语言学概论 课后参考答案 Charpter3-4 杨 厦门大学

Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 33.1.11. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas. (3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning),a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.21. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in (prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.) question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated (full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb"to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".3.2.11. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".3.2.21. 1) inspire: into 2) intransigent: not 3) insufficient: not 4) insert: into5) insoluble: not 6) intact: not 7) impenetrable: not 8) immutable: not9) illicit: not 10) irretrievable: not2. 1) prince - princess 2) emperor - empress 3) waiter - waitress 4) Paul –Paula 5) fiancé - fiancée 6) hero - heroine 7) king - queen8) ox - cow9) wolf - she-wolf 10) doctor- woman doctor3. 1) operation - operations 2) responsibility - responsibilities3) proposal - proposals 4) modernize - modernization5) beautify - beautifies 6) activate - activates7) funny - funnier 8) friendly - friendlier3.3.11. Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the grammatical rules of the language. English inflections are used to express certain grammatical meanings: the plural morpheme {s} to change the noun into the plural-number form, the generative-case morpheme {'s} to indicate the relation of possession, the feminine-gender morpheme {ess} to change the masculine noun into its corresponding feminine-gender form, the third-person singular {s} to change the verb into the third-person singular form, the -ing participle {ing} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the past-form morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the past-tense form, the past-participle morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the comparative {er} to change an adjective into the comparative-degree form, and the superlative {est} to change an adjective into the superlative-degree form.2. No, inflection is not universal. Different languages have different morphology. There are languages, like Latin and Sanskrit, which abound in inflectional morphemes. There are also languages, like Chinese, which have no inflectional morphemes. Between these two extremes are some intermediate languages, like English, which have comparatively few inflectional morphemes than languages of the first category.3. Omitted.3.3.21. 1) password: word to be passed 2) housewife: wife in charge of a household3) sunshine: shine of the sun 4) milkman: man who sells or delivers milk5) sunflower: plant whose flower faces the sun6) apple pie: pie consisting of a filling of apples7) mosquito net: net to prevent mosquitoes 8) daydream: dream in the daytime9) freezing-point: point at which a liquid freezes 10) flashlight: light of a flash2. Abbreviation refers to the way in which a longer word or expression is abbreviated or shortened. In both English and Chinese, longer words can be abbreviated via clipping, blending, and initials and acronyms. However, differences exist. While English words are made up of letters which can be pronounced into syllables, Chinese words are made up of characters each of which is normally pronounced as a separate syllable. While the English language differentiates blending, initials and acronyms, the Chinese language makes no such differentiation. In Chinese, the major approach to abbreviating a longer expression is usually to combine the first character of each of the constituent words into a shortened expression, in which the constituent characters are pronounced individually. Another commonly-used way of abbreviation in Chinese is to combine a numeral and the head word of a series of parallel constructions, as in "四化".3. The English language normally adds new words to its vocabulary through coinage, compounding, derivation, abbreviation, imitation, and borrowing.3.4.11. 1) 11：他/在/学校/表现/很/好/，是/个/优秀/学生/干部/。