2012年11月24日新托福阅读考题回顾
2012年11月24日托福写作机经
2012年11月24日托福写作机经综合写作：阅读讲congestion pricing。
说为了缓解交通拥堵，想要在city中的某个区域收费，这样就能缓解一下。
1. 这样做可以improve time(主要就是说节省时间)2. 可以改善环境improve that area's environment3. 收的fee可以用于revennue(这个单词没记住怎么拼大概就) the city 可以再修路，修桥什么的:听力1. 他认为这样做有些司机不愿意花钱走这个区域就得绕路，更浪费时间。
举了个例子：送快递的，他们要省钱，所以送快递的时候会变长。
2. 在收费区里面环境可能会好点，但是周围的车相对就会增多，noise and air pollution就会多。
所以不是整个city都能环境变好3. 有的人不能afford这个费用了，就会去坐subway，政府就得出更多的钱维护subway，这样一来收的那点钱可能还不够维护的，所以也不能起到帮助修桥，修路什么的作用了。
独立写作：Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is easier for more people now than in the past to get an education.The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have seen the development and advancement of many fields and areas of society. Education is an area that has developed tremendously in the past hundred years. The rise of the middle class, the standardization of education, and the opening of many more schools has made it possible for more people now than in the past to get an education.In China specifically, education reform began with the opening up and reform period of the 1980’s. During this time China also opened up its economy and changed from a state run economy to a market economy. A market economy in China has made it possible for the development of the middle class. Historically throughout the world, education belonged to the social elites. People from the lower class, which always outnumbered the upper class, did not have the money or resources to become educated. The middle class is a group of people who are not necessarily the elitesof society, but have the money to pay for education. Since the 1980’s, the middle class has been rapidly growing, increasing ten-fold the number of children who have the opportunity to get an education.With the rise of the middle class, also comes an increase in pressure on the government. Since more people can afford education, more pressure is put on the government to provide teachers and schools for the children of the middle class. The government is then spurred into action to increase funding and resources for education nationwide. This has then prompted the opening of schools in many areas beyond the major cities and the training of many new teachers. More teachers and more schools mean that more people will be educated.The government’s attention on education has helped with the standardization of education in China. This standardization has created nationwide tests that have made it so that every student, no matter his or her background or hometown, has the opportunity to attend high school and apply for college. Not only do more students have the opportunity to attend school, but they also have the opportunity to continue their education further than previous generations.The rise of the middle class, the increased involvement of the government, and the standardization of education has made it so that more people, now than ever, have the opportunity to become educated. (390 words)。
211月18日托福阅读真题解析
2012年11月18日托福阅读真题解析2012年11月18日托福考试阅读部分重复北美2011年8月27日考题。
Topic1: personal trait一篇是心理学说PERSONAL TRAIT的。
说人们觉得性格决定人的行为吧。
然后一个科学家叫Walter Mischel，他做了一些研究，发现性格和人的行为之间的关系没有人们以前认为的那么大，人们在特定的环境下表现出来的行为不一样。
通过儿童实验，Mischel认为人的行为其实更主要的是由当时的SITUATION决定的，性格的作用很小。
Mischel的研究成果挑战了心理学家的研究和心理学在现实生活中的应用（这个是句子改写，要注意一个是挑战了研究，一个是挑战了现实中的应用，看清了可能会少选。
）然后其他科学家就批评Mischel的研究成果，这里有个括号，括号说，但是Mischel也赢得了行为学家的掌声，问为什么提这帮人，我答给出支持Mischel理论人的例子。
批评一指出Mischel的研究局限在LAB中，和EVERYDAY LIFE有距离（有题）。
还有一个批评，暂时想不起来。
但同时，大家也会认可Mischel的研究。
说他至少提出了SITUATION的重要性，可以让人具体情况具体分析吧。
后来大家认为，其实心理学家着重是要分析人们总体的表现，即性格决定这个人在处理事情上的一个总的态度，AGGREGATE BEHAVIOR。
而根据不同的SITUATION，又有不同的INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR。
所以心理学家的研究没有问题，还是有用的。
Trait Theory ①Personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits, that tend to lead to characteristic responses. People can be described in terms of the basic ways they behave, such as whether they are outgoing and friendly, or whether they are dominant and assertive.Basic Five Factors:oEmotional stability - Being calm rather than anxious, secures rather then insecure, self-satisfied than self-pitying.oExtraversion - Sociable instead of retiring, fun-loving instead of sober, and affectionate instead of reserved.oOpenness - Imaginative rather than practical, preferring variety to routine, and being independent rather than conforming.oAgreeableness - Being softhearted, not ruthless, trusting, not suspicious, and helpful not uncooperative.oConscientiousness - Being organized rather than disorganized, careful rather then careless, and disciplined, not impulsive.Criticism to Trait Theory(Walter Mischel (1968))oPersonality and AssessmentoCriticized the trait view of personality, as well as the psychoanalytic approachoBoth emphasis the interval organization of personalityoPersonality often changes according to a given situation - response to personality as consisting of broad, internal traits that are consistence across situations and timeoTrait measure do a poor job of predicting actual behavioroSituationism - personality often varies considerably from one context to another.Trait Situation Interaction TheoryoThey believe that both trait (person) and situation variables are necessary to understand personality. They also agree that the degree of consistency in personality depend on the kinds of persons, situations, and behaviors sampled. (Pervin, 1993, Mischel, 1995)oThe link between traits and situations has been more precisely specified.oThe narrowing and more limited trait is, the more likely it will predict behavior.oSome people are consistent on some traitsoPersonality traits exert a stronger influence on an individual's behavior when situational influence is less powerful.Walter Mischel (1968) - Personality and Assessment, criticized trait view of personality and psychoanalytic approach. Said personality often changes according tosituations, unlike the previous approaches which show consistency. Said trait measures poorly predict actual behavior. Made view of situationism - personality varies considerably from one context to another.Most psychologists today are interactionists, believing in both trait and situation ideas to describe personality. Link between traits and situations specified: more limited and narrower a trait is, more likely it will predict a behavior; not everyone consistent on the same trait; traits give a strong influence on an individual's behavior when situational influences are less likely to affect personality.Walter Mischel ②Walter Mischel (born 1930) is an American psychologist specializing in personality theory and social psychology. He is the Robert Johnston Niven Professor of Humane Letters in the Department of Psychology at Columbia University.Contributions to personality theoryIn 1968, Mischel published the now classic monograph, Personality and Assessment, which created a paradigm crisis in personality psychology that changed the agenda of the field for decades. The book touched upon the problem in trait assessment that was identified by Allport back in 1937. Mischel showed that study after study failed to support the fundamental traditional assumption of personality theory, that an individual's behavior with regard to a trait (e.g. conscientiousness, sociability) is highly consistent across diverse situations. Instead, Mischel's analyses revealed that the individual's behavior, when closely examined, was highly dependent upon situational cues, rather than expressed consistently across diverse situations that differed in meaning.Mischel maintained that behavior is shaped largely by the exigencies of a given situation. That people act in consistent ways across different situations, reflecting an underlying consistency of personality traits, is a myth.[4]Mischel made the case that the field of personality psychology was searching for consistency in the wrong places. Instead of treating situations as the noise or "error of measurement" in personality psychology, Mischel's work proposed that by including the situation as it is perceived by the person and by analyzing behavior in its situational context, the consistencies that characterize the individual would be found. He argued that these individual differences would not be expressed in consistent cross-situational behavior, but instead, he suggested that consistency would be found in distinctive but stable patterns ofif-then, situation-behavior relations that form contextualized, psychologically meaningful "personality signatures" (e.g., "she does A when X, but B when Y").These signatures of personality were in fact revealed in a large observational study of social behavior across multiple repeated situations over time (Mischel&Shoda, 1995). Contradicting the classic assumptions, the data showed that individuals who were similar inaverage levels of behavior, for example in their aggression, nevertheless differed predictably and dramatically in the types of situations in which they aggressed. As predicted by Mischel, they were characterized by highly psychologically informative if-then behavioral signatures. Collectively, this work has allowed a new way to conceptualize and assess both the stability and variability of behavior that is produced by the underlying personality system, and has opened a window into the dynamic processes within the system itself (Mischel, 2004).Topic2: 昆虫的优势还有一篇讲昆虫的。
2012年考研英语真题及答案解析
2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题及答案Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)The ethical judgments of the Supreme Court justices have become an important issue recently. The court cannot _1_ its legitimacy as guardian of the rule of law _2_ justices behave like politicians. Y et, in several instances, justices acted in ways that _3_ the court’s reputation for being independent and impartial.Justice Antonin Scalia, for example, appeared at political events. That kind of activity makes it less likely that the court’s decisions will be _4_ as impartial judgments. Part of the problem is that the justices are not _5_by an ethics code. At the very least, the court should make itself _6_to the code of conduct that _7_to the rest of the federal judiciary.This and other similar cases _8_the question of whether there is still a _9_between the court and politics.The framers of the Constitution envisioned law _10_having authority apart from politics. They gave justices permanent positions _11_they would be free to _12_ those in power and have no need to _13_ political support. Our legal system was designed to set law apart from politics precisely because they are so closely _14_.Constitutional law is political because it results from choices rooted in fundamental social _15_ like liberty and property. When the court deals with social policy decisions, the law it _16_ is inescapably political-which is why decisions split along ideological lines are so easily _17_ as unjust.The justices must _18_ doubts about the court’s legitimacy by making themselves _19_ to the code of conduct. That would make rulings more likely to be seen as separate from politics and, _20_, convincing as law.1. [A]emphasize [B]maintain [C]modify [D] recognize2. [A]when [B]lest [C]before [D] unless3. [A]restored [B]weakened [C]established [D] eliminated4. [A]challenged [B]compromised [C]suspected [D] accepted5. [A]advanced [B]caught [C]bound [D]founded6. [A]resistant [B]subject [C]immune [D]prone7. [A]resorts [B]sticks [C]loads [D]applies8. [A]evade [B]raise [C]deny [D]settle9. [A]line [B]barrier [C]similarity [D]conflict10. [A]by [B]as [C]though [D]towards11. [A]so [B]since [C]provided [D]though12. [A]serve [B]satisfy [C]upset [D]replace13. [A]confirm [B]express [C]cultivate [D]offer14. [A]guarded [B]followed [C]studied [D]tied15. [A]concepts [B]theories [C]divisions [D]conceptions16. [A]excludes [B]questions [C]shapes [D]controls17. [A]dismissed [B]released [C]ranked [D]distorted18. [A]suppress [B]exploit [C]address [D]ignore19. [A]accessible [B]amiable [C]agreeable [D]accountable20. [A]by all mesns [B]atall costs [C]in a word [D]as a resultSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 1Come on –Everybody’s doing it. That whispered message, half invitation and half forcing, is what most of us think of when we hear the words peer pressure. It usually leads to no good-drinking, drugs and casual sex. But in her new book Join the Club, Tina Rosenberg contends that peer pressure can also be a positive force through what she calls the social cure, in which organizations and officials use the power of group dynamics to help individuals improve their lives and possibly the word.Rosenberg, the recipient of a Pulitzer Prize, offers a host of example of the social cure in action: In South Carolina, a state-sponsored antismoking program called Rage Against the Haze sets out to make cigarettes uncool. In South Africa, an HIV-prevention initiative known as LoveLife recruits young people to promote safe sex among their peers.The idea seems promising，and Rosenberg is a perceptive observer. Her critique of the lameness of many pubic-health campaigns is spot-on: they fail to mobilize peer pressure for healthy habits, and they demonstrate a seriously flawed understanding of psyc hology.” Dare to be different, please don’t smoke!” pleads one billboard campaign aimed at reducing smoking among teenagers-teenagers, who desire nothing more than fitting in. Rosenberg argues convincingly that public-health advocates ought to take a page from advertisers, so skilled at applying peer pressure.But on the general effectiveness of the social cure, Rosenberg is less persuasive. Join the Club is filled with too much irrelevant detail and not enough exploration of the social and biological factors that make peer pressure so powerful. The most glaring flaw of the social cure as it’s presented here is that it doesn’t work very well for very long. Rage Against the Haze failed once state funding was cut. Evidence that the LoveLife program produces lasting changes is limited and mixed.There’s no doubt that our peer groups exert enormous influence on our behavior. An emerging body of research shows that positive health habits-as well as negative ones-spread through networks of friends via social communication. This is a subtle form of peer pressure: we unconsciously imitate the behavior we see every day.Far less certain, however, is how successfully experts and bureaucrats can select our peer groups and steer their activities in virtuous directions. It’s like the teacher who breaks up the troublemakers in the back row by pairing them with better-behaved classmates. The tactic never really works. And that’s the problem with a social cure engineered from the outside: in the real world, as in school, we insist on choosing our own friends.21. According to the first paragraph, peer pressure often emerges as[A] a supplement to the social cure[B] a stimulus to group dynamics[C] an obstacle to school progress[D] a cause of undesirable behaviors22. Rosenberg holds that public advocates should[A] recruit professional advertisers[B] learn from advertisers’experience[C] stay away from commercial advertisers[D] recognize the limitations of advertisements23. In the author’s view, Rosenberg’s book fails to[A] adequately probe social and biological factors[B] effectively evade the flaws of the social cure[C] illustrate the functions of state funding[D]produce a long-lasting social effect24. Paragraph 5shows that our imitation of behaviors[A] is harmful to our networks of friends[B] will mislead behavioral studies[C] occurs without our realizing it[D] can produce negative health habits25. The author suggests in the last paragraph that the effect of peer pressure is[A] harmful[B] desirable[C] profound[D] questionableText 2A deal is a deal-except, apparently ,when Entergy is involved. The company, a major energy supplier in New England, provoked justified outrage in V ermont last week when it announced it was reneging on a longstanding commitment to abide by the strict nuclear regulations.Instead, the company has done precisely what it had long promised it would not challenge the constitutionality of V ermont’s rules in the federal court, as part of a desperate effort to keep its V ermont Y ankee nuclear power plant running. It’s a stunning move.The conflict has been surfacing since 2002, when the corporation bought V ermont’s only nuclear power plant, an aging reactor in V ernon. As a condition of receiving state approval for the sale, the company agreed to seek permission from state regulators to operate past 2012. In 2006, the state went a step further, requiring that any extension of the plant’s license be subject to V ermont legislature’s approval. Then, too, the company went along.Either Entergy never really intended to live by those commitments, or it simply didn’t foresee what would happen next. A string of accidents, including the partial collapse of a cooling tower in 207 and the discovery of an underground pipe system leakage, raised serious questions about both V ermont Y ankee’s safety and Entergy’s management–especially after the company made misleading statements about the pipe. Enraged by Entergy’s behavior, the V ermont Senate voted 26 to 4 last year against allowing an extension.Now the company is suddenly claiming that the 2002 agreement is invalid because of the 2006 legislation, and that only the federal government has regulatory power over nuclear issues. The legal issues in the case are obscure: whereas the Supreme Court has ruled that states do havesome regulatory authority over nuclear power, legal scholars say that V ermont case will offer a precedent-setting test of how far those powers extend. Certainly, there are valid concerns about the patchwork regulations that could result if every state sets its own rules. But had Entergy kept its word, that debate would be beside the point.The company seems to have concluded that its reputation in V ermont is already so damaged that it has noting left to lose by going to war with the state. But there should be consequences. Permission to run a nuclear plant is a poblic trust. Entergy runs 11 other reactors in the United States, including Pilgrim Nuclear station in Plymouth. Pledging to run Pilgrim safely, the company has applied for federal permission to keep it open for another 20 years. But as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) review s the company’s application, it should keep it mind what promises from Entergy are worth.26. The phrase “reneging on”(Line 3.para.1) is closest in meaning to[A] condemning.[B] reaffirming.[C] dishonoring.[D] securing.27. By entering into the 2002 agreement, Entergy intended to[A] obtain protection from V ermont regulators.[B] seek favor from the federal legislature.[C] acquire an extension of its business license .[D] get permission to purchase a power plant.28. According to Paragraph 4, Entergy seems to have problems with its[A] managerial practices.[B] technical innovativeness.[C] financial goals.[D] business vision29. In the author’s view, the V ermont case will test[A] Entergy’s capacity to fulfill all its promises.[B] the mature of states’patchwork regulations.[C] the federal authority over nuclear issues .[D] the limits of states’power over nuclear issues.30. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that[A] Entergy’s business elsewhere might be affected.[B] the authority of the NRC will be defied.[C] Entergy will withdraw its Plymouth application.[D] V ermont’s reputation might be damaged.Text 3In the idealized version of how science is done, facts about the world are waiting to be observed and collected by objective researchers who use the scientific method to carry out their work. But in the everyday practice of science, discovery frequently follows an ambiguous and complicated route. We aim to be objective, but we cannot escape the context of our unique life experience. Prior knowledge and interest influence what we experience, what we think our experiences mean, and the subsequent actions we take. Opportunities for misinterpretation, error, and self-deception abound.Consequently, discovery claims should be thought of as protoscience. Similar to newly staked mining claims, they are full of potential. But it takes collective scrutiny and acceptance to transform a discovery claim into a mature discovery. This is the credibility process, through which the individual researcher’s me, here, now becomes the community’s anyone, anywhere, anytime. Objective knowledge is the goal, not the starting point.Once a discovery claim becomes public, the discoverer receives intellectual credit. But, unlike with mining claims, the community takes control of what happens next. Within the complex social structure of the scientific community, researchers make discoveries; editors and reviewers act as gatekeepers by controlling the publication process; other scientists use the new finding to suit their own purposes; and finally, the public (including other scientists) receives the new discovery and possibly accompanying technology. As a discovery claim works it through the community, the interaction and confrontation between shared and competing beliefs about the science and the technology involved transforms an individual’s discovery claim into the community’s credible discovery.Two paradoxes exist throughout this credibility process. First, scientific work tends to focus on some aspect of prevailing Knowledge that is viewed as incomplete or incorrect. Little reward accompanies duplication and confirmation of what is already known and believed. The goal is new-search, not re-search. Not surprisingly, newly published discovery claims and credible discoveries that appear to be important and convincing will always be open to challenge and potential modification or refutation by future researchers. Second, novelty itself frequently provokes disbelief. Nobel Laureate and physiologist Albert Azent-Gyorgyi once described discovery as “seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” But thinking what nobody else has thought and telling others what they have missed may not change their views. Sometimes years are required for truly novel discovery claims to be accepted and appreciated.In the end, credibility “happens”to a discovery claim – a process that corresponds to what philosopher Annette Baier has described as the commons of the mind. “We reason together, challenge, revise, and complete each other’s reasoning and each other’s c onceptions of reason.”31. According to the first paragraph, the process of discovery is characterized by its[A] uncertainty and complexity.[B] misconception and deceptiveness.[C] logicality and objectivity.[D] systematicness and regularity.32. It can be inferred from Paragraph 2 that credibility process requires[A] strict inspection.[B]shared efforts.[C] individual wisdom.[D]persistent innovation.33.Paragraph 3 shows that a discovery claim becomes credible after it[A] has attracted the attention of the general public.[B]has been examined by the scientific community.[C] has received recognition from editors and reviewers.[D]has been frequently quoted by peer scientists.34. Albert Szent-Györgyi would most likely agree that[A] scientific claims will survive challenges.[B]discoveries today inspire future research.[C] efforts to make discoveries are justified.[D]scientific work calls for a critical mind.35.Which of the following would be the best title of the test?[A] Novelty as an Engine of Scientific Development.[B]Collective Scrutiny in Scientific Discovery.[C] Evolution of Credibility in Doing Science.[D]Challenge to Credibility at the Gate to Science.Text 4If the trade unionist Jimmy Hoffa were alive today, he would probably represent civil servant. When Hoffa’s Teamsters were in their prime in 1960, only one in ten American government workers belonged to a union; now 36% do. In 2009 the number of unionist s in America’s public sector passed that of their fellow members in the private sector. In Britain, more than half of public-sector workers but only about 15% of private-sector ones are unionized.There are three reasons for the public-sector unions’thriving. First, they can shut things down without suffering much in the way of consequences. Second, they are mostly bright and well-educated. A quarter of America’s public-sector workers have a university degree. Third, they now dominate left-of-centre politics. Some of their ties go back a long way. Britain’s Labor Party, as its name implies, has long been associated with trade unionism. Its current leader, Ed Miliband, owes his position to votes from public-sector unions.At the state level their influence can be even more fearsome. Mark Baldassare of the Public Policy Institute of California points out that much of the state’s budget is patrolled by unions. The teachers’unions keep an eye on schools, the CCPOA on prisons and a variety of labor groups on health care.In many rich countries average wages in the state sector are higher than in the private one. But the real gains come in benefits and work practices. Politicians have repeatedly “backloaded”public-sector pay deals, keeping the pay increases modest but adding to holidays and especially pensions that are already generous.Reform has been vigorously opposed, perhaps most egregiously in education, where charter schools, academies and merit pay all faced drawn-out battles. Even though there is plenty of evidence that the quality of the teachers is the most important variable, teachers’ unions have fought against getting rid of bad ones and promoting good ones.As the cost to everyone else has become clearer, politicians have begun to clamp down. In Wisconsin the unions have rallied thousands of supporters against Scott Walker, the hardline Republican governor. But many within the public sector suffer under the current system, too.John Donahue at Harvard’s Kennedy School points out that the norms of culture in Western civil services suit those who want to stay put but is bad for high achievers. The only American public-sector workers who earn well above $250,000 a year are university sports coaches and the pre sident of the United States. Bankers’ fat pay packets have attracted much criticism, but a public-sector system that does not reward high achievers may be a much bigger problem for America.36. It can be learned from the first paragraph that[A] Teamsters still have a large body of members.[B] Jimmy Hoffa used to work as a civil servant.[C] unions have enlarged their public-sector membership.[D]the government has improved its relationship with unionists.37. Which of the following is true of Paragraph 2?[A] Public-sector unions are prudent in taking actions.[B] Education is required for public-sector union membership.[C] Labor Party has long been fighting against public-sector unions.[D]Public-sector unions seldom get in trouble for their actions.38. It can be learned from Paragraph 4 that the income in the state sector is[A] illegally secured.[B] indirectly augmented.[C] excessively increased.[D]fairly adjusted.39. The example of the unions in Wisconsin shows that unions[A]often run against the current political system.[B]can change people’s political attitudes.[C]may be a barrier to public-sector reforms.[D]are dominant in the government.40. John Donahue’s attitude towards the public-sector system is one of[A]disapproval.[B]appreciation.[C]tolerance.[D]indifference.Part BDirections:In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list A-G to fit into each of the numbered blanks. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the blanks. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET1.(10 points)Think of those fleeting moments when you look out of an aeroplane window and realise that you are flying, higher than a bird. Now think of your laptop, thinner than a brown-paper envelope, or your cellphone in the palm of your hand. Take a moment or two to wonder at those marvels. Y ou are the lucky inheritor of a dream come true.The second half of the 20th century saw a collection of geniuses, warriors, entrepreneurs and visionaries labour to create a fabulous machine that could function as a typewriter and printing press, studio and theatre, paintbrush and gallery, piano and radio, the mail as well as the mail carrier. (41)The networked computer is an amazing device, the first media machine that serves as the mode of production, means of distribution, site of reception, and place of praise and critique. The computer is the 21st century's culture machine.But for all the reasons there are to celebrate the computer, we must also tread with caution.(42)I call it a secret war for two reasons. First, most people do not realise that there are strong commercial agendas at work to keep them in passive consumption mode. Second, the majority of people who use networked computers to upload are not even aware of the significance of whatthey are doing.All animals download, but only a few upload. Beavers build dams and birds make nests. Y et for the most part, the animal kingdom moves through the world downloading. Humans are unique in their capacity to not only make tools but then turn around and use them to create superfluous material goods - paintings, sculpture and architecture - and superfluous experiences - music, literature, religion and philosophy. (43)For all the possibilities of our new culture machines, most people are still stuck in download mode. Even after the advent of widespread social media, a pyramid of production remains, with a small number of people uploading material, a slightly larger group commenting on or modifying that content, and a huge percentage remaining content to just consume. (44)Television is a one-way tap flowing into our homes. The hardest task that television asks of anyone is to turn the power off after he has turned it on.(45)What counts as meaningful uploading? My definition revolves around the concept of "stickiness" - creations and experiences to which others adhere.[A] Of course, it is precisely these superfluous things that define human culture and ultimately what it is to be human. Downloading and consuming culture requires great skills, but failing to move beyond downloading is to strip oneself of a defining constituent of humanity.[B] Applications like , which allow users to combine pictures, words and other media in creative ways and then share them, have the potential to add stickiness by amusing, entertaining and enlightening others.[C] Not only did they develop such a device but by the turn of the millennium they had also managed to embed it in a worldwide system accessed by billions of people every day.[D] This is because the networked computer has sparked a secret war between downloading and uploading - between passive consumption and active creation - whose outcome will shape our collective future in ways we can only begin to imagine.[E] The challenge the computer mounts to television thus bears little similarity to one format being replaced by another in the manner of record players being replaced by CD players.[F] One reason for the persistence of this pyramid of production is that for the past half-century, much of the world's media culture has been defined by a single medium - television - and television is defined by downloading.[G]The networked computer offers the first chance in 50 years to reverse the flow, to encourage thoughtful downloading and, even more importantly, meaningful uploading.Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Y our translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)Since the days of Aristotle, a search for universal principles has characterized the scientific enterprise. In some ways, this quest for commonalities defines science. Newton’s laws of motion and Darwinian evolution each bind a host of different phenomena into a single explicatory frame work.(46)In physics, one approach takes this impulse for unification to its extreme, and seeks a theory of everything—a single generative equation for all we see.It is becoming less clear, however, that such a theory would be a simplification, given the dimensions and universes that itmight entail, nonetheless, unification of sorts remains a major goal.This tendency in the natural sciences has long been evident in the social sciences too.(47)Here, Darwinism seems to offer justification for it all humans share common origins it seems reasonable to suppose that cultural diversity could also be traced to more constrained beginnings. Just as the bewildering variety of human courtship rituals might all be considered forms of sexual selection, perhaps the world’s languages, music, social and religious customs and even history are governed by universal features. (48)To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arose and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.That, at least, is the hope. But a comparative study of linguistic traits published online today supplies a reality check. Russell Gray at the University of Auckland and his colleagues consider the evolution of grammars in the light of two previous attempts to find universality in language.The most famous of these efforts was initiated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that humans are born with an innate language—acquisition capacity that dictates a universal grammar.A few generative rules are then sufficient to unfold the entire fundamental structure of a language, which is why children can learn it so quickly.(49)The second, by Joshua Greenberg, takes a more empirical approach to universality identifying traits (particularly in word order) shared by many language which are considered to represent biases that result from cognitive constraintsGray and his colleagues have put them to the test by examining four family trees that between them represent more than 2,000 languages.(50)Chomsky’s grammar should show patterns of language change that are independent of the family tree or the pathway tracked through it. Whereas Greenbergian universality predicts strong co-dependencies between particular types of word-order relations. Neither of these patterns is borne out by the analysis, suggesting that the structures of the languages are lire age-specific and not governed by universalsSection III WritingPart A51. Directions:Some internationals students are coming to your university. Write them an email in the name of the Students’Union to1) extend your welcome and2) provide some suggestions for their campus life here.Y ou should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET2.Do not sign your name at the end of the letter. Use “Li Ming”instead.Do not write the address(10 points)Part B52. Directions: write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay you should1) describe the drawing briefly2) explain its intended meaning, and3) give your commentsY ou should write neatly on ANSWER SHEET2.(20 points)参考答案Section I: Use of English1.B2.A3.B4.D5.C6.B7.D8.B9.A10.B11.A12.C 13.C 14.D 15.A16.C 17.A18.C 19.D 20.DSection II: Reading ComprehensionPart A21.D 22.B 23.A24.C 25.D26.C 27.D 28.A29.D 30.A31.A 32.B 33.B 34.D 35.C36.C 37.D 38.B 39.C 40.APart B41. C 42.D 43. A 44.F 45.GPart C46. 物理学中的一个理论把这种归一的冲动发挥到了极致，它探寻一种万有理论——一个关于我们能看到的一切的生成方程式。
2012年10月27日新托福写作考题回顾
1. 外表看起来像storehouse, 其实inside只有two small rooms, moreover, no grains were found there;
2. radiation carbon finds that towers and walls were built before the gold mine was detected, 也就是说build towers and walls的时候人们不知道有gold;
社会类
考题文字：
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
The most important problem affecting our society today will be solved in our lifetime.
本次写作考试点评：
2012年10月27日新托福写作考题回顾
考试日期：
2012.10.27
Task 1
INTEGRAED
Great Zimbabwe石头建筑群建造的purpose
阅读材料观点：
1. for storing grains;
2. gold mining place;
3. astronomical observatory;
本次新托福考试完全重复2011年3月4日北美考题。
本次的考题完全在预测中，北美考题的重复规律继续在中国大陆的考试中得以体现。就难度而言，这次写作考题的难度较大。综合任务的话题和词汇就会对考生的听力造成较大的困难。而独立写作考前看过预测写过作文，那么将会获得高分，如果没有接触过，那么获得高分的难度较大。
3. Towers for observing stars require specific angles anddistance,however, the Great Zimbabwe does not meet such requirements.
2012 6.7 托福考试真题回忆
2012年6月17日托福考试出现的是北美托福题的拼盘：R:101203NA, L:110415NA, 口语：1,2,4题为2011年12月3日的考题，3,5题为2011年4月15日的考题，4,6题为2011年6月19日的考题；W1:110415NA, W2: 101203NA。
具体考试真题回忆如下：阅读1. 关于高山和海洋的形成理论.最早地球是热的,后来变冷了.然后说十九世纪欧洲流行的一个某一个理论.好像干苹果.干的地方就陷了下去,形成了海洋.然后另外一些科学家质疑,说,为嘛非洲大陆和欧洲大陆的的一些动物化石标本一样的.于是之前那个理论解释说,因为以前是超级大陆,冰川时期之间,大家都连一块的.然后又说后来又出现了别的理论.具体的忘记了.好像其中有一个细节说,海洋和高山之间的分布有着一定的关系.词汇题比较简单,就是几个理论绕来绕去2. 说亚洲东南部,有很多会滑翔的动物.比如会飞的青蛙,小虫什么的.最开始大家觉得是因为那里的树很高.这样动物可以节约体力,进行长距离的有效滑翔。
但是发现了这个理论的缺陷,因为在矮小的灌木丛里面,也发现了会滑翔的小虫子.而且,有的虫子在不是从最高处开始滑翔,而是在树的半中间就开始滑翔.然后科学家开始对比新西兰和亚洲的树木.发现了另外两个地区的气候,等等条件不同.然后又提出另外一种理论,说虫子滑翔是因为某些植物缺少树干,或者是高的树和矮的树相间的.虫子因为缺少食物,他们经常需要长途旅行来寻找食物.因为某种植物的叶子是会分泌毒素的.另外,对一些动物来说,植物开花和结果的周期太长,所以他们也缺少食物.3. 就是说长篇口述荷马史诗,奥赛德和伊索寓言.他们都是经过口述,后人艺术加工后形成的.科学家还做了一个实验.一发现了这种史诗太长了,单纯记肯定不行.因为每个人的版本都不一样.所以后人还是根据自己的风格加工了.不少细节题目.大家注意看哈听力1. 一个学生跑去问老师一个问题，课堂上提到的好像是utah洲经济崩溃后来又兴起，这个可以做她的researchtopic （有题目）.其中讲到为什么这个地方经济崩溃的原因，有两个原因，注意听（有题目）。
2012年考研英语真题及答案完整解析
2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（一）Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)The ethical judgments of the Supreme Court justices have become animportant issue recently. The court cannot _1_ its legitimacy as guardian of therule of law _2_ justices behave like politicians. Yet, in several instances, justicesacted in ways that _3_ the court’s reputation for being independent andimpartial.Justice Antonin Scalia, for example, appeared at political events. That kind ofactivity makes it less likely that the court’s decisi ons will be _4_ as impartialjudgments. Part of the problem is that the justices are not _5_by an ethics code.At the very least, the court should make itself _6_to the code of conduct that _7_tothe rest of the federal judiciary.This and other similar cases _8_the question of whether there is still a_9_between the court and politics.The framers of the Constitution envisioned law _10_having authority apartfrom politics. They gave justices permanent positions _11_they would be free to_12_ those in power and have no need to _13_ political support. Our legal systemwas designed to set law apart from politics precisely because they are so closely_14_.Constitutional law is political because it results from choices rooted infundamental social _15_ like liberty and property. When the court deals withsocial policy decisions, the law it _16_ is inescapably political-which is why decisions split along ideological lines are so easily _17_ as unjust.The justices must _18_ doubts about the court’s legitimacy by making themselves _19_ to the code of conduct. That would make rulings more likely to be seen as separate from politics and, _20_, convincing as law.1. [A]emphasize [B]maintain [C]modify [D] recognize2. [A]when [B]lest [C]before [D] unless3. [A]restored [B]weakened [C]established [D] eliminated4. [A]challenged [B]compromised [C]suspected [D] accepted5. [A]advanced [B]caught [C]bound [D]founded6. [A]resistant [B]subject [C]immune [D]prone7. [A]resorts [B]sticks [C]loads [D]applies8. [A]evade [B]raise [C]deny [D]settle9. [A]line [B]barrier [C]similarity [D]conflict10. [A]by [B]as [C]though [D]towards11. [A]so [B]since [C]provided [D]though12. [A]serve [B]satisfy [C]upset [D]replace13. [A]confirm [B]express [C]cultivate [D]offer14. [A]guarded [B]followed [C]studied [D]tied15. [A]concepts [B]theories [C]divisions [D]conceptions16. [A]excludes [B]questions [C]shapes [D]controls17. [A]dismissed [B]released [C]ranked [D]distorted18. [A]suppress [B]exploit [C]address [D]ignore19. [A]accessible [B]amiable [C]agreeable [D]accountable20. [A]by all mesns [B]atall costs [C]in a word [D]as a resultSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 1Come on –Everybody’s doing it. That whispered message, half invitation and half forcing, is what most of us think of when we hear the words peer pressure. It usually leads to no good-drinking, drugs and casual sex. But in her new book Join the Club, Tina Rosenberg contends that peer pressure can also be a positive force through what she calls the social cure, in which organizations and officials use the power of group dynamics to help individuals improve their lives and possibly the word.Rosenberg, the recipient of a Pulitzer Prize, offers a host of example of the social cure in action: In South Carolina, a state-sponsored antismoking program called Rage Against the Haze sets out to make cigarettes uncool. In South Africa, an HIV-prevention initiative known as LoveLife recruits young people to promote safe sex among their peers.The idea seems promising，and Rosenberg is a perceptive observer. Her critique of the lameness of many pubic-health campaigns is spot-on: they fail to mobilize peer pressure for healthy habits, and they demonstrate a seriously flawed understanding of psychology.” Dare to be different, please don’t smoke!” pleads one billboard campaign aimed at reducing smoking amongteenagers-teenagers, who desire nothing more than fitting in. Rosenberg argues convincingly that public-health advocates ought to take a page from advertisers, so skilled at applying peer pressure.But on the general effectiveness of the social cure, Rosenberg is less persuasive. Join the Club is filled with too much irrelevant detail and not enough exploration of the social and biological factors that make peer pressure so powerful. The most glaring flaw of the social cure as it’s presented here is that it doesn’t work very well for very long. Rage Against the Haze failed once state funding was cut. Evidence that the LoveLife program produces lasting changes is limited and mixed.There’s no doubt that our peer groups exert enormous influence on our behavior. An emerging body of research shows that positive health habits-as well as negative ones-spread through networks of friends via social communication. This is a subtle form of peer pressure: we unconsciously imitate the behavior we see every day.Far less certain, however, is how successfully experts and bureaucrats can select our peer groups and steer their activities in virtuous directions. It’s like the teacher w ho breaks up the troublemakers in the back row by pairing them with better-behaved classmates. The tactic never really works. And that’s the problem with a social cure engineered from the outside: in the real world, as in school, we insist on choosing our own friends.21. According to the first paragraph, peer pressure often emerges as[A] a supplement to the social cure[B] a stimulus to group dynamics[C] an obstacle to school progress[D] a cause of undesirable behaviors22. Rosenberg holds that public advocates should[A] recruit professional advertisers[B] learn from advertisers’ experience[C] stay away from commercial advertisers[D] recognize the limitations of advertisements23. In the author’s view, Rosenberg’s book fails to[A] adequately probe social and biological factors[B] effectively evade the flaws of the social cure[C] illustrate the functions of state funding[D]produce a long-lasting social effect24. Paragraph 5shows that our imitation of behaviors[A] is harmful to our networks of friends[B] will mislead behavioral studies[C] occurs without our realizing it[D] can produce negative health habits25. The author suggests in the last paragraph that the effect of peer pressure is[A] harmful[B] desirable[C] profound[D] questionableText 2A deal is a deal-except, apparently ,when Entergy is involved. The company, a major energy supplier in New England, provoked justified outrage in Vermont last week when it announced it was reneging on a longstanding commitment to abide by the strict nuclear regulations.Instead, the company has done precisely what it had long promised it would not challenge the constitutionality of Vermont’s rules in the federal court, as part of a desperate effort to keep its Vermont Yankee nuclear powe r plant running. It’s a stunning move.The conflict has been surfacing since 2002, when the corporation bought Vermont’s only nuclear power plant, an aging reactor in Vernon. As a condition of receiving state approval for the sale, the company agreed to seek permission from state regulators to operate past 2012. In 2006, the state went a step further, requiring that any extension of the plant’s license be subject to Vermont legislature’s approval. Then, too, the company went along.Either Entergy never real ly intended to live by those commitments, or it simply didn’t foresee what would happen next. A string of accidents, including the partial collapse of a cooling tower in 207 and the discovery of an underground pipe system leakage, raised serious questions about both Vermont Yankee’s safety and Entergy’s management–especially after the company made misleading statements about the pipe. Enraged by Entergy’s behavior, the Vermont Senate voted 26 to 4 last year against allowing an extension.Now the company is suddenly claiming that the 2002 agreement is invalid because of the 2006 legislation, and that only the federal government has regulatory power over nuclear issues. The legal issues in the case are obscure: whereas the Supreme Court has ruled that states do have some regulatory authority over nuclear power, legal scholars say that Vermont case will offer a precedent-setting test of how far those powers extend. Certainly, there are valid concerns about the patchwork regulations that could result if every state sets its own rules. But had Entergy kept its word, that debate would be beside the point.The company seems to have concluded that its reputation in Vermont is already so damaged that it has noting left to lose by going to war with the state. But there should be consequences. Permission to run a nuclear plant is a poblic trust. Entergy runs 11 other reactors in the United States, including Pilgrim Nuclear station in Plymouth. Pledging to run Pilgrim safely, the company has applied for federal permission to keep it open for another 20 years. But as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reviews the company’s application, it should keep it mind what promises from Entergy are worth.26. The phrase “reneging on”(Line 3.para.1) is closest in meaning to[A] condemning.[B] reaffirming.[C] dishonoring.[D] securing.27. By entering into the 2002 agreement, Entergy intended to[A] obtain protection from Vermont regulators.[B] seek favor from the federal legislature.[C] acquire an extension of its business license .[D] get permission to purchase a power plant.28. According to Paragraph 4, Entergy seems to have problems with its[A] managerial practices.[B] technical innovativeness.[C] financial goals.[D] business vision29. In the author’s view, th e Vermont case will test[A] Entergy’s capacity to fulfill all its promises.[B] the mature of states’ patchwork regulations.[C] the federal authority over nuclear issues .[D] the limits of states’ power over nuclear issues.30. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that[A] Entergy’s business elsewhere might be affected.[B] the authority of the NRC will be defied.[C] Entergy will withdraw its Plymouth application.[D] Vermont’s reputation might be damaged.Text 3In the idealized version of how science is done, facts about the world are waiting to be observed and collected by objective researchers who use the scientific method to carry out their work. But in the everyday practice of science, discovery frequently follows an ambiguous and complicated route. We aim to be objective, but we cannot escape the context of our unique life experience. Prior knowledge and interest influence what we experience, what we think our experiences mean, and the subsequent actions we take. Opportunities for misinterpretation, error, and self-deception abound.Consequently, discovery claims should be thought of as protoscience. Similar to newly staked mining claims, they are full of potential. But it takes collective scrutiny and acceptance to transform a discovery claim into a mature discovery. This is the credibility process, through which the individual researcher’s me, here, now becomes the community’s anyone, anywhere, anytime. Objective knowledge is the goal, not the starting point.Once a discovery claim becomes public, the discoverer receives intellectual credit. But, unlike with mining claims, the community takes control of what happens next. Within the complex social structure of the scientific community, researchers make discoveries; editors and reviewers act as gatekeepers by controlling the publication process; other scientists usethe new finding to suit their own purposes; and finally, the public (including other scientists) receives the new discovery and possibly accompanying technology. As a discovery claim works it through the community, the interaction and confrontation between shared and competing beliefs about the science and the technology involved transforms an individual’s discovery claim into the community’s credible discovery.Two paradoxes exist throughout this credibility process. First, scientific work tends to focus on some aspect of prevailing Knowledge that is viewed as incomplete or incorrect. Little reward accompanies duplication and confirmation of what is already known and believed. The goal is new-search, not re-search. Not surprisingly, newly published discovery claims and credible discoveries that appear to be important and convincing will always be open to challenge and potential modification or refutation by future researchers. Second, novelty itself frequently provokes disbelief. Nobel Laureate and physiologist AlbertAzent-Gyorgyi once described discovery as “seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” But thinking what nobody else has thought and telling others what they have missed may not change their views. Sometimes years are required for truly novel discovery claims to be accepted and appreciated.In the end, credibility “happens” to a discovery claim – a process that corresponds to what philosopher Annette Baier has described as the commons of the mind. “We reason together, challenge, revise, and complete each other’s reasoning and each other’s conceptions of reason.”31. According to the first paragraph, the process of discovery is characterized by its[A] uncertainty and complexity.[B] misconception and deceptiveness.[C] logicality and objectivity.[D] systematicness and regularity.32. It can be inferred from Paragraph 2 that credibility process requires[A] strict inspection.[B]shared efforts.[C] individual wisdom.[D]persistent innovation.33.Paragraph 3 shows that a discovery claim becomes credible after it[A] has attracted the attention of the general public.[B]has been examined by the scientific community.[C] has received recognition from editors and reviewers.[D]has been frequently quoted by peer scientists.34. Albert Szent-Györgyi would most likely agree that[A] scientific claims will survive challenges.[B]discoveries today inspire future research.[C] efforts to make discoveries are justified.[D]scientific work calls for a critical mind.35.Which of the following would be the best title of the test?[A] Novelty as an Engine of Scientific Development.[B]Collective Scrutiny in Scientific Discovery.[C] Evolution of Credibility in Doing Science.[D]Challenge to Credibility at the Gate to Science.Text 4If the trade unionist Jimmy Hoffa were alive today, he would probably represent civil servant. When Hoffa’s Teamsters were in their prime in 1960, only one in ten American government workers belonged to a union; now 36% do. In 2009 the number of unionists in America’s public sector passed that of their fellow members in the private sector. In Britain, more than half of public-sector workers but only about 15% of private-sector ones are unionized.There are three reasons for the public-sector unions’ thriving. First, they can shut things down without suffering much in the way of consequences. Second, they are mostly bright and well-educated. A quarter of America’s public-sector workers have a university degree. Third, they now dominate left-of-centre politics. Some of their ties go back a long way. Britain’s Labor Party, as its name implies, has long been associated with trade unionism. Its current leader, Ed Miliband, owes his position to votes from public-sector unions.At the state level their influence can be even more fearsome. Mark Baldassare of the Public Policy Institute of California points out that much of the state’s budget is patrolled by unions. The teachers’ unio ns keep an eye on schools, the CCPOA on prisons and a variety of labor groups on health care.In many rich countries average wages in the state sector are higher than in the private one. But the real gains come in benefits and work practices. Politicians h ave repeatedly “backloaded” public-sector pay deals, keeping thepay increases modest but adding to holidays and especially pensions that are already generous.Reform has been vigorously opposed, perhaps most egregiously in education, where charter schools, academies and merit pay all faced drawn-out battles. Even though there is plenty of evidence that the quality of the teachers is the most important variable, teachers’ unions have fought against getting rid of bad ones and promoting good ones.As the cost to everyone else has become clearer, politicians have begun to clamp down. In Wisconsin the unions have rallied thousands of supporters against Scott Walker, the hardline Republican governor. But many within the public sector suffer under the current system, too.John Donahue at Harvard’s Kennedy School points out that the norms of culture in Western civil services suit those who want to stay put but is bad for high achievers. The only American public-sector workers who earn well above $250,000 a year are university sports coaches and the president of the United States. Bankers’ fat pay packets have attracted much criticism, but apublic-sector system that does not reward high achievers may be a much bigger problem for America.36. It can be learned from the first paragraph that[A] Teamsters still have a large body of members.[B] Jimmy Hoffa used to work as a civil servant.[C] unions have enlarged their public-sector membership.[D]the government has improved its relationship with unionists.37. Which of the following is true of Paragraph 2?[A] Public-sector unions are prudent in taking actions.[B] Education is required for public-sector union membership.[C] Labor Party has long been fighting against public-sector unions.[D]Public-sector unions seldom get in trouble for their actions.38. It can be learned from Paragraph 4 that the income in the state sector is[A] illegally secured.[B] indirectly augmented.[C] excessively increased.[D]fairly adjusted.39. The example of the unions in Wisconsin shows that unions[A]often run against the current political system.[B]can change people’s political attitudes.[C]may be a barrier to public-sector reforms.[D]are dominant in the government.40. John Donahue’s attitude towards the public-sector system is one of[A]disapproval.[B]appreciation.[C]tolerance.[D]indifference.Part BDirections:In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list A-G to fit into each of the numbered blanks. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the blanks. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET1.（10 points）Think of those fleeting moments when you look out of an aeroplane window and realise that you are flying, higher than a bird. Now think of your laptop, thinner than a brown-paper envelope, or your cellphone in the palm of your hand. Take a moment or two to wonder at those marvels. You are the lucky inheritor of a dream come true.The second half of the 20th century saw a collection of geniuses, warriors, entrepreneurs and visionaries labour to create a fabulous machine that could function as a typewriter and printing press, studio and theatre, paintbrush and gallery, piano and radio, the mail as well as the mail carrier. (41)The networked computer is an amazing device, the first media machine that serves as the mode of production, means of distribution, site of reception, and place of praise and critique. The computer is the 21st century's culture machine.But for all the reasons there are to celebrate the computer, we must also tread with caution. (42)I call it a secret war for two reasons. First, most people do not realise that there are strong commercial agendas at work to keep them in passive consumption mode. Second, the majority of people who use networked computers to upload are not even aware of the significance of what they are doing.All animals download, but only a few upload. Beavers build dams and birds make nests. Yet for the most part, the animal kingdom moves through the world downloading. Humans are unique in their capacity to not only make tools but then turn around and use them to create superfluous material goods - paintings, sculpture and architecture - and superfluous experiences - music, literature, religion and philosophy. (43)For all the possibilities of our new culture machines, most people are still stuck in download mode. Even after the advent of widespread social media, a pyramid of production remains, with a small number of people uploading material, a slightly larger group commenting on or modifying that content, and a huge percentage remaining content to just consume. (44)Television is a one-way tap flowing into our homes. The hardest task that television asks of anyone is to turn the power off after he has turned it on.(45)What counts as meaningful uploading? My definition revolves around the concept of "stickiness" - creations and experiences to which others adhere.[A] Of course, it is precisely these superfluous things that define human culture and ultimately what it is to be human. Downloading and consuming culture requires great skills, but failing to move beyond downloading is to strip oneself of a defining constituent of humanity.[B] Applications like , which allow users to combine pictures, words and other media in creative ways and then share them, have the potential to add stickiness by amusing, entertaining and enlightening others.[C] Not only did they develop such a device but by the turn of the millennium they had also managed to embed it in a worldwide system accessed by billions of people every day.[D] This is because the networked computer has sparked a secret war between downloading and uploading - between passive consumption and active creation - whose outcome will shape our collective future in ways we can only begin to imagine.[E] The challenge the computer mounts to television thus bears little similarity to one format being replaced by another in the manner of record players being replaced by CD players. [F] One reason for the persistence of this pyramid of production is that for the pasthalf-century, much of the world's media culture has been defined by a single medium - television - and television is defined by downloading.[G]The networked computer offers the first chance in 50 years to reverse the flow, to encourage thoughtful downloading and, even more importantly, meaningful uploading.Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)Since the days of Aristotle, a search for universal principles has characterized the scientific enterprise. In some ways, this quest for commonalities definesscience. Newton’s laws of motion and Darwinian evolution each bind a host of different phenomena into a single explicatory frame work.(46)In physics, one approach takes this impulse for unification to its extreme, and seeks a theory of everything—a single generative equation for all we see.It is becoming less clear, however, that such a theory would be a simplification, given the dimensions and universes that it might entail, nonetheless, unification of sorts remains a major goal.This tendency in the natural sciences has long been evident in the social sciences too. (47)Here, Darwinism seems to offer justification for it all humans share common origins it seems reasonable to suppose that cultural diversity could also be traced to more constrained beginnings. Just as the bewildering variety of human courtship rituals might all be considered forms of sexual selection, perhaps the world’s languages, music, so cial and religious customs and even history are governed by universal features. (48)To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arose and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.That, at least, is the hope. But a comparative study of linguistic traits published online today supplies a reality check. Russell Gray at the University of Auckland and his colleagues consider the evolution of grammars in the light of two previous attempts to find universality in language.The most famous of these efforts was initiated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that humans are born with an innate language—acquisition capacity that dictates a universal grammar. A few generative rules are then sufficient to unfold the entire fundamental structure of a language, which is why children can learn it so quickly.(49)The second, by Joshua Greenberg, takes a more empirical approach to universality identifying traits (particularly in word order) shared by many language which are considered to represent biases that result from cognitive constraintsGray and his colleagues have put them to the test by examining four family trees that between them represent more than 2,000 languages.(50)Chomsky’s grammar should show patterns of language change that are independent of the family tree or the pathway tracked through it. Whereas Greenbergian universality predicts strong co-dependencies between particular types of word-order relations. Neither of these patterns is borne out by the analysis, suggesting that the structures of the languages are lire age-specific and not governed by universalsSection III WritingPart A51. Directions:Some internationals students are coming to your university. Write them an email in the name of the Students’ Union to1)extend your welcome and2)provide some suggestions for their campus life here.You should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET2.Do not sign your name at the end of the letter. Use “Li Ming” instead.Do not write the address(10 points)Part B52. Directions: write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In youressay you should1) describe the drawing briefly2) explain its intended meaning, and3) give your commentsYou should write neatly on ANSWER SHEET2.（20 points）1.【答案】B【解析】从空后信息可以看出，这句表达的是“_ _法官表现得像政治家”的情况下，法庭就不能保持其作为法律法规的合法卫士的形象，所以应该选C,maintain“维持，保持”，其他显然语义不通。
2012.06.09新托福阅读考题回顾
wealthy and childless. They left the Academy-Institute a unique bequest: for five consecutive years, two distinguished (and financially needy) writers would receive enough money so they could devote themselves entirely to "prose literature" (no plays, no poetry, and no paying job that might distract). In 1983, the first Strauss Livings of $35,000 a year went to short-story writer Raymond Carver and novelist-essayist Cynthia Ozick. By 1988, the fund had grown enough so that two winners, novelists Diane Johnson and Robert Stone, each got $50,000 a year for five years.【98-10】美国铁路发展类似文章Railroads reshaped the North American environment and reoriented North American behavior. "In a quarter of a century", claimed the Omaha Daily Republican in 1883, "they have made the people of the United States homogeneous, breaking through the peculiarities and provincialisms which marked separate and unmingling sections."The railroad simultaneously stripped the landscape of the natural resources, made velocity of transport and economy of scale necessary parts of industrial production, and carried consumer goods to households;it dispatched immigrants to unsettled places, drew emigrants away from farms and villages to cities, and sent men and guns to battle. It standardized time and travel, seeking to annihilate distance and space by allowing movement at any time and in any season or type of weather. In its grand and impressive terminals and stations, architects recreated historic Roman temples and public baths, French chateaus and Italian bell towers-edifices that people used as stages for many of everyday life's high emotions: meeting and parting, waiting and worrying, planning new starts or coming home.Passenger terminals, like the luxury express trains that hurled people over spots, spotlight the romance of railroading. (The twentieth-Century Limited sped between Chicago and New York in twenty hours by 1915). Equally important to everyday life were the slow freight trans chugging through industrial zones, the morning and evening commuter locals shuttling back ions and urban terminals, and the incessant comings and goings that occurred in the classifications, or switching, yards.Moreover, in addition to its being a transportation pathway equipped with a mammoth physical plant of tracks signals, crossings, bridges, and junctions, plus telegraph and telephone lines the railroad nurtured factory complexes, coat piles, warehouses, and generating stations, forming along its right-of-way what has aptly been called "the metropolitan corridor" of the American landscape.supplemented a continuing mixed subsistence of hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants, Increasing predictability of food supplies may have been a motive. It has been suggested that some early cultivation was for medicinal and ceremonial plants rather than for food. One archaeologist has pointed out that the early domesticated plants were all weedy species that do well in open, disturbed habitats, the kind that would form around human settlements where people cut down trees, trample the ground, deposit trash, and dig holes. It has been suggested that sunflower,sumpweed, and other plants almost domesticated themselves, that is, theythrived in human –disturbed habitats, so humans intensively collected them and began to control their distribution. Women in the Archaic communities were probably the main experimenters with cultivation, because ethnoarchaeological evidence tells us that women were the main collectors of plant food and had detailed knowledge of plants.TPO21-2The Origins of AgricultureHow did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with it forced the population to abandon the nomad’s life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter gatherers.Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis. It was argued that once hunter gatherers had occupied the whole, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce, agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population on crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas.Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have beenproposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely.It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed.It is archaeologist Steven Mithen’s thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind(1996),that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming. (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop “social relationships” with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism) ;and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals.The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture(vegetable gardening)but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity, a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is。
托福阅读TPO24（试题+答案+译文）第2篇：BreathingDuringSleep
托福阅读TPO24(试题+答案+译文)第2篇:BreathingDuringSleep为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读TPO24(试题+答案+译文)第2篇:Breathing During Sleep，希望大家喜欢!托福阅读原文【1】Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function. Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. However, there are many other changes that affect respiration when asleep.【2】During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. The first is an automatic, metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.【3】During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes deeper and moreregular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being exchanged overall. This occurs because during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic system has exclusive control over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, during sleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood. Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep. First, there may be a brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes and wanes between sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep is fully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists during NREM.【4】But that is not all that changes. During all phases of sleep, several changes in the air passages have been observed. It takes twice as much effort to breathe during sleep because of greater resistance to airflow in the airways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles used for breathing. Some of the muscles that help keep the upper airway open when breathing tend to become more relaxed during sleep, especially during REM (the phase of sleep in which there is rapid eye movement). Without this muscular action, inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon—the narrow passages tend to collapse. Also there is a regular cycle of change in resistance between the two sides of the nose. If something blocks the "good" side, such as congestion from allergies or a cold, then resistance increases dramatically. Coupled with these factors is the loss of the complex interactions among the muscles that can change the route of airflow from nose to mouth.【5】Other respiratory regulating mechanisms apparentlycease functioning during sleep. For example, during wakefulness there is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort when inhaling is made more difficult (such as breathing through a restrictive face mask). This reflexive adjustment is totally absent during NREM sleep. Only after several inadequate breaths under such conditions, resulting in the considerable elevation of carbon dioxide and reduction of oxygen in the blood, is breathing effort adjusted. Finally, the coughing reflex in reaction to irritants in the airway produces not a cough during sleep but a cessation of breathing. If the irritation is severe enough, a sleeping person will arouse, clear the airway, then resume breathing and likely return to sleep.【6】Additional breathing changes occur during REM sleep that are even more dramatic than the changes that occur during NREM. The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REM than NREM because, although breathing is more rapid in REM,it is also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallow breathing or absence of breathing. In addition, breathing during REM depends much more on the action of the diaphragm and much less on rib cage action.托福阅读试题1.According to paragraph 1, which of the following can be inferred about the diaphragm during sleep?A.During sleep the diaphragm requires increased movement of the rib cage.B.The diaphragm helps with breathing as movements of the rib cage decrease during sleep.C.The diaphragm requires a great amount of pressure to function properly.D.The diaphragm contributes to the effective functioning ofthe rib cage.2.According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of the voluntary breathing system EXCEPT:A.It has its control center in the brain stem.B.It controls breathing for a number of activities during wakefulness.C.It is able to bypass the automatic system.D.It produces an irregular breathing pattern.3.The word exclusive in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.consistentB.perfectC.partialD.sole4.According to paragraph 3, which of the following may occur just before NREM sleep begins?A.The automatic, metabolic system may increase its dependence on air exchanges.B.Breathing can stop for a short time as a person falls asleep.C.An increase in the oxygen level in the blood can occur as sleep becomes fully obtained.D.The level of carbon dioxide in the blood may drop suddenly.5.What is the author's purpose in stating that inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon?(in paragraph 4)A.To refute the argument that additional effort is necessary for breathing during sleep.B.To argue that REM sleep is more important than NREM sleep.C.To illustrate the difficulty of breathing during sleep.D.To illustrate how blockage of narrow passages can beprevented during sleep.6.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as being characteristic of breathing during sleep EXCEPTA.relaxation of the muscles involved in the respiratory system.B.changes in resistance between the two sides of the nose.C.easier airflow in the passages of the upper airway.D.absence of certain complex muscle interactions.7.According to paragraph 5, what happens during NREM sleep when inhaling is difficult?A.There is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort.B.The sleeping person takes several inadequate breaths before the breathing effort is adjusted.C.The coughing reflex causes the breathing effort to adjust.D.The airways become cleared as the blood removes irritants.8.It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that a very mild irritation during sleep will likely cause the sleeping person toA.increase the breathing effort.B.wake up and remove the source of irritation.C.cough while still sleeping.D.stop breathing temporarily while still sleeping.9.The word considerable (paragraph 5)meaning toA.significant.B.Steady.ual.D.necessary.10.The word resume in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning toA.reduce.B.stop.C.readjust.D.restart.11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 6)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Because breathing is more shallow and irregular in REM than in NREM, less air is exchanged in REM.B.Breathing in NREM is less effective than breathing in REM because of irregular episodes of rapid breathing during NREM.C.Because breathing is more rapid in NREM sleep than in REM sleep, breathing often becomes shallow.D.Although REM has brief episodes of shallow breathing or lack of breathing, breathing is more rapid than in NREM.12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. To better understand breathing during sleep, it is, however, helpful to first understand how respiration works in general.paragraph1: Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function. Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. [■]【A】 Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. [■]【B】 However, there are manyother changes that affect respiration when asleep.paragraph2: [■]【C】During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. [■]【D】The first is an automatic, metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.13.Directions: From the seven statements below, select the statements that correctly characterize breathing during wakefulness and those statements that correctly characterize breathing during sleep. Drag each answer choice you select into the appropriate box of the table. Two of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.A.The role of the rib cage increases and the role of the diaphragm decreases.B.Carbon dioxide in blood rises and oxygen drops.C.The coughing reflex is extremely complex.D.A great deal of effort is used for breathing.E.Upper airways are resistant to colds and allergies.F.There is a drop in the volume of air that is exchanged.G.Automatic and voluntary respiratory systems are both involved.1 )WakefulneA B C D E F G2 )SleepA B C D E F G托福阅读答案1.以diaphragm做关键词定位至第三句和第四句，说ribcage运动变少，使得diaphragm更重要，但stomach的压力使得diaphragm工作起来更困难，B是正确答案。
2012年11月24日托福考试阅读机经
2012年11月24日托福考试阅读机经版本一：猴子的vocalization。
三种方式，分别是：1、针对?(忘了是什么动物)，当听到这种alarm call的时候，猴子会爬到树上去;2、针对eagle，当听到这种alarm call的时候，猴子会先向上看天空，然后会躲到丛林里，因为eagle能够从树上抓到猴子，所以猴子是不会爬到树上来避险的;3、针对蛇，这种情况下，猴子们群起而攻击蛇。
然后讲科学家们对猴子的vocalization的研究观察，有说即使没看到predator，猴子们听到alarm call 也会做出相应的反应的。
最后讲年轻的小猴子们是怎么学会vocalization的，老猴子们不会特意去训练小猴子们。
一开始，小猴子不会识别友善的还是敌对的动物，比如它们可能误以为鹰是友善的小鸟什么的，但是当它们发出alarm时，老猴子们一般会再巡视下周围，确定是什么predator，然后老猴子会发出正确的alarm，这样，小猴子们也就慢慢学会了正确的vocalization了。
版本二：讲velvert(应该是这么拼吧)monkey，怎么用vocalization传递捕食者的信息，然后对应不同的应对措施，(1。
地上的什么动物(忘了啊。
)，然后它们就躲到树上面2。
天上飞的老鹰，这个就不会像碰到第一种predator那样躲到树顶，3。
草地里的蛇，说如果召唤到足够的帮手就attack蛇。
)后面还讲那些young monkey使用这种vobal不专业和它们怎么学习这种技巧。
版本三：bio一种猴子Vervet monkey在遇到各种捕猎者时候的向同伴发出的求救信号-大猫-老鹰-蛇还有小猴子学习大猴子模仿;某种猴子会发出三种声音,一种是对付大猫,一种是蛇,一种是鹰,然后说了baby monkey是怎么学会用这种voice alarm的。
这篇文章的主要部分与2002年5月SAT阅读真题内容基本一致，真题原文请见下。
2012年阅读真题解析
2012年试题分析Passage One生词释义1. be popular with sb: 在sb中很受欢迎2. to scorn: （动词）轻视，蔑视=look down uponscornful: (形容词）轻视的3. Los Angeles Unified：洛杉矶联合校区4. across the country: 整个国家= throughout the country5. to revise: 修订，修改6. ritual:（名词）1）仪式，*ancient religious rituals 古代的宗教仪式*the importance of religion and ritual in our lives 我们生活中宗教和仪式的重要性*The lady of the house performs the sacred ritual of lighting two candles.女主人点燃了两根蜡烛，举行了神圣的仪式。
2）（文中含义）惯例* the daily ritual of mealtimes 每天吃饭的惯例* He went through the ritual of lighting his cigar.他习惯性地点了一支烟。
7. flexible: 灵活的，可改变的inflexible: 不可改变的8. to mandate: （及物动词）强制规定* These measures were mandated by the IMF. 国际货币组织强制规定了这些措施。
# mandate that ...规定.....;要求....* Justice mandates that we should treat all candidates equally.正义要求我们平等对待所有的候选人。
9. exception: 例外# with the exception of sth: 除….之外= except* We all laughed, with the exception of Maggie.#without exception 无一例外*Each plant, without exception, contains some kind of salt. 每一种植物都无一例外地含有某种盐。
托福阅读真题第24篇Ancient_Mapmaking（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第24篇Ancient_Mapmaking（答案文章最后）克劳迪乌斯·托勒密（laudius Ptolemy）生活在公元 85 至 168 年间，是一位古老的地图制作者。
这些作品在失传到 15 世纪后在欧洲被重新发现。
他住在埃及的亚历山大，在那里他使用亚历山大著名的图书馆来汇编现有的天文学知识。
地理、占星术分为三类伊斯_ 天文学和地理论文的影响是持久的。
但它们都出现了大约1300 年没有得到纠正的严重错误。
托勒密的天文学著作《天文学大成》否定了阿里斯塔克斯（约公元前230 年）早先提出的地球围绕太阳转的理论。
托勒密的地心说——地球是宇宙的中心——接受了亚里士多德的思想，并形成了他请客。
当托勒密的作品在十五世纪重新浮出水面时，它们被认为是古代智慧的瑰宝，很少有人有胆量或权威来挑战它们。
同样，任何改变托勒密地图的十六世纪地图被怀疑。
在他的另一篇有影响力的论文《地理》中，托勒密拒绝了埃拉托色尼在公元前 240 年左右对地球-地球圆周距离的近乎正确的计算。
相反，他选择了一个错误的、更小的距离（大约是实际大小的75%） . 托勒密本人并没有像埃拉托色尼那样进行任何测量，而是选择性地汇编了当时已知的其他信息。
他选择的估计来自希腊天文学家波塞多尼乌斯。
然而，随后，他的选择被称为托勒密思想，并被认为是无可辩驳的。
此外，托勒密假设已知世界的陆地表面覆盖了从西部的加那利群岛到亚洲最东部的180 度经度（大约20 度经度太多了）。
钍他的上的错误是显示和显示世界各地，连接西东亚的130年大陆。
这结合了他们的一个小手和五个人的周长。
当哥伦布已经到达目的地时，他已经到达了目的地，并在逻辑上认为他成功了。
值得称赞的是，托勒密的地图为地图制作引入了一些出色的标准。
尽管有错误。
虽然他不是第一个使用网格坐标系的想法的人，但他的显示姿态和经度的方法成为未来地图的标准。
托勒密也坚持map应该按比例绘制。
他那个时代的许多地图都被扩大了更知名的地方以包含所有已知信息而被扭曲。
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子就聚众恐吓蛇（有题：聚在一起干嘛？）。
最后说小猴子小时候也会发出警报，但
是不是很准确，看着一片树叶或者鸽子会以为老鹰来了。
然后讲科学家们对猴子的vocalization的研究观察，有说即使没看到predator, 猴
子们听到alarm call也会做出相应的反应。
最后讲年轻的小猴子们是怎么学会vocalization的，老猴子们不会特意去训练小猴
子们。
一开始，小猴子不会识别友善的还是敌对的动物，比如它们可能误以为鹰是友
善的小鸟什么的，但是当它们发出alarm时，老猴子们一般会再巡视下周围，确定是
什么predator, 然后老猴子会发出正确的alarm, 这样，小猴子们也就慢慢学会了正
确的vocalization了。
词汇题：enormous
词汇题：contention, subsequent, rarely, initial, natural, distinguish, indications, extensive, merely, enormous, whereas, restrict等。