语言学(胡壮麟)期末总结
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily tochange the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competenceis stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis ofseveral factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced withoutany noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languagesystematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change isconditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used todescribe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different formsin actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “theminimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are usedbefore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that partof the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tellthe difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Infle ctional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. Butderivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.。
胡壮麟语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点一．定义1 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 define featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.3 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history and focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.4 Langue & paroleLangue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole is particular realizations of langue5 Competence and performanceAn ideal language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules in his language is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.6 descriptive and prescriptive7 phonetic transcriptionA phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.8 phonemePhoneme is a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.9 allophones[p, ph] are two different phones (音子) and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. (Phonetic similarity, complementary distribution)10 assimilationassimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundassimilation refers to the phonological process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts11 distinctive featuresdistinctive features are those phonologically relevant properties, that is, the features which can distinguish meaning, for example, voicing, place and manner of articulation are all principal distinctive features of consonants.12 morphemesthe smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.(Free vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.; Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Root vs. affix morphemes: a root morpheme can be a bound one or a free one. An affix morpheme can be a inflectional one or a derivational one.Inflectional vs. Derivative morphemes:Inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item. Derivative morpheme provides lexical information to the existing lexical item）Root: A “root”is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Affix: “affix”is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are naturally bound and they are limited in number in a language.Stem(词干): A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in a word.Base(词基）: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; any root or stem can be termed a base13 positional relationPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. syntagmatic, horizontal or chain relations.14 Relation of SubstitutabilityThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.15Construction and ConstituentConstruction：the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between them.(Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group)A constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.IC analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups or phrases, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.16 categoryThe term category refers to the defining properties of the general units of different word classes as well as their syntactic functions17 agreementAgreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship should agree with one another in terms of some categories二．简答1 Design Features of Language:Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement2 Functions of language❖referential (to convey message and information),❖poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),❖emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),❖conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),❖phatic (to establish communion with others)❖metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).-----JocobsonMetafunctions of Language❖ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.4 Functional Grammar⏹Theoretical approach to the description and explanation of linguistic phenomena based ontheir various functions.⏹basic assumption: linguistic phenomena cannot be explained without examining theirfunctionIt offers an alternative to (post) structuralism attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally(i.e. assuming the autonomy of syntax)5 5.1 The Prague School⏹Prague Linguistic Circle:⏹Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson(1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).⏹The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics andsemiotics in the 1930's.⏹Three important points:⏹Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.⏹L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated inisolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with thecoexisting elements in the same language system.⏹L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions ortasks for the community using it.5.1.1 Prague School Phonology⏹N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).⏹Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & langue.⏹Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.⏹Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.⏹Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of thephoneme.Trubetzkoy’s contributions⏹Defined the sphere of phonological studies.⏹Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.⏹Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.5.1.2 Functional Sentence Perspective⏹FSP is a theory about analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.⏹Principle: the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to thewhole.5.1.3 Communicative dynamism⏹J. Firbas⏹Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.⏹CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD isthe effect contributed by a linguistic element. For example,5.2 The London School⏹ B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).⏹J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).⏹M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.⏹All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of L.5.2.1 Malinowski’s theories⏹Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”.⏹The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which itoccurs.⏹Three types of situational context:⏹situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;⏹narrative situations;⏹situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communion.5.2.2 Firth’s theoriesa.语言观Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life.⏹L is a means of participation in social activities.⏹L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting andliving.⏹L is both inborn and acquired.⏹The object of linguistic study is L in use.⏹The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establishcorresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.⏹The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, explain theirrelations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between theseelements and human activities in the environment of language use.b. 意义观Meaning is use. five parts of its analysis:⏹the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;⏹the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;⏹the morphological relations of each word;⏹the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;⏹the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.In sum, he emphasizes three kinds of meaning: collocational meaning, referential meaning, and contextual meaningc. 语境观contextual analysis: situational context and linguistic context⏹Internal relations of the text:⏹syntagmatic relations in structure⏹paradigmatic relations in system⏹Internal relations of the context of situation:⏹relations between text and non-linguistic elements⏹analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the situationd. Prosodic analysis (韵律分析): prosodic phonology⏹Since any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptionsare insufficient.⏹It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, thefeatures of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.⏹prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, andaspiration.⏹prosodic analysis is advantageous in categorising data and revealing the relations betweenthem compared with phonemic analysis一．论述1 TG grammarA brief introduction to generative grammar⏹Generative grammar: a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assignsstructural descriptions to sentences. It aims to reveal the unity of particular grammars anduniversal grammars as well as human cognitive systems. To achieve this goal, a grammarshould achieve observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy.⏹Different from Bloomfield’s data-oriented discovery procedure, he insists on theHypothesis-deduction method.Five stages of development⏹The Classical Theory⏹The Standard Theory⏹The Extended Standard Theory⏹The Revised Extended Standard Theory⏹The Minimalist Program4.1 Early theories (1957)4.1.1 Innateness hypothesis: the starting point of TG grammarLanguage is somewhat innate, and children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.Children are endowed with a universal knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories and study of language can shed light on the nature of the human mind.LAD consists of three parts: hypothesis maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure.⏹Evidences: children learn mother tongue very fast and with little effort; similar stagesexperienced by them (babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-wordutterance, developing grammar, near-adult grammar, and full competence); learn the totalgrammar during limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.⏹target: to reveal linguistic universals4.2 The classical theorySyntactic Structures (1957)⏹Three features: emphasis on generative ability of language, introduction of transformationalrules and grammatical description regardless of meaning.⏹finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar.4.2.1 Phrase structure grammar⏹ A system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules are:generative, simple (represented by symbols and formulae), explicit (to state everythingprecisely), exhaustive (to cover all linguistic fact) and recursive (can be repeatedly applied to generate an infinite number of sentences)⏹more generative, stronger powerPhrase structural rules are also called rewritten rules, and the generative process of a sentence is that of rewriting one symbol into another.(NP(Det(the)N(man)) VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))4.2.2 Transformational grammar⏹Linguistic competence : phrase structure grammar that consists rules governing idealizedsentence formation, and transformational grammar that enables us to manipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types.⏹Every sentence has a surface structure (a post-transformational stage) and a deep structure (apre-transformational stage)Deep structure and surface structure⏹Deep structure: the abstract structure and the propositional core. The underlying structure thatspecifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements as well as themeaning of constituents.⏹Surface structure: the actually produced structure and the directly observable actual form. Anabstract sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. Transformation⏹the relationship between deep structure and surface structure.⏹responsible for the generation of many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrasestructure rules, and thus contribute to the open-endedness and creativity of languages.⏹structural analysis (SA) and structural change (SC)⏹SA shows which relevant structural properties phrase markers must have for thetransformations to apply and specifies the input. (structural description SD)⏹SC describes the effect of the transformation and specifies what the output structure will be.⏹Transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Substitution andpermutation are derived from them.4.3 The standard theory (1965)⏹Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)⏹three components: syntactic (base component including categories and lexicon, andtransformational components), semantic (makes semantic interpretations on the deepstructure), phonological (phonological interpretation on the surface structure).⏹Category component is somewhat similar to the re-writing rules, but with featurespecifications for the words.⏹N ◊ [+N, ±Common]⏹[+Common] ◊ [±Count]⏹[+Count] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[-Common] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[+Animate] ◊ [±Human]⏹[-Count] ◊ [±Abstract]⏹verbs are subcategoriezed according to the context they occur in. eat [+V,+--NP, +--#]⏹words with the same feature specifications are in a paradigmatic relation and can occur in thesame specific context. Sincerity may frighten the boy.⏹transformations can’t alter the meaning⏹selection restriction⏹restrictions on transformations⏹the symbol S is introduced, which means that a sentence can be embedded⏹order of the rules4.4 The Extended Standard Theory⏹the first revision of the Standard Theory (the EST): the principle that the transformation rulecan’t change meaning cannot be held with the passive transformation. E.g. I have been taught physics by Einstein. Surface structure also has some bearing on semantic interpretation.⏹The second revision (the REST): all the necessary information for semantic interpretation canbe captured by the surface structure with the help of the notion trace.Beavers built damsDams are built t by beavers4.5 the Theory of Government and Binding⏹In 1981, Lectures on Government and Binding⏹ A Rule system with four components: lexicon, syntax (categorical component andtransformational component), phonetic form and logical form. The transformationalcomponent has one rule: move α: any element may be moved to another place, or moregenerally changed in some way, as long as the relevant conditions are satisfied.⏹ A principle system which specifies these conditions: bound theory, θtheory, bindingtheory, government theory, case theory and control theory, among which we only focus ongovernment and binding theory here.The minimalist program:⏹ a universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states and particular grammars studythe states of acquisition.Particular language exposureUniversal Grammar Particular Grammar4.5 Main features of TG Grammar⏹The development of TG reflects a process of constantly minimalising theories and controllingthe generative powers.⏹rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization,emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers, emphasis on linguisticuniversals.Systemic-functional grammar⏹Two components and inseparable parts:⏹systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a system network, meaning potential.⏹functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of languageform.5.2.3.1Systemic grammar⏹System: a set of mutually exclusive options that can appear in a linguistic structure.⏹characteristics (entry conditions): options have a common area of meaning and grammaticalenvironment; mutually exclusive; finite; interdependent relationships between terms ofdifferent systems.⏹Delicacy is a scale on which we can arrange systems according to the fineness of thedistinction.⏹ A system is simultaneous with another if they are independent of each other but have the sameentry conditions. Their terms can combine freely to enable us to make more delicatedistinctions in meaning.⏹SG: a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specificationof the relationships between choices.⏹realization relationships between various levels: semantics (meaning)lexicogrammar (form)phonology(substance)⏹features of SG:a. emphasizes the sociological aspectsb. L is a form of doing rather than knowingc. distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behaviord. emphasizes particular languagee. explains L in terms of clines (continuum)f. empirical: observation from texts and by means of statistical techniquesg. The category of the system is the core.5.2.3.2 Functional grammar⏹Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a contentunknown to the hearer⏹Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations⏹Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent andunified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Ideational functionExperiential function: six processes of transitivity⏹ A process, in principle, mainly consists of three components:(1)the process itself(2)participants in the process;(3)circumstances associated with the process.⏹L can express experiential function by building a mental picture of reality to interpret or makesense of what goes on around us or inside us..a Material process: process of doing⏹Actor—the one who does something⏹Goal—the one who receives the action⏹Dispositive type: the lion caught the tourist.⏹Creative type: they wrote a letter.Transitivity analysis of John built a house.Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new houseb.Mental process: process of sensing⏹The human conscious participant is called the Senser and the other one called Phenomenon.The three sub-processes of the mental process: feeling, perceiving and thinking are labeled in more general terms: 1. PERCEPTION (seeing, hearing, smelling), 2. AFFECTION (liking,fearing, etc. ) and 3. COGNITION (thinking, knowing, understanding).⏹John likes the house.Senser :JohnProcess: mental: affection: likesPhenomenon: the housec. Relational process: process of being⏹two parts are related in a certain way, indicated by verbs like be, become, turn, etc.d. Behavioral Processes⏹processes of physiological and psychological behaviors, like smiling, breathing, coughing, etc.⏹The participant: one participant called Behaver, typically a conscious beinge. Verbal process: a process of saying⏹Apart from the Sayer, there are other three participants in a verbal process: (1) RECEIVER,(2)VERBIAGE, (3) TARGET. The first two are oblique participants, that is, they are in theoblique case (间接格).⏹The RECEIVER is the participant to which the saying is directed.He didn’t tell me the truth.f. Existential Process⏹It represents that something exists or happens. The thing that exists is labeled Existent Interpersonal function⏹embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.⏹realized by mood and modality.Mood⏹the role selected by the speaker in the speech situation an that he assigns to the addressee. Two speech roles: giving and demanding.Contents of giving/demanding: goods-services/information⏹In sum, we have four moods: offer, command, statement and question P.314⏹Mood includes two parts: subject and finite.⏹Subject : N, NP or clause⏹Finite elements: Aux and M to express tense or modality, one part of VP.⏹ResidueTextual function⏹to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text rather thana random list of sentences.⏹related to the theme-rheme structure⏹two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguisticstheory.⏹SG aims to explain the internal relations in L as a system of meaning potential. FG functionsto reveal that L is a means of interaction. SG has a functional component, and the theorybehind his FG is systemic.⏹innovation: relate his FG to its structure. The three metafunctions are related respectively tothree systems: transitivity, mood and theme.A brief summary: formalism vs. functionalism⏹Formalism: Structural grammar & TG grammar which pays more attention to structures.⏹Functionalism: functional grammar which emphasizes systems and relates them to functionsplayed by L.Semantics1 The conceptualist (referential) theory●The conceptualist theory treats meaning as concept or reference to cope with problems of thenaming theory.●any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.2 Types of meaningLeech’s seven types of meaningGeoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning.●Conceptual meaning●Associative●Connotative meaning●Social meaning●Affective meaning●Reflected and meaning●Collocative meaning●Thematic meaning3 marked and unmarkedUnmarked forms: more usual, easy to learn, broader in meaning, non-metaphoricalMarked forms: less frequently used.4 Antonymya: gradable antonymy (semantic polarity and semantic relativity; continuum; markedness)good ----------------------- bad●Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can beasked with how.●graded against different norms●one member of a pair, usually the one for the higher degree, serves as the cover term orunmarked term. E.g. How long…, lengthb: Complementary antonymy. These antonyms divide a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and there is no intermediate ground between the two. A yes or no question, not a choice between more or less.●alive : dead male : femaleFeatures: no comparative or superlative degrees. absolute norm, no cover termc: converse antonymy （关系反义词）: the two members of the pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities in reciprocal social roles. X presuppose Y.buy : sell lend : borrow husband : wife smaller: bigger反义词有不稳定性，针对具体语义特征而言。
胡壮林语言学重要章节笔记总结
第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
Ddvwfsa胡壮麟语言学笔记无私
Ddvwfsa胡壮麟语言学笔记无私Ddvwfsa胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享秋风清，秋月明,落叶聚还散,寒鸦栖复惊。
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化。
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs1. Speech organs2. Voiceless sounds3. Voiced sounds4. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and TriphthongsIV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions1. Coarticulation2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure3. Stress4. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
胡壮麟语言学重点
胡壮麟语言学重点（转自爱北语论坛）(2011-01-09 18:37:46)转载标签：教育三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
语言学教程复习资料胡壮麟
语言学教程复习资料胡壮麟一、语言学教程概述语言学教程是研究人类语言的综合性、系统性、跨学科性的学科，它涉及到语言的结构、语言的发展、语言的习得以及语言在社会和文化中的作用等多个方面。
胡壮麟先生作为中国语言学界的代表性人物之一，他的语言学教程被广泛使用，具有很高的学术价值和实用性。
二、胡壮麟的语言学教程特点1、全面性：胡壮麟的语言学教程涵盖了语言学的各个方面，从语言的基本性质到语言的各个层面（音韵、词汇、语法、语用等），再到语言的演变和习得，都有深入浅出的阐述。
2、国际化：胡壮麟先生长期致力于推进中国语言学的研究和发展，他的教程不仅具有中国本土化的特点，也融入了国际语言学界的最新研究成果，具有很高的国际化水平。
3、系统性：胡壮麟的语言学教程以语言的结构和发展为主线，将语言的各个层面有机地在一起，形成了一个完整的语言学体系。
4、创新性：胡壮麟先生在教程中不仅介绍了语言学的基本理论和方法，还融入了自己的研究成果和见解，具有很强的创新性。
5、实用性：胡壮麟的语言学教程以实例和案例为基础，通过分析真实的语言材料，帮助学生理解和掌握语言学的理论和方法，具有很高的实用性。
三、复习资料推荐1、《新编语言学教程》：由胡壮麟先生主编，包含了语言学的基本理论和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
2、《语言学纲要》：由叶蜚声、徐通锵先生主编，系统介绍了语言学的基本概念、基本原理和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
3、《普通语言学教程》：由索绪尔先生著，介绍了语言学的基本概念、基本原理和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
语言学复习资料一、语言学概述语言学是研究人类语言的学科，它涵盖了对语言的结构、功能、演变和应用等方面的研究。
语言学具有交叉性和综合性的特点，与心理学、社会学、人类学等学科有着密切的。
二、语言学的基本概念1、语言：语言是人们交际和表达思想的工具，是一种符号系统。
它由词汇、语法、语音等构成。
2、言语：言语是人们运用语言进行交际的过程，是个人表达思想的方式。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》期末考试复习笔记
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one canderive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to whichthe members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced bypsychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speechsoundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction ofthe palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order toexpress meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak//, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the caseof progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as thesame lexeme even when i nflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit thatcan constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is onewhose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determinethe kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the wordinternationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart,teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与认知）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语⾔与认知）【圣才出品】第6章语⾔与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics⼼理语⾔学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语⾔习得，语⾔的理解，语⾔的⽣成3. First language acquisition第⼀语⾔习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语⾔学常考考点：语⾔习得；第⼀语⾔习得；语⾔的理解和⽣成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”⼀词既可⽤于不同学科也可⽤于相关学科。
语言学教程胡壮麟第五版期末总结
第一章Language: language is a means of verbal communication.Design Features:The features that define our human languages can be called Design Features.1.Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.2.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3.Creativity: language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4.Displacement: that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Functions of Languagermative functionLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.2.Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3.Performative functionthe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship ata launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.4.Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.5.Phatic communionrefers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders.6.Recreational functionThe recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of it, such as a baby‘s babbling or a chanter‘s chanting7.Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself.Main Branches of LinguisticsPhoneticsstudies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech,etc.PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.MorphologyMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.SyntaxSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding English sentence.SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.Macrolinguistics宏观语言学分为：Psycholinguistics心理语言学Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Anthropological Linguistics 人类语言学Computational Linguistics 计算语言学Applied Linguistics 应用语言学Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时和历时由Saussure提出Langue和Parole （Saussure）Langue :the abstract linguistics system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole :the realization of langue in actual use.Differences between langue and parolengue is abstract, it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.ngue is relatively stable and systematic, it does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situationto situation. Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.Competence和Performance(Chomsky)Differences between...Competence: the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Chomsky beleves that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.How is Saussure's distinction between parole and langue different from or similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?ngue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically psycholinguistically.2.Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.第二章Phonetics: studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.decided into three branches:Articulatory Phonetics,Acoustic Phonetics, Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics.Phonology: is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages,aiming to"discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages,and to explain the variations that occur."相同点:Both are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds.不同点:But they differ in their approach and focus:1)Phonetics is of general nature; It is the study of all possible speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they're produced,how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified,etc. ;Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.2)Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced.Eg. How these two[t]s differ in the way they are pronounced in the word "tea" and "too";while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds ang the rules that underline such variations.元辅音区别(没写完)[i:]high front tense unfounded vowel[ʊ]high back lax rounded vowel[ə]mid central lax unrounded vowel[ɒ]low back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: is an abstract unit that is of distinctive value. is a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not only particular sound, but rather it's represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic.Broad transcription : the phonemic type of transcriptionNarrow transcription : when phonetic detail is givenAllophones: the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment. Suprasegmentals : principle : syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.第三章lexical (content) words and Grammatic al (functional) words (词汇词和语法词)①Those which mainly work for referrig to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.具有词汇意义(指代物质、动作和性质)的词称为词汇词，例如名词、动词、形容词和副词。
胡壮麟语言学观后感
胡壮麟语言学观后感篇一胡壮麟语言学观后感哎呀，最近看了胡壮麟的语言学，我这心里可是翻江倒海啊！说真的，刚开始接触的时候，我心里直犯嘀咕：这语言学能有啥好玩的？不就是一堆枯燥的理论和概念嘛！也许是我太肤浅，一开始就给它下了个“不好玩”的定论。
但是，当我真正深入进去，我发现自己大错特错！胡壮麟老师对语言学的讲解，那简直就像是打开了一个全新的世界。
就比如说语言的结构吧，以前我觉得不就是字词句嘛，能有啥花样？可胡老师一讲，我才知道这里面的门道深着呢！语言就像一座精心搭建的大厦，词汇是砖头，语法是框架，语音是装饰。
这比喻，是不是还挺形象？还有啊，说到语言的演变，我觉得那可太神奇了！语言难道不是一直就那样吗？错啦！它就像一个不断成长的孩子，随着时间和环境的变化，不断改变着自己的模样。
也许再过几百年，我们现在说的话都成了老古董啦！不过，说实话，有些地方我还是觉得有点迷糊。
比如说那些复杂的语言规则和符号，我看了好几遍还是晕头转向。
我就在想，难道就不能简单点吗？但转念一想，也许正是因为它的复杂，才让语言学变得这么有魅力，这么值得我们去探索。
总之，看了胡壮麟的语言学，我这心情是又激动又纠结，又好奇又困惑。
但我知道，这一路的探索，肯定会很有趣！篇二胡壮麟语言学观后感胡壮麟语言学？刚开始，我觉得这玩意儿估计能把我整懵！嘿，你还别说，刚开始看的时候，真就像走进了一个迷宫，到处都是弯弯绕绕的理论和概念。
我心里那个愁啊，这咋整？能看懂吗？我觉得自己可能就是那个在知识海洋里快要溺水的旱鸭子。
可看着看着，我发现有点意思了。
比如说语言的功能，它不仅仅是交流工具，还能反映文化、表达情感。
哇塞，这可太酷了！就好像语言是个万能钥匙，能打开各种神秘的大门。
但有时候，我又在想，语言学研究得这么细，有必要吗？也许对于普通人来说，能说会道就行了呗。
可再仔细琢磨琢磨，不对呀！如果不深入研究，怎么能更好地理解语言的奥秘呢？还有那个语言和思维的关系，简直让我脑袋都要炸了。
胡壮麟语言学观后感
胡壮麟语言学观后感学了胡壮麟的语言学，就像是在一个神秘又超级有趣的语言迷宫里闯荡了一番。
一开始接触的时候，心里直犯嘀咕，这语言学不会是那种干巴巴让人犯困的学问吧。
可真学起来，完全不是那么回事儿。
胡壮麟先生把语言学讲得那叫一个细致入微。
就说语音学那部分吧，我以前以为声音就是嘴巴随便一发声就完事儿了，哪知道这里面有这么多门道。
什么元音辅音的分类，发音部位和发音方法，就像是在揭开声音的小秘密。
感觉自己就像个声音侦探，在探究每个音是怎么从嘴巴这个小工厂里被制造出来的。
那些奇怪的音标符号，刚开始看就像天书里的符文，但是随着不断学习，居然也能像读故事一样看懂它们组合起来的含义了。
语法部分更是让我对自己平常说的话有了全新的认识。
以前说话就像本能反应，根本没想过句子背后还有这么一套复杂的规则。
像是主谓宾定状补，就像建筑里的砖头、水泥和钢筋，不同的组合方式搭起了各种各样的句子大厦。
而且不同语言的语法规则差别还那么大，就像不同的建筑风格一样。
有的语言就像精致的日式木屋，简洁有序；有的就像宏伟的欧式古堡，结构复杂又充满了细节。
语义学又像是打开了一个装满宝藏的箱子。
每个单词都不仅仅是一个简单的符号，它背后藏着丰富的意义。
一个词在不同的语境里就像穿上了不同的衣服，摇身一变就有了新的身份。
比如说“打”这个字，可以是“打人”，也可以是“打水”“打电话”，这个小小的字居然有这么多的能耐，就像个百变精灵。
这让我觉得语言简直就是一个魔法世界，单词们都是魔法精灵，随时准备在合适的语境里展现出奇妙的魔法。
学到后面的语用学，那可真是让我恍然大悟。
原来我们说话不只是把单词和句子组合起来那么简单，还得考虑说话的对象、场合这些因素。
就像在不同的派对上得穿不同的衣服一样，在不同的场合说不同的话。
和长辈说话得恭敬，和朋友说话就可以轻松随意。
要是不注意这些，就像在葬礼上穿得花里胡哨还哈哈大笑一样，那可就尴尬大了。
胡壮麟的语言学就像是一个大拼图，每个部分单独看都很有趣，组合在一起就呈现出了一幅完整而绚丽的语言画卷。
(2021年整理)语言学知识点(语言学简明教程胡壮麟版)
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ⅠDefinitionA卷①Phonetics 语言学 (P17）Phonetics is the field of language study concerning the physical properties of sounds and speech sounds.②Minimal pairs 最小辨立对（P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position。
③Open-class 开放类词 (P66)They are indefinitely extendable。
Nouns, verbs， adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class words。
④Invariable words 可变化词 (P67)Invariable words refer to those words such as conjunctions, prepositions，interjections, etc. . T hey do not have inflective endings。
⑤Morpheme 语素 (P68）In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called morpheme。
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名词解释Sociolinguistics1.Sociolinguistics: a field that studies the relations between language and society, between the usesof language and the social structure in which the language users live.2.Linguistic determinism:L may determine our thinking patterns;3.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the worldaround4.standard language:the dominant, or prestigious variety is often called standard variety or standardlanguage/dialect, the variety of language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated natives.5.Social dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.6.Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional,social, gender, and age variations.7.Register:Varieties of language classified according to use in terms of formality, situation and soon. ; Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.8.Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or a group of speakers sincethey had regular and continued exposure to more than one language.9.pidgin:10.Creole: When a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language and becomes the first languageof a social community, it becomes a creole.11.Diglossia: A situation in which two different varieties of the same language are used side by sidefor two different sets of functions.nguage planning means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particularspeech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.13. A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups ofpeople for diverse linguistic backgrounds.14.Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.Pragmatics1.Pragmatics: the study of language in use, meaning in context, speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning,contextual meaning.2.Speech acts: actions performed via utterances, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation…3.Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, ordescribe what something is. They are usually verifiable.4.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all;they cannot be said to be true or false.5. A locutionary act (发话行为) : the act of saying something, the literal meaning of the utterance.6.An illocutionary act （行事行为）: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of itsliteral meaning, an act performed in saying something.7.illocutionary force: meaning is used in a narrow sense and is the more constant, inherent side ofmeaning whereas force is equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意).8. A perlocutionary act （取效行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the consequentialeffects of a locution on the hearer.9.Implicature is a term coined by Grice to refer to the implied meaning of an utterance.10.CP: there is some regularity in conversation, and the principle we seem to follow is called the CP.Psycholinguistics & cognitive linguistics1.cognition；mental processes of an individual;mental process or faculty of knowing, includingawareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Psycholinguistics: the study of psychological aspects of language, or language-processingmechanisms, the relationship between language and the human mind.3.Sapir –Whorf hypothesis: the way people view the world is determined wholly or partially by thestructure of their native language.The strong version---linguistic determinism: One’s thinking is completely determined by his native L because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the L.The weak version---Linguistic relativity: the varying cultural concepts and categories inherent in different languages affect the cognitive classification of the experienced world in such a way that speakers of different languages think and behave differently because of it.Linguistics and language teaching1.Applied linguistics: a scholarly discipline dealing with the application of insights from bothlinguistics and other fields (such as anthropology, philosophy, psychology, sociology, or education) to an understanding of how we learn, store, and use a second language or our native language.2.Acquisition is the gradual development of ability in a L by using it naturally in communicativesituations.3.Learning is the conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar ofa L, particularly through formal instruction.4.SLA can be defined as the way in which people learn a L other than their mother tongue, insideor outside of a classroom.5.i+1: the L that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their currentcompetence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.6.P remodified input: material that is finely tuned in advance to the learner’s current level.7.Interlanguage: The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who arestill in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.8.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for thepurpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation (Gass and Selinker,2001).nguage transfer: The study of the roles that the native L plays is know as the research of Ltransfer, by which is meant the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over intoa new learning situation; or ―the influence resulting from the simi larities and differencesbetween the target L and any other L that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.‖municative competence: What a learner knows about how a language is used in particularsituations for effective and appropriate communication.11.Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usuallycontains the aims and contents of teaching an sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.●连线题1.cohort theory—word recognition, Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)2.Image Schema, Mark Johnson, 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning,imagination, and reason.3.conceptual metaphor theory，Lakoff & Johonson4.Conceptual Blending Theory (概念整合理论), known as the integration theory, proposed by GillesFauconnier & Mark Turner (1994, 1995).5.i+1 input principle: Krashen6.CA: contrastive analysis, Gass and Selinker,municative competence: Dell Hymes8.UG: Noam Chomsky9.speech act theory: John Austen10.Cooperative Principle：Paul Grice●论述题Speech act theory:The first major theory in the study of pragmatics. Proposed by Oxford philosopher John Austin (1911-1960) ------How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels simultaneously:A locutionary act (发话行为) : the act of saying something, the literal meaning of the utterance.An illocutionary act （行事行为）: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning, an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.A perlocutionary act （取效行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the consequential effects of a locution on the hearer.Locutionary acts have always been the focus of linguists and perlocutinary acts involve psychological and social factors. So Austin was more interested in the illocutionary act because it is identical with the speaker’s intention, and the speech act theory is in fact the illocutionary act theory.The Theory of Conversational Implicature, Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988), Logic and Conversationthere is some regularity in conversation, and the principle we seem to follow is called the CP.CP can be specified by four categories of maxims as follows.1 Maxim of Quantity:Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than required.2 Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence3 Maxim of Relation:Be relevant.4 Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and say things which are true, relevant, as well as informative enough, and in a clear manner.but the imperatives in the CP are descriptive rather than prescriptive.Violation of the maxims：Blatant or apparent Violations of CP and its maxims lead to conversational implicature. Speakers clearly show that some maxims are violated, yet at a deeper level the CP can still be thought to be upheld.So, lies do not have implicatures proper.Characteristics of implicature ：Calculability(可推导性),Cancellability / defeasibility, Non-detachability, Non-conventionalityLanguage AcquisitionHolophrastic stage (独词语阶段)Control of the speech musculature肌肉组织Phonetic distinctions in parents’language.One-word stage (around the first birthday and lasts from two months to a year): objects, actions, motions, routines and modifiers.Two-word stage: around 18mThree-word-utterance stage: utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea.Give doggie paper.Put truck window.Tractor go floor.Fluent grammatical conversation stageWord recognition；Recognition of spoken words:Listeners attempt to map the acoustic signal onto a representation in the mental lexicon almost as the signal starts to arrive.Cohort theory (集群模型):Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are nolonger consistent with the input drop out of the set. The process continues until only oneword candidate matches the input.The best fitting word may be chosen if there is no clear winner. E.g. “candle”—candy, handle etc.Interactive model （交互模型）:Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down”influence on lower levels.Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units.In certain cases, listeners’knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear”phonemes that have been removedfrom the speech signal and replaced by noise.Race model (竞争模型):Pre-lexical route （前词路径）: computes phonological information from the acoustic signalLexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessedWhen word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.Recognition of printed wordsFour successive stages of L production Level(1989) :conceptualization, formulation, articulation and self-regulation1) conceptualization: to conceptualize what we wish to communicate, or to translate mentalese thatrepresent our thoughts into linguistic form.2) formulation: to formulate this thought into a linguistic plan. The analysis of eventual output of theprocess, such as speech error can shed light on this issue.Speech errors are made by speakers unintentionally.3)articulation: to use vocal organs to produce desired sounds to execute the linguistic plan4)self-regulation: to monitor our performance by competence to ensure the production is accurate.Two variables concerning the amenability of focus on form: Universal Grammar; complexity of L structures.According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low.It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define.●The process of syllabus design: Selecting and grading what to be taught.●Selection: the restriction of the L to a particular dialect and register; the selection from within theregister of the items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability and classroom needs. The selection depends on the syllabus designer’s understanding of L and the course (structural/functional view)●grading: putting L items into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes.§staging: arranging the items into blocks of the right size for different stages of the teaching course.§sequencing: dealing with the problem of sequence in which the items in the blocks are to be taught.●Types of syllabus:Structural, Situational, Functional/notional, Communicative, Task-based法语自测题I.Choisissez la bonne réponse( c ) 1. Il s’est lavé________ mains avant de passer à table.A.sesB. mesC.les D des .( b ) 2. Avec de la patience, vous finirez ________ résoudre ce problème.A.deB.parC.àD.en( b ) 3. Il aime travailler ________ （en plain air/jour/hiver）A.en plein nuitB.en pleine nuitC.à plein nuitD.à pleine nuit( a ) 4. On dit que la jeunesse est ________ moment de la vie. （pour le moment）A.le meilleur meilleureC.le mieuxD.le plus bon( c ) 5. Hier, il a plu, et aujourd’hui, il fait ________ vent violent.A. duB. leC. unD. de( b ) 6. Jeanne est sortie de l’hôpital ________ pâle. (tout 做副词时有性数变化的条件 ?)A.toutB.touteC.tousD.toutes(a ) 7. Je n’aime pas ce s ac, pourriez-vous me donner ________ d’à côté qui est plus petit.A.celuiB.celleC.ceuxD.celles( B) 8. Elle est une femme élégante, elle porte toujours de ________A.beaus bijousB.beaux bijousC.beaus bijouxD.beaux bijoux( c ) 9. -Ce film vaut-il la peine d’être vu ? –Non, il n’y a rien ________.（泛指代词+de+形容词阳性形式）A.intéressantB.intéressanteC.d’intéressantD.d’intéressante( c ) 10. Je m’occupe de mes affaires, tu t’occupes ________.A. les tiennesB.les tiensC.des tiennesD.des tiens( c ) 11.Avant de signer, lisez bien ________ est écrit sur le contrat.(宾语从句，引导词为物，在从句中作主语用ce qui ; 若不为主语，用ce que))A.quiB. queC.ce quiD.ce que( c ) 12. .Ses parents ________ font pratiquer régulièrement du sport.B.leC.luiD.leur( d ) 13.Quand tu partiras, ________ ces trois valises.A.amène (带来领来人)B. emmène （带走人或动物）C. apporteD. emporte( c ) 14. Est-ce que tu as vu les journaux que j’avais ________ sur la table ?isserisséissésissées( c ) 15. Je sais bien que c’est toi qui as pris mon por tefeuille, alors________A.rendez-le-moiB.rendez-la-moiC.rends-le-moiD.rends-moi-le( b ) 16. ________ de la patience, s’il te plaît.A.AsB. AieC.AiesD.Ayez( B ) 17.________ me donner une réponse le plus vite possible.A.V oulez 直陈式现在时B.V euillez 命令式C.V oudriez 条件式现在时D.Voudrez 简单将来时( c ) 18.Il m’attendait, sinon, il ________ plus tôt. （条件式过去时）A.était partiB.sera partiC.serait partiD.partirait( b ) 19.________ on dise dans les journaux, je ne le trouve pas utile.A.Quel qu’B.Quoi queC. QuoiqueD.Qui que( B ) 20. ________ comme d’habitude, elles se mettent à lire.A.S’étant promenéB. S’étant promenéeC.PromenéD.Ayant promenépletez les phrases suivantes avec un pronom:1. Il est parti sans ___rien_____ dire.(rien, aucun等几个泛指代词除了可以与ne搭配使用外，还可以与sans 搭配使用)2. L’orthographe de ce mot est un peu difficile, faites-_cela_______ attention.3. – Tu sais où est Anne ?- Tiens! __la________ voilà!4. Tous ces deux stylos sont bons, __lequel_______ est-ce que tu veux choisir?5. Le printemps est une saison ___ où_____ les arbres verdissent et __que____ l’on aime bien.6. La maison __d’ où_______ Paul est sorti est __________ de ses parents.7.V oilà le dictionnaire ____dont___ j’ai besoin et sans _lequel__ je ne peux pas bientraduire ce texte.纠错：2 y 6 cellepletez les phrases suivantes avec un préposition:1. Demain, je partirai __pour_____Shanghai et je reviendrai ___dans__ 3 jours.2. On n’utilise plus la machine ____à____ écrire, elle est remplacée par l’ordinateur.3. Le père apprend lui-même ____à_____lire ____à______ son fils.4. Pierre aime jouer ______de___ la guitare ____en______ chantant.5. Le Premier Ministre ZhouEnlai est respecté et aimé___de_____tout le peuple chinois.6. ___Pour_______ longtemps, il rêve d’al ler en France pour visiter les grands musées.7. L’hôtel où je suis descendu donne ___sur_______ une plage pleine ___de_______ vacanciers.8.Je considère ton silence __comme___un refus sous-entendu暗示暗指言下之意.纠错 6 depuisIV.Mettez les verbes entre parenthèses au mode et au temps convenables:1. La planète Mars ___tourne___ (tourner) autour du Soleil par une période de 687 jours.2. Paul est très occupé, il_n’a pas encore pris__ (ne pas prendre encore) son petit-déjeuner.3. Toi et Jacques, ___vous inscrivez____ (s’inscrire报名参加进行登记) le plus tôt possible au secrétariat de la scolarité入学就学.4. __Aie____ (avoir) de la patience, s’il te plapit.5. Je lis la revue que j‘ai ____achetée__ (acheter) au kiosque hier.6. Quand j’étais petit, je _me rendais___ (se rendre) tous les ans chez mes grands-parents, mais cette année-là, je __suis allé____ (aller) à l’étranger avec mes parents ;7. Il faisait beau, le ciel ___était_____ (être) bleu. Mais tout àcoup, le vent se leva, un gros nuage ____cacha___________ (cacher) le soleil.8. Où est Vincent, il m’a dit qu’il nous __apporterait____(apporter) son appareil photo numérique.9. L’avion _____était _déjà_ partie____ (partir déjà) quand ils sont arrivés à l’aéroport de Roissy.10. Je vous enverrai un courrier électronique dès que je ___sera gagné_____________ (gagner) Paris.11. L’appétit vient en _mangeant_ (manger) et la soif s’en va en __buvant_____ (boire)12. Les voyageurs, une fois __entraient___ (entrer) dans la gare, se dirigent vers le quai.13. Ce roman ____avait tradut___ (traduire) dans beaucoup de langues l’année dernière.14. Je ___voudrais____ (vouloir) parler à M. Dupont, s’il vous plaît.15. Si Luc gagnait assez d’argent, il __menerait____ (mener) une vie plus correcte.16. Si Alice n’avait pas été mal ade, elle __serait venue___ (venir) nous rejoindre dans ce colloque.17. Cet enfant est le plus intélligent que je __connaisse__ (connaître) jusqu’à présent.18. Bien qu’il __soit__ (être) pauvre, il est très généreux.19. Il faut que ce travail ___finisse___ (finir) à temps.20. Il garde son petit frère à la maison pour que sa maman __puisse__ (pouvoir) sortir faire des achats.纠错 3 inscrivez-vous 8 apportera 10 aurai gagné12 entrés 13 a été taduit19 soit finiV.Version Fête des MèresC’est Napoléon 1er qui, en 1806, a l’idée de cette fête. La fête des Mères devient officielle en 1929 et populaire après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. En 1950 , une loi institue la fête des Mères.Elle a lieu le dernier dimanche du mois de mai. Pour cette occasion, dans les écoles, les enfants fabriquent de petits objets qu’ils offrent à leur maman : fleurs en papier, dessins, bibelots etc.Mais la fête des Mères est d’abord une fête familiale : le père et les enfants achètent ensemble un cadeau àla mère de famille.La fête des Mères est aussi une grande opération commerciale. Dès le début du mois de mai, des inscription <fête des Mères> apparaissent sur les vitrines des magasins pour rappeler à chacun qu’il doit acheter son cadeau.B. Arrondissements de ParisLa ville de Paris constitue, en France, une exception, car elle est, à la fois, une commune et un département, les vingt arrondissements qui la composent n’étant que de simples divisions administratives au sein de la commune. Jusqu’àla Révolution de1789, la division traditionnelle de Paris fut la Cité, l’Outre-Grand-Pont ou la Ville ( la rive droite ) et l’Outre-Petit-Pontoul’Université(larivegauche), mais cette division fut toujours davantage précisée par des subdivisions en quartiers. Ainsi, en 1702, la ville comptait-elle 20 quartiers, 14 faubourgs et 2 villages. Paris ( chef-lieu du département de la Seine depuis 1790 jusqu’au 1erjanvier1968 ) fut divisé pour la première fois en 12 arrondissements ( 9 sur la rive droite et 3 sur la rive gauche) le 11 octobre 1795. Cette division persista jusque sous le règne de Napoléon III, en 1860, date àlaquelle l’annexion de faubourgs et de tout ou partie de certaines communes limitrophes rendit un nouveau découpage né capitale fut alors divisée en 20 arrondissements comportant chacun 4 quartiers. Dans cette même année,les numéros d’arrondissements ont d’abord été attribués de gauche à droite et de haut en bas sur la carte, mais ce schéma a été abandonné car il conduisait à attribuer le numéro 13 àl’actuel 16e arrondissement. Or ce numéro était peru comme péjoratif car l’expression se marier à la mairie du 13e arrondissement (c’est àdire, avant 1860, dans un arrondissement qui n’existe pas) signifiait vivre en concubinage, donc hors des bonnes conventions, ce qui ne convenait pas àcertains habitants influents de l’ouest de Paris. Les numéros des arrondissements, de 1er à20e, furent attribués en suivant une spirale partant du centre de la ville ( rive droite –quartier du Louvre ) et tournant dans le sens des aiguilles d’une montre. Le numéro 13 fut ainsi attribué aux quartiers plus populaires du sud-est de Paris. Cette dispositionn’a jamais changé depuis.VI.Thème1. 多亏了天气预报，我们出门才不必担心变天。