one of the important principles to ensure that the design integrity, designed for this work include the design evaluation and comparison, the design scheme optimization design budgetary estimate, the compiling and examination, the list of quantities and control the compiling and price review.1) Reasonable function orientation and reliable design quality, meet the national standards, meet the project function requirement, this is the quality of the design of the four basic requirements. The function of the construction project positioning, first must do with national conditions, reflect the national strength. At the same time, the engineering design must meet the construction procedure in each stage of depth requirements, avoid and prevent "Sanchez" (budget exceeds the estimation, the budget exceeds the budget estimates, the settlement) takes place.2) Optimizing design scheme, effective control of the project cost. The design phase of the project cost control and management is not a simple design institute work content, the construction unit should also actively cooperate, have prior control and active management role. The construction unit in the review of the design unit design documents, first of all the attention to the optimization of design schemes of, should be based on all kinds of index and material to the total plane design, construction space and plane design for analysis. The two analysis of the cost of the project will not only, a major impact on construction and operation and the production, management have a great impact, but also for construction and operation of the production, management has significant correlation. In the choice of technology solutions, we should persist in China from the actual conditions of, in order to improve the benefit of investment for the premise, actively and steadily introducing advanced and reasonable technical scheme and mature new technology, new technology.3) Executes limitation for engineering design. To effectively control the construction cost, should be in the design process of the quota design way. The so-called quota design in accordance with approved reliability is in the study, investment estimation forehead design and construction design, and to guarantee the use function, under the premise of according tothe distribution of after thinning investment quota control, professional design, to try to stop not reasonable to change, in order to ensure that the total investment is not a breakthrough. Decomposition of total investment and project is a total of quota design and effective ways and main method, it is the design stage of the examination will be investment and decomposing the quantity of each professional, and then after thinning the decomposition to each unit engineering and the division of engineering, through the layers of decomposition to realize to the investment quota control and management, but also to achieve to design specifications, design standards, engineering quantity and project budget index, and other aspects of the management and control.Preliminary design must be in the feasibility study stage of investment estimate approval for the bottom line, and through the limitation of the way to control budget not more than the investment estimate, the focus is on the quantities and equipment, material control. So the amount of quota design and shall be in the feasibility study stage of design project examination and equipment, material standard as the basis for a feasibility study stage cannot be determined preliminarily concluded that for certain quantity. For the design, each professional design personnel should conscientiously strengthen project cost consciousness, and strictly according to the limit the decomposition of the design to control the project investment, to ensure that the design according to the limit in the decomposition of the investment to control the project, to secure the use function, under the premise of engineering cost and effort to control project in the limit of. To encourage and promote design personnel well design scheme selection, should introduce a competitive mechanism and implement bidding for the design, make the design units and design personnel increase market competition consciousness, try our best to make a design scheme more attain perfect.1.3 project tendering and bidding and sign a contract stageAnalysis of the specific conditions of the construction project, and according to the quantities bill valuation method, nine ministries to standard prepare the tender documents in the tender documents. Through the bid opening bid assessment, voted for a is able to satisfy the tenderdocuments, the provisions of the comprehensive evaluation standard, 2 it is able to meet the requirements of the tender documents and substantial after the appraisal bids the lowest price, but the bid price below the cost of except the winning bidder. The winning bidder is determined; the bid-winning notice issued in accordance with law, and in accordance with the tender documents and the bid documents of the winning bidder concludes a contract in writing.1) The tender documents to the list of quantities of programming. The list of quantities by the construction bidding, it is to point to by the bid invitation unit to provide a uniform bidding documents (including the quantities bill), bidding unit based on this, according to the tender documents to the list of quantities and the relevant requirements, the construction and the actual situation of the worked the construction organization design, according to the enterprise quota or refer to the competent administrative department of construction of the current consumption quota released and cost management agencies released to the market price of bid price quotation information, and the bid invitation unit selected according to the process of the winning bidder.2) to the list of quantities of law base price. The list of quantities of floor price under standard shall be in strict accordance with the "standard" to prepare to the list of quantities of engineering quantity are and comprehensive project content, according to the market price. Detailed list of engineering quantity of engineering quantity and wrote out the comprehensive project content may not be altered, fluctuation, must be kept and the bidding unit pricing the unity of the caliber. If the list of quantities and prepare the tender of base price is not same unit, should pay attention to release the list of quantities of the bidding documents and establishment of the strike to the list of quantities in the format and contents, description and so on various aspects keeps consistent, avoid from here and the result of failure or tender evaluation an injustice.3) The construction contract choice. The contract type selection should consider the factors include: the project scale and time limit for a project length, project competition, and projectsingle engineering projects are clear degree, the length of time, the project of the external environment factors. In the choice of the contract type, although the developer has the initiative, but the developer can't only consider their own interests, comprehensive consideration of the project shall be of various factors, consider the contractor bear ability, determined by the both parties of the contract type.1.4 project project construction cost controlBecause of project construction cycle is long, the economic relations and laws involving the complex relationship by natural conditions and objective, the great influence, lead to the actual situation of the project and project tendering and bidding situation will be compared has some changes. Therefore, often in engineering change and the contract price adjustment, the engineering claims this stage include the value of the project construction settlement and use fund plan and application.1) Try to control engineering change and the visa. In the project construction process, engineering change and the visa is inevitable, but will be powerful control. Due to the existence of loopholes for construction drawing and any defects and lead to change, except in the design drawings audit strictly when the party should be in the design, consultation, co-examination and technical consultation when carefully examine and check, in order to find the early to eliminate hidden dangers. Change hidden trouble found earlier, may cause loss of the small. So, should as far as possible to the design change control in the design stage initial, especially for those who can seriously affect engineering, more to want to use "down after the first, change" measures solved properly. Even in the construction process, also should strictly according to the visa procedures and provisions, such ability make project cost control effectively.2) Audit strictly engineering construction drawing budget. Supervisors should according to the progress of the construction drawing design plan and the construction of the actual schedule, timely construction drawing budget approved. Beyond the corresponding to budgetand construction drawing budget. Beyond the corresponding to the budget estimates construction drawing design part, will be detailed analysis, find out the cause, and promptly and project principal contact, depending on how to adjust or amend the truth agreed control goals. This is the cost of the project of dynamic control and management.3) into the scene, collect and master information related to the construction, do contract management work in project construction process, the personnel and cost control personnel related to often deeply the construction site, contrast carefully check construction drawings, and to project contract as the basis, the construction site to grasp the dynamic, assist owners to review and appraisal, because of the change of the design, the scene and visa and the additional costs is reasonable.1.5 The final accounts of the completed project phase and after completion engineering warrantyThe final accounts of the completed project is based on real number and currency index for the units of measure, which reflects the comprehensive completed projects start to project completion for all of the delivery of the construction cost, construction achievements and financial situation summary of the documents. Completed the final accounts by, completion financial final accounting statements, project completion figure, and project completion cost analysis of four parts. The quality repair warranty is a kind of after-sales service way, is the quality of contractor responsibility, among this warranty scope involves, period, economic responsibility and warranty costs and expenses processing.1) Audit completed projects compliance with the terms of these contract requirements content, whether acceptance, in the contract, the method of settlement, price basis, fees standard, advocate material price and discount and commitment to the facts are carried out.2) Audit component project and project unit price of fees whether the program specification,and presence of repetition and mistakes.3) Check take cover engineering acceptance record, see if any supervision engineer is signed, the completion of the project completion and whether chart are in agreement.4) Examine the change of the design in the original design of visa is a unit chief sign, whether the construction unit and supervision engineer is signed, the significant change of the design of the original design is the competent department for examination and approval. The above a not meeting the requirements, all can't calculate settlement range.5) Figure, according to the change of the design, completion visa checking the scene of engineering.6) Prepare tally with the actual situation of the completion settlement report, in the strict, reasonable, fairness, justice, and on the basis of the use situation of investment and project cost control management as the necessary analysis and summary.2 the current cost control management problems of researchAt present our country's basic construction system and process can ensure the engineering construction investment is effectively control and management, but in the practice process, there are still many problems to study it, as shown in the various stages of the disjointing of cost control, because of project decision-making and design, project bidding, project implementation and completion settlement auditing the four stages of the cost control and management of the construction units and are competent department, designing units, consulting unit lead implement, "railway, the police a tube, so it is difficult to set up the former control the latter, and the latter influence the former the effective management of the system.2.1 ignore investment stage and design phase of the cost controlAt present some design units in order to meet the time limit for construction unit, in order to drive plan and not enough jobs meticulous, led to construction drawing design depth is not enough, some of the projects (such as decoration parts) and even appeared practices and selection explanation not clear, design and the actual cost budget created serious deviation, budget documents are not complete, etc. Some design units do not follow the principle of value engineering, optimization design, but seek high security and design fees, even with the owner in collusion, cause low quoted price is high and settlement.2.2 The bidding phase don't respect the market rules, and blind low prices and wanton expand specified materials and equipmentMainly lies in:One is the provisions in some areas after the appraisal use only the minimum bid price method. When the bid assessment by the bidders from low to high price in the sort of bid documents detailed review, judge a qualified three bidders according to quote from low to high order from the candidate. Forced many construction enterprises to make "low price, high price list claim" strategy. Some even publicly threatened: "into do not come is your fierce, came in is my fierce", this is against the principle of good faith, cause the construction bidding process, tender offer for professionals often breaks the glasses. 2 it is part of the owner ignore the objective law of the construction market to expand the party a appoints supply materials and equipment, and the scope of the contract for narrow, increasing the owner and the construction units of conflict.2.3 construction stage design, blind change visa, result in a claim, cause cost increaseBelow the cost, in order to change the state of losses, a construction enterprise is often use time limit for stress condition, forcing the owner to accept its change design scheme, replacement of materials required refiners, even and owner hook connect, will see conditions and other projects QianZhengLiang increase several times, cause loss of state-owned assets; 2 it is construction unit and a few design units collude in collusion, in construction process manufacturing a lot of the change of the design, the construction unit of high prices claim for convenience.2.4 completed project cost audit settlement stage management confusionAccording to the relevant laws and regulations, engineering audit charge is according to the settlement and subtract the forehead charges, consulting unit to high fees, often WanHuaYang reduce quantity, and even apply mechanically norm, multiplied by less than 1 unit price coefficient. And the contractor on the buy off the cost intermediary organizations personnel, quantity and subtract the forehead of the false report.3 whole process cost control management advice3.1 design units should be held responsible for their own reasons of the value of the project providedIn view of the current social intermediary cost consultation institutions participated in the design stage cost control of the few features, set up bear related civil liability constraint mechanism, make design institute has a relatively independent responsibility restraint. Suchas design depth is not enough, the design drawing contradictory between different work, the conflicts between; The design of the function and will be setting is unreasonable, affecting the normal use, which caused economic losses, design units shall bear the corresponding civil liabilities.3.2 The bid assessment methods, and the bid evaluation committee and budget control price reviewThe government investment projects, the comprehensive assessment shall be allowed to bid evaluation method, and should also set the lower bid price quotations, a bidder below lowest limit of the offer, shall be null standard treatment. The price for budget control review to scientific and reasonable can't raise or floating, to control the price discount published, the competent construction administrative departments should give correct. At the same time for budget control in the price of illegal or irregular and infringe upon the lawful rights and interests of the parties bidding behavior to deal with according to law.According to the contract period, 3.3 contract signed contract amount is fixed costThe contract is throughout the entire cost control, the soul of the stand or fall of contract signing, directly influence subsequent cost control of performance, because both sides sign the is fixed unit price or a fixed unit price contract, recent construction engineering material market price volatility is frequent, make the developer and the contractor can predict market price risk, leading to the price of work valuation dispute increase, part of the project under construction is already seriously affected the construction progress and quality of the project. In order to safeguard the legitimate interests of the contracting parties, ensure the construction market stability and development, according to the national nine ministries and the standard construction bidding documents "(2007 edition) general provisions of contract provisions of international engineering construction bidding risk sharing practices, the proposal of theconstruction engineering construction of valuation price 0-5% risk sharing.3.4 construction stages invite professional construction cost consultation company site trackingIn order to strengthen the dynamic cost management, the employer may, the cost of hiring a professional consulting company, make full use of their familiar with the business, rich experience and understanding market and specialization and socialization and advantage, strict control engineering change, strengthen economic management visa.【Summary】：Above all, it is known that the investment control in the construction of the key is, three key points is feasibility research, design and contract, solve the problem that is the core of control and management. The engineering cost control and management is a dynamic process, in each project construction phase, may be because the market conditions change or other reasons, the engineering investment determination and the engineering cost control tends to be complicated, this needs will project cost management to meet both overall and selectively. To recognize cost and time limit, the quality of the dialectical relationship between, unity, in different stages of the project implementation, cost consultation with staff always to control the engineering cost economic consciousness, careful analysis and make full use of all kinds of information in the construction period, grasp the market pulse, become passive to active, and through the parties positive efforts to work, avoid or reduce the loss of the construction funds, maximize construction funds for the benefit of investment.【References】:[1] WeiRuiLi, WangXuePeng. Construction engineering project cost management discussion [J]. J wit, 2011, (19).[2] JiaoTianLei. Engineering project cost management in the whole process of managementand control [J]. Gansu and science and technology, 2009 (3).[3] ZhangHongBin. For enterprise engineering project cost management and control discussion [J]. Tianjin metallurgy, 2010, (4).[4] SuYong, GeWeiPing. Substation project cost management current situation analysis and countermeasures study [J]. Electric engineering in Anhui vocational technical college journal, 2006, (4).[5] LiuYingMin. Of engineering project cost management [J]. Shanxi building, 2007, (11).[6] MaiHui can. Shallow engineering project cost management and cost control [J]. Sichuan building materials, 2007, (2).[7] JiangJiXing. Strengthen cost management establish control consciousness [N]. China construction news, 2011-07-04 (008).翻译：浅谈工程建设项目的全过程造价控制【摘要】：本文主要介绍了工程建设项目的造价控制贯穿项目实施的全过程，包括项目决策、项目设计、项目招标投标、项目施工和竣工结算这五个阶段。
工程造价管理前沿外文翻译
On the stage of the project cost managementAbstractProject cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy,Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s, 1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget, content, methods and approval, the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation, approval, management authority, and so on.With the historical process, after recovery, reform and development, formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However, as the socialist market economic development, the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking, the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy, and, at the time under the conditions of productivity, will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions, as long as a certain level of investment, will be certain outputs. In this environment, the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices, wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment, the budget estimate for the system approved project cost, help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established, requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years, international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China, the traditional practice in an objective light on the cause decision-making, implementation heavy, light the economy and technology,First, the consequences of victimization,Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control, cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second, the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances, My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept, building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal, learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries, and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system, efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence, The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price, and focusing only on the construction process of cost control, neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. It has a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects, theinformation can not be fully, comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small, estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost, many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue, and should be a number of factors, a combination of practical, comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits, with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage, rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study, the work is done well, returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise, invest more, less effective, resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present, some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue, false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors, actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems, lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project and had to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective, even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs, we must do the following aspects: ⅰImplementation of the construction project and corporate accountability,Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.ⅱA realistic approach to market analysis, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness, design task more scientific and reliability.ⅲ Capital financing must have a formal commitment document, the parties must do investment funds in place, and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.ⅳ To strengthen the engineering geology, hydrology, geology and land, water, electricity, transport, environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research, comparison of similar projects, seriously functional analysis, multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation, and the final technologically advanced, functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects, thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of the amount of investment, so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time, China's building control very effective, - investment projects is not uncommon, this will affect owners of investment returns, it adds to the owners and within budget, as well as difficulties in fund owners, the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears, and so on. Hence, the control of the project cost isof great significance, however the project cost is the primary means of control design,Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control, and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact, it is wrong, on the contrary, Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design, construction methods, materials and equipment types, models of the project cost is of critical significance, design optimization phase of the program or minor changes, project cost will have a significant impact, Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law:1. As the owners must design, the design selected on the quality level isa direct impact on the quality of product design level, and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between, We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design, Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget, certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same, and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than 30%, and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost, and good design is often low cost, We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels, the design works naturally, therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method, the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements, cost control targets, and so on.Otherwise, in the subsequent design process design units will put an increasein the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market, compared to select the best design units.2. Promoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles and advanced technology, reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements, comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design, selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology, unique novelty, adaptability, as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea, contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality, strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.3. Strengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design, mature technology, reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program, in the effective control of the project cost will play a role.1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved, excluding unfavorable factors may generally is excluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control, construction began at best to save and invest 20%, the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy, capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates, to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of theCommissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy, capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options, the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study, to the design staff costs, to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.4. Design actively promote the so-called cap limit design, even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates, guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget, according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits, and every one professional, each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process, designers should progress to more programs, design optimization, ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable, innovative, stylish, and do not break the limit investment objectives, thus eliminating the engineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the technical feasibility of the program, rather than economic rationality phenomenon, the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis, is a modern scientific management technique, is a new techno-economic analysis, is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on cost reduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies, construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period, a lot of wastage, poor quality, high-cost problems. Value Engineeringlaws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object, on average; from comparison choose the best design.Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise, in the investment decision-making stage, the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits, strive in various construction projects rational use of human, material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy, to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex, this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process, it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The implementation phase of the projects. The implementation phase of the project cost management is the implementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management, construction management and settlement management.Bidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means, bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects, shortening the construction cycle return on the investment, construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in biddingfor projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise, in the tender document to include not only the usual content, like tender notes before schedule, tender notes, the conditions of the contract, the contract terms of the agreement, contract format, technical specifications, drawings, tender documents and other reference format, it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory, Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory, in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects, unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules, according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged, obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective, impartial, scientific, and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget, and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience, and the material and mechanical construction technology for comprehensive scientific knowledge, in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules, and the sub-projects division engineering units, and in accordance with design drawings, design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general, the entries must be simple, while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division, the situation was different; we may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers, seriously study design drawings, Analysis of the tender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements, allfamiliar with the process, and to the scene of serious investigation, is forecast to make possible the construction of the case, right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition, because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units, clearly paying the price for the same overall price, the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements, and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineering assessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work, construction program, a comprehensive technical evaluation process, thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract, while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable, legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A, B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract, effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract, to do the management contract documentation, contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved, in addition to establishing atechnical files, Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis, results of the analysis to take proactive measures.Construction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target, Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small, but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.1. Construction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work, a reasonable construction plan, shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project, improving economic efficiency, Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared, through qualitative and quantitative analysis, the quality, time, Cost three technical and economic indicators, be rational, and effective use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieve better economic efficiency, good construction management relations, a comprehensive cost management is an important way.2. Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budget. Construction of the changes caused by many reasons, including works poorly designed, so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; the current market supply of materials do not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore, in the construction process, we must tighten customs change, through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents, the best implementation of the "grade control, visa quota" system. Right to change the design, particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units, construction units scene representatives, supervision engineers common signature, and should be ahead of this type of change, reducelosses, because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents, it is bound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore, the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site, to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.3. Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction project supervision system, the establishment of specialized departments, Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas, not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building, Supervisor, the construction site together representatives signed the way to ensure that change, visa authenticity, legitimacy, economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction, the construction units to enhance on-site construction management, supervision and construction side according to the drawings, and strictly control the change of the negotiations, materials substitution, the scene visas, and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards, after money, Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level, things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record, particularly concealed records and visas, reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious, works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble, lead to considerable economic losses, the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.4. Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review ofinventories, Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project. BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects, occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology, life and safety aspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original, itemized checking identification, inconsistent make revisions.5. Control material consumption, rationally define material prices. Cost of the project control materials price control is the main, the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion, usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%, representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices, so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels, variety and price range materials, construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates, with the progress of the scene, the market, hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.6. Technology and economic integration, strengthening investment control. Effective control of the investment, from organizational, technical, economic, contracts, and other measures. Therefore, the construction units must strengthen management, engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept, the quality of education, Training pragmatic working style, the construction side to help improve construction design, reasonable security, financial, and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked。
工程造价 项目成本管理 BIM和5D项目成本管理 外文文献翻译
文献出处：Smith P. BIM & the 5D project cost manager[J]. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014, 119: 475-484.第一部分为译文，第二部分为原文。
默认格式：中文五号宋体，英文五号Times New Roma，行间距1.5倍。
BIM和5D项目成本管理摘要：本文探讨了项目成本管理专业人员在建筑行业建筑信息建模（BIM）实施与推进中的作用问题。
本文回顾了当前BIM行业的发展趋势和问题，并对澳大利亚的工料测量公司进行了详细的访谈。
BIM不仅涉及3D建模，并且还通常在诸如4D（时间），5D（成本）甚至6D（施工施工）的进一步维度中定义。
4D将3D对象模型中的信息和数据与项目编程和调度数据进行链接，促进了施工活动的仿真分析。
5D将所有这些信息与成本数据（如数量，时间表和价格）相集成。
6D表示在建筑的运行阶段可以使用的施工模型。
本文探讨了项目成本管理专业人员在所有项目阶段一体化参与的重要性，并将第五维度成为BIM环境中的关键角色-“5D项目成本管理”。
本文主要采用文献综述和行业采访等研究方法，并将通过专业项目成本管理公司确定领域的领先优势。
本文的结论是，现代项目成本管理最大的价值在于这些管理者们具备5D施工的能力，并能够利用仿真模型实时提供详细的5D估计和成本计划。
关键词：项目成本超支，项目成本管理，数量测量，成本工程1.引言在世界各地提供专业项目成本管理服务的主要专业对象是造价工程师，工料计量师，建筑经济学家和项目经理。
工料计量师是一个起源于英国的职业，是英联邦国家认可的专业职称。
造价工程师主要用于北美和南美，中国和欧洲部分地区。
建筑经济学家在一些欧洲国家和世界其他地区被用作服务的替代描述。
在其他地区，特别是在欧洲，这三个职称得不到承认，项目管理大部分由成本管理服务商承担，作为其服务套餐的一部分。
土木外文翻译原文和译文
A convection-conduction model for analysis of thefreeze-thawconditions in the surrounding rock wall of atunnel in permafrost regionsAbstractBased on the analyses of fundamental meteorological and hydrogeological conditions at the site of a tunnel in the cold regions, a combined convection-conduction model for air flow in the tunnel and temperature field in the surrounding has been constructed. Using the model, the air temperature distribution in the Xiluoqi No. 2 Tunnel has been simulated numerically. The simulated results are in agreement with the data observed. Then, based on the in situ conditions of sir temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind force, hydrogeology and engineering geology, the air-temperature relationship between the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall and the air temperature at the entry and exit of the tunnel has been obtained, and the freeze-thaw conditions at the Dabanshan Tunnel which is now under construction is predicted.Keywords: tunnel in cold regions, convective heat exchange and conduction, freeze-thaw.A number of highway and railway tunnels have been constructed in the permafrost regions and their neighboring areas in China. Since the hydrological and thermal conditions changed after a tunnel was excavated，the surrounding wall rock materials often froze, the frost heaving caused damage to the liner layers and seeping water froze into ice diamonds，which seriously interfered with the communication and transportation. Similar problems of the freezing damage in the tunnelsalso appeared in other countries like Russia, Norway and Japan .Hence it is urgent to predict the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock materials and provide a basis for the design，construction and maintenance of new tunnels in cold regions.Many tunnels，constructed in cold regions or their neighbouring areas，pass through the part beneath the permafrost base .After a tunnel is excavated，the original thermodynamical conditions in the surroundings are and thaw destroyed and replaced mainly by the air connections without the heat radiation, the conditions determined principally by the temperature and velocity of air flow in the tunnel，the coefficients of convective heat transfer on the tunnel wall，and the geothermal heat. In order to analyze and predict the freeze and thaw conditions of the surrounding wall rock of a tunnel，presuming the axial variations of air flow temperature and the coefficients of convective heat transfer, Lunardini discussed the freeze and thaw conditions by the approximate formulae obtained by Sham-sundar in study of freezing outside a circular tube with axial variations of coolant temperature .We simulated the temperature conditions on the surface of a tunnel wall varying similarly to the periodic changes of the outside air temperature .In fact，the temperatures of the air and the surrounding wall rock material affect each other so we cannot find the temperature variations of the air flow in advance; furthermore，it is difficult to quantify the coefficient of convective heat exchange at the surface of the tunnel wall .Therefore it is not practicable to define the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall according to the outside air temperature .In this paper, we combine the air flow convective heat ex-change and heat conduction in the surrounding rock material into one model，and simulate the freeze-thaw conditions of the surrounding rock material based on the in situ conditions of air temperature，atmospheric pressure，wind force at the entry and exit of the tunnel，and the conditions of hydrogeology and engineering geology.Mathematical modelIn order to construct an appropriate model, we need the in situ fundamental conditions as a ba-sis .Here we use the conditions at the scene of the Dabanshan Tunnel. The Dabanshan Tunnel is lo-toted on the highway from Xining to Zhangye, south of the Datong River, at an elevation of 3754.78-3 801.23 m, with a length of 1 530 m and an alignment from southwest to northeast. The tunnel runs from the southwest to the northeast.Since the monthly-average air temperature is beneath 0`}C for eight months at the tunnel site each year and the construction would last for several years，the surrounding rock materials would become cooler during the construction .We conclude that, after excavation, the pattern of air flow would depend mainly on the dominant wind speed at the entry and exit，and the effects of the temperature difference between the inside and outside of the tunnel would be very small .Since the dominant wind direction is northeast at the tunnel site in winter, the air flow in the tunnel would go from the exit to the entry. Even though the dominant wind trend is southeastly in summer, considering the pressure difference, the temperature difference and the topography of the entry and exit，the air flow in the tunnel would also be from the exit to entry .Additionally，since the wind speed at the tunnel site is low，we could consider that the air flow would be principally laminar.Based on the reasons mentioned，we simplify the tunnel to a round tube，and consider that theair flow and temperature are symmetrical about the axis of the tunnel，Ignoring the influence of the air temperature on the speed of air flow, we obtain the following equation:where t ，x ，r are the time ，axial and radial coordinates; U ，V are axial and radial wind speeds; T is temperature; p is the effective pressure(that is ，air pressure divided by air density); v is the kinematic viscosity of air; a is the thermal conductivity of air; L is the length of the tunnel; R is the equivalent radius of the tunnel section; D is the length of time after the tunnel construction;，f S (t), u S (t) are frozen and thawed parts in the surrounding rock materials respectively; f λ,u λand f C ,u C are thermal conductivities and volumetric thermal capacities in frozen and thawed parts respectively; X= (x , r)，ξ(t) is phase change front; Lh is heat latent of freezing water; and To is critical freezing temperature of rock ( here we assume To= -0.1℃).2 used for solving the modelEquation(1)shows flow. We first solve those concerning temperature at that the temperature of the surrounding rock does not affect the speed of air equations concerning the speed of air flow, and then solve those equations every time elapse.2. 1 Procedure used for solving the continuity and momentum equationsSince the first three equations in(1) are not independent we derive the second equation by xand the third equation by r. After preliminary calculation we obtain the following elliptic equation concerning the effective pressure p:Then we solve equations in(1) using the following procedures:(i ) Assume the values for U0，V0;( ii ) substituting U0，V0 into eq. (2)，and solving (2)，we obtain p0;(iii) solving the first and second equations of(1)，we obtain U0，V1;(iv) solving the first and third equations of(1)，we obtain U2，V2; (v) calculating the momentum-average of U1，v1 and U2，v2，we obtain the new U0，V0;then return to (ii);(vi) iterating as above until the disparity of those solutions in two consecutive iterations is sufficiently small or is satisfied，we then take those values of p0，U0 and V0 as the initial values for the next elapse and solve those equations concerning the temperature..2 .2 Entire method used for solving the energy equationsAs mentioned previously，the temperature field of the surrounding rock and the air flow affect each other. Thus the surface of the tunnel wall is both the boundary of the temperature field in the surrounding rock and the boundary of the temperature field in air flow .Therefore， it is difficult to separately identify the temperature on the tunnel wall surface，and we cannot independently solve those equations concerning the temperature of air flow and those equations concerning the temperature of the surrounding rock .In order to cope with this problem，we simultaneously solve the two groups of equations based on the fact that at the tunnel wall surface both temperatures are equal .We should bearin mind the phase change while solving those equations concerning the temperature of the surrounding rock ，and the convection while solving those equations concerning the temperature of the air flow, and we only need to smooth those relative parameters at the tunnel wall surface .The solving methods for the equations with the phase change are the same as in reference [3].2.3 Determination of thermal parameters and initial and boundaryconditions2.3.1 Determination of the thermal parameters. Using p= 1013.25-0.1088 H ，we calculateair pressure p at elevation H and calculate the air density ρ using formula GTP =ρ, where T is the yearly-average absolute air temperature ，and G is the humidity constant of air. Letting P C be the thermal capacity with fixed pressure, λ the thermal conductivity ，and μ the dynamic viscosity of air flow, we calculate the thermal conductivity and kinematic viscosity using the formulas ρλP C =ａ and ρμν=. The thermal parameters of the surrounding rock are determined from the tunnel site.2 .3.2 Determination of the initial and boundary conditions .Choose the observed monthly average wind speed at the entry and exit as boundary conditions of wind speed ，and choose the relative effective pressure p=0 at the exit ( that is ，the entry of the dominant wind trend) and ]5[22/)/1(v d kL p ⨯+= on the section of entry ( that is ，the exit of the dominant wind trend )，where k is the coefficient of resistance along the tunnel wall, d = 2R ，and v is the axial average speed. We approximate T varying by the sine law according to the data observed at the scene and provide a suitable boundary value based on the position of the permafrost base and the geothermal gradient of the thaw rock materials beneath thepermafrost base.3 A simulated exampleUsing the model and the solving method mentioned above，we simulate the varying law of the air temperature in the tunnel along with the temperature at the entry and exit of the Xiluoqi No.2 Tunnel .We observe that the simulated results are close to the data observed[6].The Xiluoqi No .2 Tunnel is located on the Nongling railway in northeastern China and passes through the part beneath the permafrost base .It has a length of 1 160 m running from the northwest to the southeast, with the entry of the tunnel in the northwest，and the elevation is about 700 m. The dominant wind direction in the tunnel is from northwest to southeast, with a maximum monthly-average speed of 3 m/s and a minimum monthly-average speed of 1 .7 m/s . Based on the data observed，we approximate the varying sine law of air temperature at the entry and exit with yearly averages of -5℃，-6.4℃ and amplitudes of 18.9℃ and 17.6℃respectively. The equivalent diameter is 5 .8m，and the resistant coefficient along the tunnel wall is 0.025.Since the effect of the thermal parameter of the surrounding rock on the air flow is much smaller than that of wind speed，pressure and temperature at the entry and exit，we refer to the data observed in the Dabanshan Tunnel for the thermal parameters.Figure 1 shows the simulated yearly-average air temperature inside and at the entry and exit of the tunnel compared with the data observed .We observe that the difference is less than 0 .2 `C from the entry to exit.Figure 2 shows a comparison of the simulated and observed monthly-average air temperature in-side (distance greater than 100 m from the entry and exit) the tunnel. We observe that the principal law is almost the same，and the main reason for the difference is the errors that came from approximating the varying sine law at the entry and exit; especially , the maximum monthly-average air temperature of 1979 was not for July but for August.Fig.1. Comparison of simulated and observed air temperature in Xiluoqi No.2 Tunnel in 1979.1,simulated values;2,observed valuesFig.2.The comparison of simulated and observed air temperature inside The Xiluoqi No.2 Tunnel in 1979.1,simulated values;2,observed values4 Prediction of the freeze-thaw conditions for the Dabanshan Tunnel 4 .1 Thermal parameter and initial and boundary conditionsUsing the elevation of 3 800 m and the yearly-average air temperature of -3℃, we calculate the air density p=0 .774 kg/m 3.Since steam exists In the air, we choose the thermal capacity with a fixed pressure of air ),./(8744.10C kg kJ C p = heat conductivity )./(100.202C m W -⨯=λ andand the dynamic viscosity )../(10218.96s m kg -⨯=μ After calculation we obtain the thermal diffusivity a= 1 .3788s m /1025-⨯ and the kinematic viscosity ，s m /1019.125-⨯=ν .Considering that the section of automobiles is much smaller than that of the tunnel and the auto-mobiles pass through the tunnel at a low speed ，we ignore the piston effects ，coming from the movement of automobiles ，in the diffusion of the air.We consider the rock as a whole component and choose the dry volumetric cavity 3/2400m kg d =λ,content of water and unfrozen water W=3% and W=1%, and the thermal conductivity c m W o u ./9.1=λ,c m W o f ./0.2=λ,heatcapacityc kg kJ C o V ./8.0= and d u f W w C γ⨯++=1)128.48.0(,d u u Ww C γ⨯++=1)128.48.0( According to the data observed at the tunnel site ，the maximum monthly-average wind speed is about 3 .5 m/s ，and the minimum monthly-average wind speed is about 2 .5 m/s .We approximate the wind speed at the entry and exit as )/](5.2)7(028.0[)(2s m t t v +-⨯=, where t is in month. The initial wind speed in the tunnel is set to be.0),,0(),)(1(),,0(2=-=r x V Rr U r x U a The initial and boundary values of temperature T are set to bewhere f(x) is the distance from the vault to the permafrost base ，and R0=25 m is the radius of do-main of solution T. We assume that the geothermal gradient is 3%，the yearly-average air temperature outside tunnel the is A=-3C 0，and the amplitude is B=12C 0.As for the boundary of R=Ro ，we first solve the equations considering R=Ro as the first type of boundary; that is we assume that T=f(x)⨯3%C 0on R=Ro. We find that, after one year, the heat flow trend will have changed in the range of radius between 5 and 25m in the surrounding rock.. Considering that the rock will be cooler hereafter and it will be affected yet by geothermal heat, we appoximately assume that the boundary R=Ro is the second type of boundary; that is ，we assume that the gradient value ，obtained from the calculation up to the end of the first year after excavation under the first type of boundary value, is the gradient on R=Ro of T.Considering the surrounding rock to be cooler during the period of construction ，we calculatefrom January and iterate some elapses of time under the same boundary. Then we let the boundaryvalues vary and solve the equations step by step(it can be proved that the solution will not depend on the choice of initial values after many time elapses ).1)The yearly-average temperature on the surface wall of the tunnel is approximately equal to the ai4 .2 Calculated resultsFigures 3 and 4 show the variations of the monthly-average temperatures on the surface of the tunnel wall along with the variations at the entry and exit .Figs .5 and 6 show the year when permafrost begins to form and the maximum thawed depth after permafrost formed in different surrounding sections.Fig.3.The monthly-average temperature parison of the monthly- On the surface of Dabanshan Tunnel.I, average temperature on the surface The month,I=1,2,3,,,12 tunnel with that outside the tunnel. 1,inner temperature on the surface ;2,outside air temperatureFig.5.The year when permafrost Fig.6.The maximum thawed depth after Begins to from in different permafrost formed in different years Sections of the surroundingrock4 .3 Preliminary conclusionBased on the initial-boundary conditions and thermal parameters mentioned above, we obtain the following preliminary conclusions: r temperature at the entry and exit. It is warmer during the cold season and cooler during the warm season in the internal part (more than 100 m from the entry and exit) of the tunnel than at the entry and exit . Fig .1 shows that the internal monthly-average temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall is 1.2℃ higher in January, February and December, 1℃higher in March and October, and 1 .6℃ lower in June and August, and 2qC lower in July than the air temperature at the entry and exit. In other months the infernal temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall approximately equals the air temperature at the entry and exit.2) Since it is affected by the geothermal heat in the internal surrounding section，especially in the central part, the internal amplitude of the yearly-average temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall decreases and is 1 .6℃ lower than that at the entry and exit.3 ) Under the conditions that the surrounding rock is compact , without a great amount of under-ground water, and using a thermal insulating layer(as designed PU with depth of 0.05 m and heat conductivity λ=0.0216 W/m℃，FBT with depth of 0.085 m and heat conductivity λ=0.0517W/m℃)，in the third year after tunnel construction，the surrounding rock will begin to form permafrost in the range of 200 m from the entry and exit .In the first and the second year after construction, the surrounding rock will begin to form permafrost in the range of 40 and 100m from the entry and exit respectively .In the central part，more than 200m from the entry and exit, permafrost will begin to form in the eighth year. Near the center of the tunnel，permafrost will appear in the 14-15th years. During the first and second years after permafrost formed，the maximum of annual thawed depth is large (especially in the central part of the surrounding rock section) and thereafter it decreases every year. The maximum of annual thawed depth will be stable until the 19-20th yearsand will remain in s range of 2-3 m.4) If permafrost forms entirely in the surrounding rock，the permafrost will provide a water-isolating layer and be favourable for communication and transportation .However, in the process of construction，we found a lot of underground water in some sections of the surrounding rock .It will permanently exist in those sections，seeping out water and resulting in freezing damage to the liner layer. Further work will be reported elsewhere.严寒地区隧道围岩冻融状况分析的导热与对流换热模型摘要通过对严寒地区隧道现场基本气象条件的分析，建立了隧道内空气与围岩对流换热及固体导热的综合模型;用此模型对大兴安岭西罗奇2号隧道的洞内气温分布进行了模拟计算，结果与实测值基本一致;分析预报了正在开凿的祁连山区大坂山隧道开通运营后洞内温度及围岩冻结、融化状况.关键词严寒地区隧道导热与对流换热冻结与融化在我国多年冻土分布及邻近地区，修筑了公路和铁路隧道几十座.由于隧道开通后洞内水热条件的变化;，普遍引起洞内围岩冻结，造成对衬砌层的冻胀破坏以及洞内渗水冻结成冰凌等，严重影响了正常交通.类似隧道冻害问题同样出现在其他国家（苏联、挪威、日本等)的寒冷地区.如何预测分析隧道开挖后围岩的冻结状况，为严寒地区隧道建设的设计、施工及维护提供依据，这是一个亟待解决的重要课题.在多年冻土及其临近地区修筑的隧道，多数除进出口部分外从多年冻土下限以下岩层穿过.隧道贯通后，围岩内原有的稳定热力学条件遭到破坏，代之以阻断热辐射、开放通风对流为特征的新的热力系统.隧道开通运营后，围岩的冻融特性将主要由流经洞内的气流的温度、速度、气—固交界面的换热以及地热梯度所确定.为分析预测隧道开通后围岩的冻融特性，Lu-nardini借用Shamsundar研究圆形制冷管周围土体冻融特性时所得的近似公式，讨论过围岩的冻融特性.我们也曾就壁面温度随气温周期性变化的情况，分析计算了隧道围岩的温度场[3].但实际情况下，围岩与气体的温度场相互作用，隧道内气体温度的变化规律无法预先知道，加之洞壁表面的换热系数在技术上很难测定，从而由气温的变化确定壁面温度的变化难以实现.本文通过气一固祸合的办法，把气体、固体的换热和导热作为整体来处理，从洞口气温、风速和空气湿度、压力及围岩的水热物理参数等基本数据出发，计算出围岩的温度场.1数学模型为确定合适的数学模型，须以现场的基本情况为依据.这里我们以青海祁连山区大坂山公路隧道的基本情况为背景来加以说明.大坂山隧道位于西宁一张业公路大河以南，海拔3754.78~3801.23 m ，全长1530 m ,隧道近西南—东北走向. 由于大坂山地区隧道施工现场平均气温为负温的时间每年约长8个月，加之施工时间持续数年，围岩在施土过程中己经预冷，所以隧道开通运营后，洞内气体流动的形态主要由进出口的主导风速所确定，而受洞内围岩地温与洞外气温的温度压差的影响较小；冬季祁连山区盛行西北风，气流将从隧道出曰流向进口端，夏季虽然祁连山区盛行东偏南风，但考虑到洞口两端气压差、温度压差以及进出口地形等因素，洞内气流仍将由出口北端流向进口端.另外，由于现场年平均风速不大，可以认为洞内气体将以层流为主基于以上基本情况，我们将隧道简化成圆筒，并认为气流、温度等关十隧道中心线轴对称，忽略气体温度的变化对其流速的影响，可有如下的方程:其中t 为时间，x 为轴向坐标，r 为径向坐标;U, V 分别为轴向和径向速度，T 为温度，P 为有效压力(即空气压力与空气密度之比少，V 为空气运动粘性系数，a 为空气的导温系数，L 为隧道长度，R 为隧道的当量半径，D 为时间长度)(t S f , )(t S u 分别为围岩的冻、融区域. f λ,u λ分别为冻、融状态下的热传导系数，f C ,u C 分别为冻、融状态下的体积热容量，X=(x,r) , )(t ξ为冻、融相变界面,To 为岩石冻结临界温度(这里具体计算时取To=-0.10C 0)，h L 为水的相变潜热.2 求解过程由方程(1)知，围岩的温度的高低不影响气体的流动速度，所以我们可先解出速度，再解温度.2.1 连续性方程和动量方程的求解由于方程((1)的前3个方程不是相互独立的，通过将动量方程分别对x 和r 求导，经整理化简，我们得到关于压力P 的如下椭圆型方程:于是，对方程(1)中的连续性方程和动量方程的求解，我们按如下步骤进行:(1)设定速度0U ,0V ;( 2)将0U ,0V 代入方程并求解，得0P(3)联立方程(1)的第一个和第二个方程，解得一组解1U ,1V ;(4)联立方程((1)的第一个和第三个方程，解得一组解2U ,2V ;(5)对((3) ,(4)得到的速度进行动量平均,得新的0U ,0V 返回(2) ;(6)按上述方法进行迭代，直到前后两次的速度值之差足够小.以0P ,0U ,0V 作为本时段的解,下一时段求解时以此作为迭代初值.2. 2 能量方程的整体解法如前所述，围岩与空气的温度场相互作用，壁面既是气体温度场的边界，又是固体温度场的边界，壁面的温度值难以确定，我们无法分别独立地求解隧道内的气体温度场和围岩温度场.为克服这一困难，我们利用在洞壁表面上，固体温度等于气体温度这一事实，把隧道内气体的温度和围岩内固体的温度放在一起求解，这样壁面温度将作为末知量被解出来.只是需要注意两点:解流体温度场时不考虑相变和解固体温度时没有对流项;在洞壁表面上方程系数的光滑化.另外，带相变的温度场的算法与文献[3]相同.2. 3热参数及初边值的确定热参数的确定方法: 用p=1013.25-0.1088H 计算出海拔高度为H 的隧道现场的大气 压强，再由GT P =ρ计算出现场空气密度ρ，其中T 为现场大气的年平均绝对温度，G 为空气的气体常数.记定压比热为P C ,导热系数为λ，空气的动力粘性系数为μ.按ρλP C =ａ 和ρμν= 计算空气的导温系数和运动粘性系数.围岩的热物理参数则由现场采样测定.初边值的确定方法:洞曰风速取为现场观测的各月平均风速.取卞导风进曰的相对有效气压为0，主导风出口的气压则取为]5[22/)/1(v d kL p ⨯+=，这里k 为隧道内的沿程阻力系数，L 为隧道长度，d 为隧道端面的当量直径，ν为进口端面轴向平均速度.进出口气温年变化规律由现场观测资料，用正弦曲线拟合，围岩内计算区域的边界按现场多年冻土下限和地热梯度确定出适当的温度值或温度梯度. 3 计算实例按以上所述的模型及计算方法，我们对大兴安岭西罗奇2号隧道内气温随洞曰外气温变化的规律进行了模拟计算验证，所得结果与实测值[6]相比较,基本规律一致.西罗奇2号隧道是位十东北嫩林线的一座非多年冻土单线铁路隧道，全长1160 m ,隧道近西北一东南向，高洞口位于西北向，冬季隧道主导风向为西北风.洞口海拔高度约为700 m ,月平均最高风速约为3m/s,最低风速约为1.7m/s.根据现场观测资料，我们将进出口气温拟合为年平均分别为-5C 0和-6.4C 0，年变化振幅分别为18.9C 0和17.6C 0的正弦曲线.隧道的当量直径为5.8 m,沿程阻力系数取为0.025.由于围岩的热物理参数对计算洞内气温的影响远比洞口的风速、压力及气温的影响小得多，我们这里参考使用了大坂山隧道的资料.图1给出了洞口及洞内年平均气温的计算值与观测值比较的情况，从进口到出口，两值之差都小于0.2C 0.图2给出了洞内 (距进出口l00m 以上)月平均气温的计算值与观测值比较的情况，可以看出温度变化的基本规律完全一致，造成两值之差的主要原因是洞口气温年变化规律之正弦曲线的拟合误差，特别是1979年隧道现场月平均最高气温不是在7月份，而是在8月份.图1. 比较1979年在西罗奇周家山2号隧道仿真试验与观察的空气温度.1、模拟值;2、观测值图2。
附则：重庆交通大学本科毕业设计(论文)规范要求
附则重庆交通大学本科毕业设计（论文）规范要求一、《外文翻译》规范要求外文翻译，是学生针对毕业设计（论文）选题，查阅并翻译一篇适合的外文文献。
其目的是使学生拓展视野，了解国外相关研究、应用与发展情况，提高学生的外文科技文献的阅读理解与翻译能力。
其规范要求如下：（一）外文文献应指导教师指导下选择，须与毕业设计（论文）选题紧密相关，外文文献应是反映该领域新发展（近5年）的期刊文章、专业书籍或网站资料等，作者应为英语国家；（二）外文翻译应在指导教师指导下，学生在毕业设计（论文）前3周内独立完成，译文不少于3000个汉字；（三）译文准确、严谨，忠实原文内容，应遵循“能直译直译，不能直译意译”的原则，避免“英化汉语”；（四）外文翻译封面与格式要求见附件1。
二、《文献综述》规范要求文献综述，是指学生针对毕业设计（论文）选题所涉及的研究与应用领域，进行广泛地文献查询，在阅读理解、综合分析的基础上，撰写的总结评述。
其目的是通过文献总结，使了解选题相关的国内外研究现状、前沿趋势及主要问题，为合理确定毕业设计（论文）的工作思路、工作方案、技术路线和撰写《开题报告》提供充分依据，同时训练学生的信息获取、信息分析及科技写作能力。
其规范要求如下：（一）文献综述应在指导教师指导下，学生在毕业设计（论文）前3周内独立完成；（二）学生应系统查阅与选题相关的国内外文献，文献要有代表性、可靠性、全面性，阅读文献不少于15篇，其中外文文献不少于2篇；（三）合理确定文献综述的题目，不得以毕业设计（论文）题目代替；（四）文献综述的主体内容应反映选题的国内外发展现状，反映最新研究与应用情况，应有自己的客观归纳评述内容，不能仅仅是文献成果的简单堆砌；（五）文献综述要内容完整、条理清晰、精炼明确，不少于1500字（外国语言文学专业不少于1000单词），文献引用处要在句末用“[ ]”上标注明文献出处，文献综述封面与格式要求见附件2。
三、《开题报告》规范要求开题报告，是学生在调查研究、文献综述的基础上，对选题进行论证和设计，撰写的报请指导教师批准的毕业设计（论文）工作计划报告。
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本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文题目：建筑招投标与赢者诅咒：博弈论方法学院：经济与管理学院专业：工程造价学生姓名：**学号：************指导教师：***完成时间：2017年4月5日译自：Muaz O.Ahmed1;Islam H. El-adaway, M.ASCE2; Kalyn T. Coatney3;and Mohamed S. Eid4. Construction Bidding and the Winner’s Curse: Game Theory Approach[J]，Construction Engineering and Management，2016,142（2）.建筑招投标与赢者诅咒：博弈论方法Muaz O.Ahmed1;Islam H. El-adaway, M.ASCE2; Kalyn T. Coatney3;and Mohamed S. Eid4美国密西西比州立大学土木与环境工程系摘要：在建筑业中，竞争投标一直是承包商选择的一种方法。
由于施工的真实成本直到项目完工后才知道，所以逆向选择是一个重大问题。
逆向选择是当合同的赢家低估了项目的真实成本，从而中标承包商很有可能赚取负或至少低于正常利润。
赢家的诅咒是当中标人提交一个被低估的出价，因此诅咒被选中承担项目。
在多阶段招标环境下，分包商由总承包商雇用，胜利者的诅咒可能会复合。
在一般情况下，承包商遭受赢者的诅咒，因为各种各样的原因包括项目成本估计不准确；新的承包商进入建筑市场；在建筑行业的衰退的情况下减少损失；在建筑市场激烈的竞争；差的机会成本，从而影响承包商的行为；以及要赢该项目然后弥补订单变更、索赔和其他机制而带来的损失。
本文通过博弈论方法旨在分析并减少潜在的施工招投标中赢家诅咒的影响。
为此，作者确定在两个共同的施工招标环境的赢家诅咒的程度，即单级招标和多级招标。
我们的目标是比较上述两个施工招标环境，并确定如何学习从过去的投标决策和经验可以减轻赢家的诅咒。
为此，通过定义施工招标和拍卖理论之间的关系，利用三步研究方法包括（1）呈现对称风险中性的纳什均衡作为最优报价功能；（2）开发仿真模型用于单级和多级施工招标过程；（3）分析仿真模型的结果，它是基于由加利福尼亚州运输部提供项目的一个实际的数据集。
这项研究表明，大多数的一般承包商和分包商在单级和多阶段投标环境遭受赢家的诅咒。
此外，从赢者的诅咒的角度来看，多阶段的投标环境比单级投标环境造成更多的损失。
然而，通过学习过去的经验，如果与单级招标环境相比，多级招标环境提供给承包商一个更好的机会以避免赢家的诅咒。
这项研究对同行来说是有益的，便于他们更好地了解投标决策过程。
对于未来的工作，合作博弈理论可以与完整的项目交付原则结合起来，以帮助所有相关各方相互实现自己的项目目标。
关键词：工程承包1. 引言了解施工行业的基本过程对于承包商保持竞争力，同时对于一个国家经济有效运作至关重要。
根据Kululanga等（2001年），建筑行业在早期纳入了简单直观的流程。
然而，建筑行业在当今世界越来越复杂和复杂。
建筑行业的发展为承包商开创了竞争环境。
因此，承包商需要制定完善的计划，以接受不同的观点，以便领先于竞争对手。
建筑行业艰巨的任务之一是承包商选择过程。
竞争性投标一直被用作分配合同的方法（Seydel 2003）。
此外，在公共部门，竞争性投标被认为是法律要求。
因此，有人认为，对建设项目成功影响的主要因素之一是企业的投标策略。
根据Park and Chapin（1992）的说法，承包商提交建议，表明他们愿意按约定的价格进行建设项目。
一般来说，在施工招标过程中，提交的投标在技术上进行评估，然后根据提交的价格对技术上批准的投标进行财务评估。
对于提交投标的财务评估，采用低价中标法，第二低价中标法，平均报价方法和低于平均报价法等方法（Ioannou和Awwad 2010）。
根据Ioannou和Awwad（2010）的说法，低价中标法是美国建筑合同最常用的方法。
在本文适用的低价中标方式中，合同授予技术认可的承包商，并在提交的投标中具有最低的价格。
因此，获胜承包商预计将根据约定的价格和时间表建设项目，并提供所需的质量水平。
竞争投标的成功与否取决于诸多因素，这些因素被认为是建筑工程投标竞争环境的主要来源。
如盖茨（Gates）（1967）所述，承包商希望获得项目合同有很多原因，例如（1）增加赚取的利润；（2）尽量减少损失，因为承包商即使在经济衰退期间也能保持公司的完整性；（3）尽量减少竞争对手的利润，以保持建筑行业市场的长期良好竞争地位。
由于上述所有原因，在提交投标前，每个承包商正在对每个投标情况做出许多关键决定。
（1）Bagies and Fortune（2006）指出，在承诺建筑项目之前的阶段，承包商受到是否投标决定的影响，从而承包商考虑了许多有助于确定预期的因素来正确评估建设项目是否受益。
（2）与招标策略相关的投标策略。
正如King和美世（1985）所引用的，投标策略是任何建筑公司总体业务规划的重要组成部分。
在过去的50 年，许多模型已经被开发用于在建筑工程招投标中的应用。
根据Wanous等人（2000），这些投标模式中的大多数只集中于加价决策，如Friedman（1956）和盖茨（1967）开发的模型。
然而，尽管有许多与招标相关的出版物，投标模式也大部分忽视了人的行为（Ahmadand Minkarah，1988）。
许多研究人员认为，在现实中，投标决定是以经验和直觉为基础，并受到对每个投标情况的压力的情绪反应的影响（Fayek 1998）。
此外，Runeson 和Skitmore（1999）认为，在开发的投标模式中应用的一些基本假设是不现实的，其预测结果并不总是正确的。
因此，在施工招标中需要采用更有效率的投标模式，与其在假设中的施工招标过程的实际情况相一致，克服了以前发布的招标模式的局限性。
最近，许多研究人员倾向于开发新技术来帮助承包商使用模糊神经网络进行招标决策（Polat 等，2014）。
预计这些技术应有助于承包商估计最佳出价金额，以便在施工招投标中投标报价。
最后，施工项目面临施工项目生命周期中可能发生的许多事件的高度不确定性。
例如，承包商面对周期长的项目投标时必须考虑的投入成本，劳动力问题和施工条件的不可避免和不可预见的增加。
在提交投标时，承包商不能确定地知道实际的项目建设成本。
因此，建筑行业依赖于承包商当前信息，过去经验和利用RSMeans等方法对项目成本的估算。
因此，在施工招投标中，低估项目成本和招标费用的承包商投标报价比项目建设成本低，因此面临不利选择所带来的问题。
这种不利的选择导致的结果被称为胜利者的诅咒。
2.目标本文运用博弈论的方法，分析并减轻工程招投标中赢者诅咒的潜在影响。
为此，作者确定在两个共同的施工招标环境的赢家诅咒的程度，即单级招标和多级招标。
我们的目标是比较上述两个施工招标环境，并确定如何从过去的投标决策和经验学习可以减轻赢家的诅咒方法。
3. 背景信息自从约翰·冯·诺依曼（John von Neumann）和奥斯卡·莫根斯坦（Oskar Morgenstern）发表“运动与经济行为理论”以来，社会和行为科学已经开发出数学工具来描述人类行为。
为此，游戏理论被定义为“智慧理性决策者之间冲突与合作数学模型的研究”（Myerson 1991。
博弈论已经应用于人类生活的不同方面。
20世纪50年代和60年代，博弈论被应用于战争中的决策和政治问题。
20世纪70年代，博弈论彻底改变了经济研究领域。
此外，它已经应用于社会学，心理学和生物学。
在诺贝尔奖获得诺贝尔奖后，博弈论及其从业者在约翰·纳什（John Nash），约翰·哈桑尼（John Harsanyi）和雷因哈德·塞尔滕（Reinhard Selten）的1994年获得了长期以来的认可和合法性（Turocy和Stengel 2001）。
在建筑行业，研究人员已经应用了各种博弈论模型来解释和预测结果。
何（2001）利用博弈论分析了不对称信息存在下的建设运营转移项目采购流程及其对项目融资和政府政策的影响。
Drew和Skitmore（2006）通过拍卖理论，博弈理论的亚科学分析，分析了建筑行业的竞标计划。
何和刘（2004）通过博弈论模型分析了承包商和建筑业主之间的动态。
Karl（2014）开发了一种模块化建模方法，用于模拟建筑行业不同层次的多层次和动态关系。
此外，博弈论也被应用于检查分包商选择的策略（Unsal和Taylor 2011），并分析投标报酬对竞标投标过程的影响（Ho 2005）。
因此，博弈论被认为是分析建筑行业许多问题的重要工具。
一般来说，博弈论模型可以根据信息的完整性和游戏的播放方式进行分类。
基于博弈的方法，有两种类型：（1）静态博弈，玩家在决定的同时采取行动，不知道其他玩家选择的决策，以及（2）动作博弈（其他行动）（Ho和Hsu，2014）。
一般来说，施工竞标模式可以认为遵循静态博弈概念，因为投标人在提交投标时不知道竞争对手的投标。
此外，博弈论概念基本上有两个主要部分：（1）合作博弈理论，其中玩家合作共同获得更多的收益，并在他们之间公平分配收益;（2）非合作博弈理论，其中每个玩家独立选择一个策略并尝试最大化收益，并且玩家之间没有勾结（Asgari和Afshar 2008）。
纳什（1950）均衡被认为是非合作博弈的解决方案，假设所有玩家都是理性的。
一般来说，施工竞争性招标可以描述为非合作游戏，因为每个总承包商（GC）或分包商（SC）都试图赢得竞争，并在存在利益冲突的情况下使个人的收益最大化。
因此，可以得出结论，为了开发一个描述实际投标的更好的模型，博弈论模型与静态移动和不完整信息不合作。
拍卖已被用于分发货物和服务数千年。
从博弈论的角度来看，拍卖被认为是不完整信息博弈最优秀的应用之一，因为拍卖参与者有不同的私人信息，这是影响其战略行为的主要因素。
拍卖通常分为两大类：（1）私有价值拍卖，（2）共同价值拍卖。
在私人价值拍卖中，投标人可以确定地知道自己拍卖品的价值，但不知道其他投标人的价值。
然而，在共同价值拍卖中，被拍卖的物品对每个人都具有相同的价值（即成本），但是没有一个投标人确定地知道这个价值。
因此，每个投标人都会制定一个关于真实价值的独立和相同分布的估计，赢家是具有最真实价值的信息（Kagel和Levin，2002）。
关于建筑行业，承包商在提交投标时有两个不完整的信息来源：（1）实际（实现）项目建设成本，（2）竞争对手对项目建设成本的估计。
因此，根据Dyer和Kagel（1996），施工招标被认为是一个共同价值的拍卖。