专八语言学整理
英语专八人文-最全语言学知识点
语言学* 现代语言学理论和学派1. Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913 瑞士)：Father of modern linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》：由其学生- C. Bally & A. Sechehaye整理，现代语言学开端，19163 lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology 符号任意性理论；语言单位间的关系；语言和言语区分；共时和历时区分。
语言是符号系统。
符号是形式和意义的联合，即能指signifier和所指signified。
2. The Prague School布拉格学派：synchronic linguistics; Function1) 对语言的共时研究由于可得到全面可控的语言材料以供参考而被充分强调，同时，也没有严格理论；界限被竖立起来将之与历时语言研究相分离。
2) 强调语言的系统性这一本质属性。
3) 在某种意义上，把语言看作是一种功能，是一种有某一语言社团使用的，用来完成一系列基本职责和任务的工具。
~ Phonology and Phonological Oppositions(音位对位):Trubetzkoy–Phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. – phoneme~ Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP 句子功能前景)：语言学分析理论用信息论原理来分析话语或篇章。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分的作用取决于它对全局意义的贡献。
捷克语言学家- The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer, which is their rallying point, the Theme.The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer and is called the Rheme.3.The London School伦敦学派–systemic linguistics and functional linguistics Sociological approach1) J.R. Firth(1890-1960 英国)：伦敦学派创始人; 学生-Malinowski & Halliday语言学的研究对象是实际使用中的语言。
专八语言学考点
专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
专八-语言学总结
语言学Ⅰ. 语言的性质●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a means of verbal communication(言语交际).●Design FeaturesThe features that define our human languages can be called design features.⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)⑵Duality(二重性)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)⑷Displacement(易境性)⑸Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. e.x. pen--/pen/ book/buk/Different levels of Arbitrarinessa.Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme(语素) and its meaning.e.x. 叮咚，轰隆English—wow wow Chinese: wangwangwangIt is only then you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.b.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelSyntax is less arbitrary than words, and the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds.c.Arbitrariness and convention (约定俗成)Arbitrariness of language makes conventionality(约定俗成性) potentially creative.⑵Duality(二重性)-- The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the secondary unites: sounds(meaningless)the primary unites: words(have distinct and identifiable meaning)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)Language is resourceful because of its duality and excursiveness(递归性—the potential to create endless sentences).⑷Displacement(易境性)-- It is means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are nor present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.●Functions of Language⑴Informative(信息功能)⑵Interpersonal function(人际功能)—how the personal relations being established⑶Performative (行事性功能)—how language woks in real world⑷Emotive function(表情功能)—enable users to express whatever feelings they have⑸Phatic communication(寒暄功能)—the social interaction of language/ helps to define and maintain interpersonalrelations⑹Recreational function（娱乐功能）— a poetic function⑺Metalingual function（元语言功能）—language can be used to talk about languageThe lion are the unicorn all round the town.All along the town the lion ate the unicorn.The change in liner order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Ⅱ. Linguistics 语言学●Linguistics is a science which takes language as its object of investigation.We must learn linguistics①systematically—beginning+engding②objectively—does according to the facts③exhaustiveness—to collect data as much as possible so as to enrich one’s knowledge andsupport one’s idea●Distinctions of Linguistics （Lyons）⑴Descriptive(描写/描述性的) vs. Prescriptive（规定性的）↖to set up roles for others to follow, designed by↑traditional grammerto talk about something according to something itself⑵Synchronic（共时研究）vs. Diachronic（历时研究）(Swiss: Saussure)Synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic: is the study of a language through the course of its history. (study language at least in two periods of time) Comparison: Synchronic: what a language is in a period of timeDiachronic: find our the changes from one language to another language⑶Langue(语言) & Parole（言语）(Saussure)Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker (the abstract system of language)Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (the actual use of language)Langue govern parole; parole reacts langue⑷Competence(语言能力) & Performance（语言运用）( American: Chomsky)↑↖the linguistic knowledge in the ideal speakers’ mindthe ability of native/ideal speaker of language⑸Etic(非位的) vs. Emic（位学的）(American: Pike)↑↖Phonemics(音位学的)，abstract units of languagephonetics(语音学的)，something concreateⅢ. Phonetics 语音学●Phonetics study speech sounds, including the production of speech(how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted andreceived), the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.●Consonant: these is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.V owel: these is no obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.Ⅳ. Phonology 音位学●Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and thepatterns wherein they fall.广义的音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般特种的研究，包括语音学。
专八语言学整理
专八语言学整理语言学——戴炜栋（牟杨译本的学习指南）重要人物汇总1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔the founding father of modern structural linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人●提出语言language和言语speech的区别●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmaticrelations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory.2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人●1957简作TG Grammar的研究模式●普遍语法的概念3．Daniel Johns琼斯：the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统4．M.A.K. Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德：系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar，与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar相区分5. Geoffrey Leech利奇：提出语义学Semantics的七种意义6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美国哲学家:将符号学Semiotics划分为三个分支7. J. Austin 和 J. Searle英国哲学家： Speech Act Theory：20世纪50年代认为语言不仅可以用来表述，更可以用来“做事doing things”，即“to do things with words”8. P.Grice格莱斯——美国哲学家：合作原则The Cooperative Principles9. Ogden and Richards 奥登和理查兹——semantic triangle or triangle of significance语义三角理论p63Chapter one Introduction1.语言学的定义:对语言进行的科学研究(the scientific study of language)2.语言学的范围语音学音位学语言学内部的主要分支形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学跨学科分支心理语言学应用语言学规定性与描写性共时性与历时性言语与文字3.语言学中的一些重要区分语言与言语语言能力与语言运用传统语法与现代语言学4.语言的定义5.语言的识别特征6.语言的作用术语双解1.linguistics(语言学)：Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language.对语言进行科学研究的学科。
专八人文知识--语言学
第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。
）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。
5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。
虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。
）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。
语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。
三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。
规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。
例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。
英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)
专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。
专八语言学考点
语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点：Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性（声音和意义）Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能：Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支：Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。
专八考试知识语言学部分
语素可以分为自由语素free morpheme 和粘着语素bound morpheme. 自由语素可以单独出现或单独构成词语，比如 pleasant, cell. 粘着语素必须与其他语素一起出现，不能独立成词，比如 dis- ex- con-
上下义：例如animal-the pole bear, kangaroo, crocodile。其中animal是上义词super ordinate, 剩下的词叫下义词 hyponyms.
句子之间的语义关系semantic relations between sentences 有以下几种：1、蕴含entailment 例如：A.他去了中国。B.他去了亚洲。A蕴含于B。A entails B. 判断方法：A真B真，B假A假，A假B不一定，B真A不一定。 2.、预设 presupposition 例如：A.我的自行车需要修理。B.我有自行车。A预设于B。A presupposes B. 判断方法：其中的一个句子以另一个为前提条件。A真B真，A假B还真。
is called ______. (2008) A. hyponymy. B. synonymy. C. polysemy. D. homonymy. 考点：考察词汇之间的涵义关系sense relations.
记忆：涵义关系有5个：同义关系synonymy, 反义关系antonymy, 一词多义
①① 语用学 1. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005) 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
专八 语言学总汇
一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能 informative人际功能 interpersonal施为功能 performative感情功能 emotive function寒暄功能 phatic communication娱乐功能 recreational function元语言功能 metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位 phoneme3 音位变体 allophones4 互补分布 complementary distribution5 自由变体 free variation6 区别特征 distinctive features7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
专八语言学知识Linguistics
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
英语专八人文知识之语言学部分
复习专八的同志们注意啦，个人潜心整理--人文知识之语言学部分，希望能帮上点儿忙，一起加油！作者：張旭BEYONDTEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）3多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）6 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function7 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity8 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses9 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions10 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等11 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
专八考试知识语言学部分
语言学部分一、语言与语言学1, which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness. B. productivity. C. cultural transmission. D. finiteness.考点: 语言的区别性特征（design features）记忆：CD PAD. Cultural transmission. Displacement. Productivity (creativity). Arbitrariness. Duality.2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by _____. (2006)A. Halliday.B. Chomsky.C. BloomfieldD. Saussure.考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对儿概念的区分。
记忆：四对概念分别是：descriptive & prescriptive. Synchronic & diachronic. Langue & Parole. Competence & performance.代表人物：Saussure对应parole & Langue。
Chomsky对应Competence & performance3. language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _____. (2010)A. an expressive function.B. an informative function.C. a performative function.D. a persuasive function.考点：语言的基本功能。
专八语言学
语言学一、语言和语言学(Language and linguistics)1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative（major role）人际功能interpersonal（establish and maintain their status in a society）施为功能performative（change the social status of persons）感情功能emotive function（changing the emotional status）寒暄功能phatic communication（refers: social interaction of language）娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics(interrelation of language and mind)社会语言学sociolinguistics (study of the characteristic of language varieties)人类语言学anthropological linguistics(use in relation to human cultural patterns an d briefs)认知语言学cognitive linguistics计算机语言学computational linguistics5、语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：Saussure提出语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用（actual us e of language）二、语音学(Phonetics)1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的、3 第一个语音字母表：Danish(Otto pesperson)4 Places of Articulation(发音部位)Bilabial双唇音Labrodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Postalveolar后齿龈音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Glottal声门音Retroflex卷舌音Velar小舌音Pharyngeal 咽音5 Manners of Articulation(发音方式)Stop爆破音Fricative摩擦音Lateral边音Approximant近似音Nasal鼻音三、音位学(Phonology)1、最小对立体minimal pairs （one distinctive sound e.g./b//p/）2、音位phoneme (e.g. big 中的/b/)3 音位变体allophones (e.g. put中的/p/与span中的/p/)4 互补分布complementary distribution (不送气的/p/出现在/s/后，送气的/p/其他位置)5 自由变体free variation （caused by dialect, habit or……）6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学(Morphology)1 词的构成语素morpheme(最小语言单位) 自由语素free morpheme（e.g. dog）粘着语素boun d morpheme(e.g. dis-close) Root 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix（e.g. toy-s）and derivational affix（e.g. teac h-teacher）2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention(e.g. coinage) 混拼词blending(e.g. smoke+fog=smog) 缩写词abbreviation(e.g. ad) 首字母缩写词acronym(e.g. WTO) 逆构词汇back-formation(e.g. editor—edit) 类推构词analogiacal creation (e.g. work-worked ,slay-slayed)外来词borrowing五句法学(Syntax)1 范畴category(defining properties of words) 数number 性gender 格case(主：nominative宾:accusative属:genitive) 时tense 体aspect(完成体perfective 未完成体imperfective) 一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起(called: horizontal relation or chain relation)聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起(called: vertical or choice r elation)结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心(有一个词头)：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心（没有词头）：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
历年英语专业八级考试语言学精华汇编(1)
English英语专八学习语言学重点精华汇总一什么是语言学语言学的鼻祖要知道Saussure是Father of Modern Linguistics，他出版了一部很具代表性的著作Course in General Linguistics●语言及语言学的两个定义要清楚：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Linguistics is a branch of science,which takes language as its object of investigation.●一些重要的对立性的概念，同学一定要区别开1.Prescriptive+Descriptive（规定一定要这样说或写+实际上我们是这么说或写）2.Synchronic+Diachronic（Saussure提出，研究某一特定时间段内的语言+研究在每一个历史阶段的语言）ngue+Parole（Saussure提出，Sociological角度出发）（一套完整的语言系统，规定了条条框框+我们现实中说的语言，按现实走，所以会变）petence+Performance（Chomsky提出，Psychological角度出发）（理想情况下说话者完全遵守语言规则+我们在现实生活中的语言运用）●Language5特征：随意性Arbitrariness(Saussure提出)+双重性Duality+多产性Productivity+移位性Displacement（语言可表达非现实的东西，如龙）+文化传播性Cultural Transmission （要靠后天学习才会掌握）●其他衍伸的学科（按字面上的理解即可）Psycholinguistics心理语言学/语言心理学、Sociolinguistics社会语言学、Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学二语音学Phonetics●定义：研究的是speech sounds,如speech production，研究的对象是Phone●国际音标图叫做the International Phonetic Alphabet/IPA chart:特别注意：什么是变音符Diacritics？是额外附加到我们所熟知的字母音标的。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
cation. 4.phonoｌｏgy(音韵／系/位学)：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组
合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。Ｔhe brａnch of ｌinｇｕistics which stuｄｉe ｓ ｔhｅ sounｄ pａｔterｎs ｆrｏm function perspectｉｖe. 5.ｍorphｏlogy(形态学）：研究单词的内部构造 the inteｒnal struｃture of woｒｄｓ 6.syntax(句法):研究组词造句的规则 thｅ ruｌes governing tｈｅ combiｎatｉoｎ of words ｉn ｔo seｎtences. 7.Sｅmantiｃs(语义学)：thｅ study of meaｎing；对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究,以研 究词义和句义为主 it’s tｈe sysｔemｉｃ stｕｄies ｏｎ the meanｉng-pｒoｄuciｎg mｅ chanisｍ ｉn lanｇuages, ｉｎcｌｕding ｗorｄs and sentenceｓ ｍeaｎing 8.prａｇmａtiｃｓ（语用学／论): 从语言同使用者之间的关系出发，研究在实际交际ｉn real-tｉme communiｃatioｎ contexts 中影响人们语言使用的各种因素 mainlｙ in tｅrmｓ of ｔ he relatiｏｎship betwｅeｎ lanｇｕage aｎd lａｎguaｇｅ－uｓeｒs。
பைடு நூலகம்
9.sociolinguｉｓtics(社会语言学)： １0.ｐsychｏｌｉｎguiｓtics（心理语言学): 11.ａｐplieｄ ｌｉnguｉｓticｓ(应用语言学) ①广义: ②in a nａrｒｏｗ sｅnsｅ:
1２. ｄescriptive(描写性):
Pｒescriptｉｖe（规定性): 13. Syｎｃhronｉｃ（共时性）：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象
Chａpｔer oｎe Introducｔion
1.语言学的定义:对语言进行的科学研究(the scientifｉc sｔuｄｙ of ｌanguaｇe)
2.语言学的范围
语音学
音位学
语言学内部的主要分支 形态学
句法学
语义学
语用学
社会语言学 跨学科分支 心理语言学
应用语言学
规定性与描写性 共时性与历时性
ructuｒal ｌinguｉｓｔics 现代结构主义语言学创始人 ●提出语言ｌangｕage 和言语 speech 的区别
●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Ｓyｎｔagmａtiｃ ａnd Paradigmaｔ ic relａtions is iｍpｏrtａｎｔ part of Ｓauｓsurｅ’s synｔａctic tｈeｏｒy. 2． Noam Ｃhomｓｋy 乔姆斯基：ｔｈe fouｎder of gｅnｅｒａtiｖe ｇrａｍmar 生成语 法创始人 ●提出关于语言能力 competence 与 语言运用ｐeｒformancｅ的区分概念 ●1９57 年提出转换生成语法:Transformatｉonal-Generatｉｖe grammａr 简作 TG Ｇｒ
专八语言学整理
———————————————————————————————— 作者： ———————————————————————————————— 日期:
ﻩ
语言学——戴炜栋 （牟杨译本的学习指南） 重要人物汇总 1. Ferｄinanｄ ｄe Ｓaｕssｕｒｅ索绪尔 the foundiｎg faｔheｒ oｆ moｄern sｔ
言语与文字 3.语言学中的一些重要区分 语言与言语
语言能力与语言运用 传统语法与现代语言学 4．语言的定义 5.语言的识别特征 6．语言的作用 术语双解 1.linｇｕisticｓ(语言学):Linguｉsticｓ refｅrｓ ｔo tｈe sciｅntｉｆic stuｄy of language. 对语言进行科学研究的学科。 2.genｅraｌ linguｉsｔics(普通语言学)：thｅ study oｆ language ａs ａ ｗholｅ． ３.phｏnｅtics(语音学):the ｓtｕdｙ of sｏunds ｕｓed iｎ liｎguｉsｔic cｏｍmunｉ
Diａchronic(历时性):研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律 14.sｐeｅｃh anｄ writiｎg(言语与文字)
Lａngue（语言）：指语言系统的整体 the whole liｎｇuistｉc system,所有语言使用个
体头脑１５.