B.S结构外文翻译
cpu中央处理器中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料翻译中央处理器设计摘要CPU(中央处理单元)是数字计算机的重要组成部分,其目的是对从内存中接收的指令进行译码，同时对存储于内部寄存器、存储器或输入输出接口单元的数据执行传输、算术运算、逻辑运算以及控制操作。
在外部，CPU为转换指令数据和控制信息提供一个或多个总线并从组件连接到它。
在通用计算机开始的第一章，CPU作为处理器的一部分被屏蔽了。
但是CPU有可能出现在很多电脑之间，小，相对简单的所谓微控制器的计算机被用在电脑和其他数字化系统中，以执行限制或专门任务。
例如，一个微控制器出现在普通电脑的键盘和检测器中，但是这些组件也被屏蔽。
在这种微控制器中，与我们在这一章中所讨论的CPU可能十分不同。
字长也许更短，（或者说4或8个字节），编制数量少，指令集有限。
相对而言，性能差，但对完成任务来说足够了。
最重要的是它的微控制器的成本很低，符合成本效益。
在接下去的几页里，我考虑的是两个计算机的CPU，一个是一个复杂指令集计算机（ CISC），另一个是精简指令集计算机（RISC）。
在详细的设计检查之后，我们比较了两个CPU的性能，并提交了用来提高性能的一些方法的简要概述。
最后，我们讨论了关于一般数字系统设计的设计思路。
1．双CPU的设计正如我们前一章提到的，一个典型的CPU通常被分成两部分：数据路径和控制单元。
该数据路径由一个功能单元、登记册和内部总线组成，为在功能单元、存储器以及其他计算机组件之间提供转移信息的途径。
这个数据途径有可能是流水线，也有可能不是。
控制单元由一个程序计数器，一个指令寄存器，控制逻辑，和可能有其他硬或微程序组成。
如果数据途径是流水线那么控制单元也有可能是流水线。
电脑的CPU是一个部分，要么是复杂指令集计算机（ CISC），要么是精简指令集计算机（RISC），有自己的指令集架构。
本章的目的是提交两个CPU的设计，用来说明指令集，数据路径，和控制单元的构造特征的合并。
该设计将自上而下，但随着先前组件设计的重新使用，来说明指令集构架在数据路径和控制单元上的影响，数据路径上的单元的影响力。
外文翻译---混凝土,钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土
Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.Special cements,special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing.To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process,from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages.Most of the constituent materials,with the exception of cement and additives,are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones,is high,which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones,it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation,it was found possible,in the second half of thenineteenth century,to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.The resulting combination of two materials,known as reinforced concrete,combines many of the advantages of each:the relatively low cost,good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel.It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings,bridges,dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels.Likewise,it is possible to produce concrete4to5times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise.To be sure,the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions.Equally important,the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure.This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel,in the form of wires,strands,or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening,Because of this precompression,the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。
资本结构中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The effect of capital structure on profitability : an empirical analysis of listed firms in Ghana IntroductionThe capital structure decision is crucial for any business organization. The decision is important because of the need to maximize returns to various organizational constituencies, and also because of the impact such a decision has on a firm’s ability to deal with its competitive environment. The capital structure of a firm is actually a mix of different securities. In general, a firm can choose among many alternative capital structures. It can issue a large amount of debt or very little debt. It can arrange lease financing, use warrants, issue convertible bonds, sign forward contracts or trade bond swaps. It can issue dozens of distinct securities in countless combinations; however, it attempts to find the particular combination that maximizes its overall market value.A number of theories have been advanced in explaining the capital structure of firms. Despite the theoretical appeal of capital structure, researchers in financial management have not found the optimal capital structure. The best that academics and practitioners have been able to achieve are prescriptions that satisfy short-term goals. For example, the lack of a consensus about what would qualify as optimal capital structure has necessitated the need for this research. A better understanding of the issues at hand requires a look at the concept of capital structure and its effect on firm profitability. This paper examines the relationship between capital structure and profitability of companies listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange during the period 1998-2002. The effect of capital structure on the profitability of listed firms in Ghana is a scientific area that has not yet been explored in Ghanaian finance literature.The paper is organized as follows. The following section gives a review of the extant literature on the subject. The next section describes the data and justifies the choice of the variables used in the analysis. The model used in the analysis is then estimated. The subsequent section presents and discusses the results of the empirical analysis. Finally, the last section summarizes the findings of the research and also concludes the discussion.Literature on capital structureThe relationship between capital structure and firm value has been the subject of considerable debate. Throughout the literature, debate has centered on whether there is an optimal capital structure for an individual firm or whether the proportion of debt usage is irrelevant to the individual firm’s value. The capital structure of a firm concerns the mix of debt and equity the firm uses in its operation. Brealey and Myers (2003) contend that the choice of capital structure is fundamentally a marketing problem. They state that the firm can issue dozens of distinct securities in countless combinations, but it attempts to find the particular combination that maximizes market value. According to Weston and Brigham (1992), the optimal capital structure is the one that maximizes the market value of the firm’s outstanding shares.Fama and French (1998), analyzing the relationship among taxes, financing decisions, and the firm’s value, concluded that the debt does not concede tax b enefits. Besides, the high leverage degree generates agency problems among shareholders and creditors that predict negative relationships between leverage and profitability. Therefore, negative information relating debt and profitability obscures the tax benefit of the debt. Booth et al. (2001) developed a study attempting to relate the capital structure of several companies in countries with extremely different financial markets. They concluded thatthe variables that affect the choice of the capital structure of the companies are similar, in spite of the great differences presented by the financial markets. Besides, they concluded that profitability has an inverse relationship with debt level and size of the firm. Graham (2000) concluded in his work that big and profitable companies present a low debt rate. Mesquita and Lara (2003) found in their study that the relationship between rates of return and debt indicates a negative relationship for long-term financing. However, they found a positive relationship for short-term financing and equity.Hadlock and James (2002) concluded that companies prefer loan (debt) financing because they anticipate a higher return. Taub (1975) also found significant positive coefficients for four measures of profitability in a regression of these measures against debt ratio. Petersen and Rajan (1994) identified the same association, but for industries. Baker (1973), who worked with a simultaneous equations model, and Nerlove (1968) also found the same type of association for industries. Roden and Lewellen (1995) found a significant positive association between profitability and total debt as a percentage of the total buyout-financing package in their study on leveraged buyouts. Champion (1999) suggested that the use of leverage was one way to improve the performance of an organization.In summary, there is no universal theory of the debt-equity choice. Different views have been put forward regarding the financing choice. The present study investigates the effect of capital structure on profitability of listed firms on the GSE.MethodologyThis study sampled all firms that have been listed on the GSE over a five-year period (1998-2002). Twenty-two firms qualified to be included in the study sample. Variables used for the analysis include profitability and leverage ratios. Profitability is operationalized using a commonly used accounting-based measure: the ratio of earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) to equity. The leverage ratios used include:. short-term debt to the total capital;. long-term debt to total capital;. total debt to total capital.Firm size and sales growth are also included as control variables.The panel character of the data allows for the use of panel data methodology. Panel data involves the pooling of observations on a cross-section of units over several time periods and provides results that are simply not detectable in pure cross-sections or pure time-series studies. A general model for panel data that allows the researcher to estimate panel data with great flexibility and formulate the differences in the behavior of thecross-section elements is adopted. The relationship between debt and profitability is thus estimated in the following regression models:ROE i,t =β0 +β1SDA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (1) ROE i,t=β0 +β1LDA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (2) ROE i,t=β0 +β1DA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (3)where:. ROE i,t is EBIT divided by equity for firm i in time t;. SDA i,t is short-term debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. LDA i,t is long-term debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. DA i,t is total debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. SIZE i,t is the log of sales for firm i in time t;. SG i,t is sales growth for firm i in time t; and. ëi,t is the error term.Empirical resultsTable I provides a summary of the descriptive statistics of the dependent and independent variables for the sample of firms. This shows the average indicators of variables computed from the financial statements. The return rate measured by return on equity (ROE) reveals an average of 36.94 percent with median 28.4 percent. This picture suggests a good performance during the period under study. The ROE measures the contribution of net income per cedi (local currency) invested by the firms’ stockholders; a measure of the efficiency of the owners’ invested capital. The variable SDA measures the ratio of short-term debt to total capital. The average value of this variable is 0.4876 with median 0.4547. The value 0.4547 indicates that approximately 45 percent of total assets are represented by short-term debts, attesting to the fact that Ghanaian firms largely depend on short-term debt for financing their operations due to the difficulty in accessing long-term credit from financial institutions. Another reason is due to the under-developed nature of the Ghanaian long-term debt market. The ratio of total long-term debt to total assets (LDA) also stands on average at 0.0985. Total debt to total capital ratio(DA) presents a mean of 0.5861. This suggests that about 58 percent of total assets are financed by debt capital. The above position reveals that the companies are financially leveraged with a large percentage of total debt being short-term.Table I.Descriptive statisticsMean SD Minimum Median Maximum━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ROE 0.3694 0.5186 -1.0433 0.2836 3.8300SDA 0.4876 0.2296 0.0934 0.4547 1.1018LDA 0.0985 0.1803 0.0000 0.0186 0.7665DA 0.5861 0.2032 0.2054 0.5571 1.1018SIZE 18.2124 1.6495 14.1875 18.2361 22.0995SG 0.3288 0.3457 20.7500 0.2561 1.3597━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Regression analysis is used to investigate the relationship between capital structure and profitability measured by ROE. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression results are presented in Table II. The results from the regression models (1), (2), and (3) denote that the independent variables explain the debt ratio determinations of the firms at 68.3, 39.7, and 86.4 percent, respectively. The F-statistics prove the validity of the estimated models. Also, the coefficients are statistically significant in level of confidence of 99 percent.The results in regression (1) reveal a significantly positive relationship between SDA and profitability. This suggests that short-term debt tends to be less expensive, and therefore increasing short-term debt with a relatively low interest rate will lead to an increase in profit levels. The results also show that profitability increases with the control variables (size and sales growth). Regression (2) shows a significantly negative association between LDA and profitability. This implies that an increase in the long-term debt position is associated with a decrease in profitability. This is explained by the fact that long-term debts are relatively more expensive, and therefore employing high proportions of them could lead to low profitability. The results support earlier findings by Miller (1977), Fama and French (1998), Graham (2000) and Booth et al. (2001). Firm size and sales growth are again positively related to profitability.The results from regression (3) indicate a significantly positive association between DA and profitability. The significantly positive regression coefficient for total debt implies that an increase in the debt position is associated with an increase in profitability: thus, the higher the debt, the higher the profitability. Again, this suggests that profitable firms depend more on debt as their main financing option. This supports the findings of Hadlock and James (2002), Petersen and Rajan (1994) and Roden and Lewellen (1995) that profitable firms use more debt. In the Ghanaian case, a high proportion (85 percent)of debt is represented by short-term debt. The results also show positive relationships between the control variables (firm size and sale growth) and profitability.Table II.Regression model results━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Profitability (EBIT/equity)Ordinary least squares━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Variable 1 2 3SIZE 0.0038 (0.0000) 0.0500 (0.0000) 0.0411 (0.0000)SG 0.1314 (0.0000) 0.1316 (0.0000) 0.1413 (0.0000)SDA 0.8025 (0.0000)LDA -0.3722(0.0000)DA -0.7609(0.0000)R²0.6825 0.3968 0.8639SE 0.4365 0.4961 0.4735Prob. (F) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ConclusionsThe capital structure decision is crucial for any business organization. The decision is important because of the need to maximize returns to various organizational constituencies, and also because of the impact such a decision has on an organization’s ability to deal with its competitive environment. This present study evaluated the relationship between capital structure and profitability of listed firms on the GSE during a five-year period (1998-2002). The results revealed significantly positive relation between SDA and ROE, suggesting that profitable firms use more short-term debt to finance their operation. Short-term debt is an important component or source of financing for Ghanaian firms, representing 85 percent of total debt financing. However, the results showed a negative relationship between LDA and ROE. With regard to the relationship between total debt and profitability, the regression results showed a significantly positive association between DA and ROE. This suggests that profitable firms depend more on debt as their main financing option. In the Ghanaian case, a high proportion (85 percent) of the debt is represented in short-term debt.译文加纳上市公司资本结构对盈利能力的实证研究论文简介资本结构决策对于任何商业组织都是至关重要的。
工程管理专业外文文献翻译(中英文)【精选文档】
xxxxxx 大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works项目成本控制：它的工作方式学院（系）: xxxxxxxxxxxx专业: xxxxxxxx学生姓名: xxxxx学号： xxxxxxxxxx指导教师： xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学项目成本控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的,仍有一些缺乏理解。
所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的.理论上，项目成本控制不是很难跟随。
首先，建立一组参考基线。
然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作,分析研究结果,预测最终结果并比较参考基准。
如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行的工作进行必要的调整，并在合适的时间间隔重复。
如果最终的结果确实不符合基线计划，你可能不得不改变计划.更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有范围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线计划。
但在实践中，项目成本控制要困难得多，通过项目数量无法控制成本也证明了这一点。
正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开始启用它。
所以，要跟随项目成本控制在整个项目的生命周期.同时，我们会利用这一机会来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。
其中包括商业案例，请求（资本)拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程（或摘要),项目预算或成本计划、挣值和成本基线。
所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制项目成本的能力。
业务用例和应用程序（执行）的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于项目应如何通过项目生命周期展开有很好的理解时,项目成本控制才是最有效的。
这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。
他们还必须识别项目风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并计划阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。
在项目的概念阶段•每个项目始于确定的机会或需要的人.通常是有着重要性和影响力的人,如果项目继续,这个人往往成为项目的赞助。
【建筑】高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译中英文
【关键字】建筑高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Structural Engineer Journal of the Institution of Structural Engineer, 2014, 92, pp: 26-29.英文原文Talling building and Steel constructionCollins MarkAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings. and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the (1974) in .Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all columnelement can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in . The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story building inColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in , using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story in has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of (), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at () centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and aninterior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to desi gn the world’s present tallest ( or )lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story in is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, , , West German, , and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the , built in cast iron over the Severn River in in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet () long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of built the for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the in . In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the , also known as the , in (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than (). In , the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some () in diameter and () long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower () high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a engineer , had designed the , ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in and . Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to . ( ) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the , was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and c olumns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the in , where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The ’s 102 stories (. []) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at , supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the , and has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文译文高层结构与钢结构作者：Collins Mark近年来,尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步,但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
结构设计--中英文翻译
外文翻译结构设计结构设计Augustine J.Fredrich摘要：结构设计是选择材料和构件类型，大小和形状以安全有用的样式承担荷载。
一般说来，结构设计暗指结构物如建筑物和桥或是可移动但有刚性外壳如船体和飞机框架的工厂稳定性。
设计的移动时彼此相连的设备（连接件），一般被安排在机械设计领域。
关键词：结构设计；结构分析；结构方案；工程要求Abstract: Structure design is the selection of materials and member type ,size, and configuration to carry loads in a safe and serviceable fashion .In general ,structural design implies the engineering of stationary objects such as buildings and bridges ,or objects that maybe mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship hulls and aircraft frames. Devices with parts planned to move with relation to each other(linkages) are generally assigned to the area of mechanical .Key words: Structure Design ；Structural analysis ；structural scheme ；Project requirementsStructure DesignStructural design involved at least five distinct phases of work: project requirements, materials, structural scheme, analysis, and design. For unusualstructures or materials a six phase, testing, should be included. These phases do not proceed in a rigid progression , since different materials can be most effective in different schemes , testing can result in change to a design , and a final design is often reached by starting with a rough estimated design , then looping through several cycles of analysis and redesign . Often, several alternative designs will prove quite close in cost, strength, and serviceability. The structural engineer, owner, or end user would then make a selection based on other considerations.Project requirements. Before starting design, the structural engineer must determine the criteria for acceptable performance. The loads or forces to be resisted must be provided. For specialized structures, this may be given directly, as when supporting a known piece of machinery, or a crane of known capacity. For conventional buildings, buildings codes adopted on a municipal, county , or , state level provide minimum design requirements for live loads (occupants and furnishings , snow on roofs , and so on ). The engineer will calculate dead loads (structural and known, permanent installations ) during the design process.For the structural to be serviceable or useful , deflections must also be kept within limits ,since it is possible for safe structural to be uncomfortable “bounce”Very tight deflection limits are set on supports for machinery , since beam sag can cause drive shafts to bend , bearing to burn out , parts to misalign , and overhead cranes to stall . Limitations of sag less than span /1000 ( 1/1000 of the beam length ) are not uncommon . In conventional buildings, beams supporting ceilings often have sag limits of span /360 to avoid plaster cracking, or span /240 to avoid occupant concern (keep visual perception limited ). Beam stiffness also affects floor “bounciness,” which can be annoying if not controlled. In addition , lateral deflection , sway , or drift of tall buildings is often held within approximately height /500 (1/500 of the building height ) to minimize the likelihood of motion discomfort in occupants of upper floors on windy days .Member size limitations often have a major effect on the structural design. For example, a certain type of bridge may be unacceptable because of insufficient under clearance for river traffic, or excessive height endangering aircraft. In building design,ceiling heights and floor-to-floor heights affect the choice of floor framing. Wall thicknesses and column sizes and spacing may also affect the serviceability of various framing schemes.Materials selection. Technological advances have created many novel materials such as carbon fiber and boron fiber-reinforced composites, which have excellent strength, stiffness, and strength-to-weight properties. However, because of the high cost and difficult or unusual fabrication techniques required , they are used only in very limited and specialized applications . Glass-reinforced composites such as fiberglass are more common, but are limited to lightly loaded applications. The main materials used in structural design are more prosaic and include steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete, wood , and masonry .Structural schemes. In an actual structural, various forces are experienced by structural members , including tension , compression , flexure (bending ), shear ,and torsion (twist) . However, the structural scheme selected will influence which of these forces occurs most frequently, and this will influence the process of materials selection.Tension is the most efficient way to resist applied loads ,since the entire member cross section is acting to full capacity and bucking is not a concern . Any tension scheme must also included anchorages for the tension members . In a suspension bridge , for example ,the anchorages are usually massive dead weights at the ends of the main cables . To avoid undesirable changes in geometry under moving or varying loads , tension schemes also generally require stiffening beams or trusses.Compression is the next most efficient method for carrying loads . The full member cross section is used ,but must be designed to avoid bucking ,either by making the member stocky or by adding supplementary bracing . Domed and arched buildings ,arch bridges and columns in buildings frames are common schemes . Arches create lateral outward thrusts which must be resisted . This can be done by designing appropriate foundations or , where the arch occurs above the roadway or floor line , by using tension members along the roadway to tie the arch endstogether ,keeping them from spreading . Compression members weaken drastically when loads are not applied along the member axis , so moving , variable , and unbalanced loads must be carefully considered.Schemes based on flexure are less efficient than tension and compression ,since the flexure or bending is resisted by one side of the member acting in tension while the other side acts in compression . Flexural schemes such as beams , girders , rigid frames , and moment (bending ) connected frames have advantages in requiring no external anchorages or thrust restrains other than normal foundations ,and inherent stiffness and resistance to moving ,variable , and unbalanced loads .Trusses are an interesting hybrid of the above schemes . They are designed to resist loads by spanning in the manner of a flexural member, but act to break up the load into a series of tension and compression forces which are resisted by individually designed tension and have excellent stiffness and resistance to moving and variable loads . Numerous member-to-member connections, supplementary compression braces ,and a somewhat cluttered appearance are truss disadvantages .Plates and shells include domes ,arched vaults ,saw tooth roofs , hyperbolic paraboloids , and saddle shapes .Such schemes attempt to direct all force along the plane of the surface ,and act largely in shear . While potentially very efficient ,such schemes have very strict limitations on geometry and are poor in resisting point ,moving , and unbalanced loads perpendicular to the surface.Stressed-skin and monologue construction uses the skin between stiffening ribs ,spars ,or columns to resist shear or axial forces . Such design is common in airframes for planes and rockets, and in ship hulls . it has also been used to advantage in buildings. Such a design is practical only when the skin is a logical part of the design and is never to be altered or removed .For bridges , short spans are commonly girders in flexure . As spans increase and girder depth becomes unwieldy , trusses are often used ,as well as cablestayed schemes .Longer spans may use arches where foundation conditions ,under clearance ,or headroom requirements are favorable .The longest spans are handled exclusively by suspension schemes ,since these minimize the crucial dead weight andcan be erected wire by wire .For buildings, short spans are handled by slabs in flexure .As spans increase, beams and girders in flexure are used . Longer spans require trusses ,especially in industrial buildings with possible hung loads . Domes ,arches , and cable-suspended and air –supported roofs can be used over convention halls and arenas to achieve clear areas .Structural analysis . Analysis of structures is required to ensure stability (static equilibrium ) ,find the member forces to be resisted ,and determine deflections . It requires that member configuration , approximate member sizes ,and elastic modulus ; linearity ; and curvature and plane sections . Various methods are used to complete the analysis .Final design . once a structural has been analyzed (by using geometry alone if the analysis is determinate , or geometry plus assumed member sizes and materials if indeterminate ), final design can proceed . Deflections and allowable stresses or ultimate strength must be checked against criteria provided either by the owner or by the governing building codes . Safety at working loads must be calculated . Several methods are available ,and the choice depends on the types of materials that will be used .Pure tension members are checked by dividing load by cross-section area .Local stresses at connections ,such as bolt holes or welds ,require special attention . Where axial tension is combined with bending moment ,the sum of stresses is compared to allowance levels . Allowable : stresses in compression members are dependent on the strength of material, elastic modulus ,member slenderness ,and length between bracing points . Stocky members are limited by materials strength ,while slender members are limited by elastic bucking .Design of beams can be checked by comparing a maximum bending stress to an allowable stress , which is generally controlled by the strength of the material, but may be limited if the compression side of the beam is not well braced against bucking .Design of beam-columns ,or compression members with bending moment ,mustconsider two items . First ,when a member is bowed due to an applied moment ,adding axial compression will cause the bow to increase .In effect ,the axial load has magnified the original moment .Second ,allowable stresses for columns and those for beams are often quite different .Members that are loaded perpendicular to their long axis, such as beams and beam-columns, also must carry shear. Shear stresses will occur in a direction to oppose the applied load and also at right angles to it to tie the various elements of the beam together. They are compared to an allowable shear stress. These procedures can also be used to design trusses, which are assemblies of tension and compression members. Lastly, deflections are checked against the project criteria using final member sizes.Once a satisfactory scheme has been analyzed and designed to be within project criteria, the information must be presented for fabrication and construction. This is commonly done through drawings, which indicate all basic dimensions, materials, member sizes, the anticipated loads used in design, and anticipated forces to be carried through connections.结构设计结构设计包含至少5个不同方面的工作：工程要求，材料，结构方案，分析和设计。
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)由一个单一的存储/检索机服务的多巷道自动化立体仓库存在的拣选分拣问题摘要随着现代化科技的发展，仓库式存储系统在设计与运行方面出现了巨大的改革。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS）嵌入计算机驱动正变得越来越普遍。
由于AS / RS 使用的增加对计算机控制的需要与支持也在提高。
这项研究解决了在多巷道立体仓库的拣选问题，在这种存储/检索（S / R）操作中，每种货物可以在多个存储位置被寻址到。
提出运算方法的目标是，通过S/R系统拣选货物来最大限度的减少行程时间。
我们开发的遗传式和启发式算法，以及通过比较从大量的问题中得到一个最佳的解决方案。
关键词：自动化立体仓库，AS / RS系统，拣选，遗传算法。
1.言在现今的生产环境中，库存等级保持低于过去。
那是因为这种较小的存储系统不仅降低库存量还增加了拣选货物的速度。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS），一方面通过提供快速响应，来达到高操作效率；另一方面它还有助于运作方面的系统响应时间，减少的拣选完成的总行程时间。
因此，它常被用于制造业、储存仓库和分配设备等行业中。
拣选是仓库检索功能的基本组成部分。
它的主要目的是，在预先指定的地点中选择适当数量的货物以满足客户拣选要求。
虽然拣选操作仅仅是物体在仓储中装卸操作之一，但它却是“最耗时间和花费最大的仓储功能。
许多情形下，仓储盈利的高低就在于是否能将拣选操作运行处理好”。
（Bozer和White）Ratliff和Rosenthal，他们关于自动化立体仓库系统（AS/RS）的拣选问题进行的研究，发明了基图算法，在阶梯式布局中选取最短的访问路径。
Roodbergen 和de Koster 拓展了Ratliff 和Rosenthal算法。
他们认为，在平行巷道拣选问题上，应该穿越巷道末端和中间端进行拣选，就此他们发明了一种动态的规划算法解决这问题。
就此Van den Berg 和Gademann发明了一种运输模型(TP)，它是对于指定的存储和卸载进行测算的仪器。
RuC高压相变的第一性原理计算外文翻译及原文
本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文学生姓名：院（系）：材料科学与工程专业班级：材料1101指导教师：完成日期：2015年3月1日要求1、外文翻译是毕业设计（论文）的主要内容之一，必须学生独立完成。
2、外文翻译译文内容应与学生的专业或毕业设计（论文）内容相关，不得少于15000印刷符号。
3.外文翻译译文用A4纸打印。
文章标题用3号宋体，章节标题用4号宋体，正文用小4号宋体，20磅行距；页边距上、下、左、右均为2.5cm，左侧装订，装订线0.5cm。
按中文翻译在上，外文原文在下的顺序装订。
4、年月日等的填写，用阿拉伯数字书写，要符合《关于出版物上数字用法的试行规定》，如“2005年2月26日”。
5、所有签名必须手写，不得打印。
RuC高压相变的第一性原理计算First-principle calculations of high-pressure phasetransformations in RuC作者：Jian Hao, Xiao Tang, Wenjing Li, Yinwei Li起止页码：46004-p1~p5出版日期（期刊号）：EPL, 105 (2014) 46004,2014年2月27日出版单位：IOP, EPL (Europhysics Letters)摘要- 使用第一原理计算在高压下RuC的结构稳定性。
结果表明，在9.3GPa的压力下，RuC从ZB型（闪锌矿型）结构转变为空间群为I4mm的四面体结构。
通过RuC5金字塔构造的I4mm结构的稳定性达26GPa，在更高压力下，则更有利成为WC型结构。
观察到伴随ZB型→ I4mm → WC型的相序，配位数增加从4至5，然后至6。
能带结构的计算表明，ZB型相是半导体，而I4mm和WC型相是金属。
此外，对所有三个阶段的RuC的机械特性进行了讨论。
简介-经压缩，由于原子间相互作用的变化和电子密度的再分配，化合物通常经历若干次相变。
结构的变化也因此可以引起物理性质的剧烈变化[1]。
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)使用高级分析法的钢框架创新设计1．导言在美国，钢结构设计方法包括允许应力设计法(ASD)，塑性设计法(PD)和荷载阻力系数设计法(LRFD)。
在允许应力设计中，应力计算基于一阶弹性分析，而几何非线性影响则隐含在细部设计方程中。
在塑性设计中，结构分析中使用的是一阶塑性铰分析。
塑性设计使整个结构体系的弹性力重新分配。
尽管几何非线性和逐步高产效应并不在塑性设计之中，但它们近似细部设计方程。
在荷载和阻力系数设计中，含放大系数的一阶弹性分析或单纯的二阶弹性分析被用于几何非线性分析，而梁柱的极限强度隐藏在互动设计方程。
所有三个设计方法需要独立进行检查，包括系数K计算。
在下面，对荷载抗力系数设计法的特点进行了简要介绍。
结构系统内的内力及稳定性和它的构件是相关的，但目前美国钢结构协会（AISC）的荷载抗力系数规范把这种分开来处理的。
在目前的实际应用中，结构体系和它构件的相互影响反映在有效长度这一因素上。
这一点在社会科学研究技术备忘录第五录摘录中有描述。
尽管结构最大内力和构件最大内力是相互依存的（但不一定共存），应当承认，严格考虑这种相互依存关系，很多结构是不实际的。
与此同时，众所周知当遇到复杂框架设计中试图在柱设计时自动弥补整个结构的不稳定（例如通过调整柱的有效长度）是很困难的。
因此，社会科学研究委员会建议在实际设计中，这两方面应单独考虑单独构件的稳定性和结构的基础及结构整体稳定性。
图28.1就是这种方法的间接分析和设计方法。
在目前的美国钢结构协会荷载抗力系数规范中，分析结构体系的方法是一阶弹性分析或二阶弹性分析。
在使用一阶弹性分析时，考虑到二阶效果，一阶力矩都是由B1,B2系数放大。
在规范中，所有细部都是从结构体系中独立出来，他们通过细部内力曲线和规范给出的那些隐含二阶效应，非弹性，残余应力和挠度的相互作用设计的。
理论解答和实验性数据的拟合曲线得到了柱曲线和梁曲线，同时Kanchanalai发现的所谓“精确”塑性区解决方案的拟合曲线确定了梁柱相互作用方程。
图纸常见外文翻译
Takto oznacene plochy +0.5mm k souboru dat
Plochy, urcujici polohu pro nadrazene sestavy 做过该标记的表面+0.5mm，此记录的规定表面是为了更好的总体构造。
Nicht bemasste Beschnittradien R (5+1)mm 未注明尺寸的极边缘半径 R (5+1)mm
errechnet/calculated 计重
Gewogen/ actual 实际的 Versuch/prototype 试生产 Fertigung/ production 生产
Sicherh..-Dok./ Safety doc. 安全
Benennung 命名 Maszstab/ Scale 比例
Typ-Pruef-Dok. und Typ-Pruef-Nr
Type-appr.-doc. nd
Type approval number 批准类型文件和批准类型编号。
CAD-System und Verwaltungssystem-Schluessel
CAD-System and administration code 计算机辅助系统监控号码
Anlageflaeche fuer Fuehrungsprofil / Dosedaci plocha pro Vodici profil 导向支承面 Anlageflaeche fuer Schottplatte / Dosedaci plocha pro Deska oddelovaci 隔板面 Beschnitt-und Formtoleranzen in diesem Bereich + 1.5 / Tolerance orezu a tvaru v teto oblasti + 1.5 边缘形状公差范围 + 1.5 Anlageflaeche fuer Scheinwerfer / Dosedaci plocha pro Svetlomet 大灯截面 Anlageflaeche fuer Traeger Stoss.vorn / Dosedaci plocha pro Nosnik pr. narazniku 托架接合点面 Schveissmutter positionieren/Matice polohovat 焊接螺位置 Schnitt/Rez 截 面 Fuehrungsprofil/ Vodici profil 导 向 支 承 Schraube/Sroub 螺 丝 Scheinwerfer/Svetlomet 支撑螺母 Die physische Mitte des Lochs liegt im Walzen von Durchschnitt 0.8mm auf der Achse, die das Gewinde der Einschweissmutter festlegt. Fyzicky stred otvoru lezi ve valci o prumeru 0.8 mm vytvorenem na ose, kterou stanovi zavit
关于单片机,PLC翻译外文和外文资料
微处理器微处理器是在单芯片上制造的完整的运算引擎。
首片微处理器是1971年出现的Intel4004。
4004的功能不强，它仅可以完成加法和减法，而且一次只能处理4 比特数据。
但是它的惊人之处在于所有的功能都位于一片芯片上。
在4004 出现之前，工程师要用一组芯片或者分立元件构建计算机。
4004 推动了便携式电子计算器的发展。
首片用于家用计算机的微处理器是Intel8080。
8080是1974年出现的单片8位计算机上。
首片在市场上引起轰动的微处理器是1979年出现并用于IBM PC机中的Intel8088。
PC市场从8088，80286，80386，80486发展到奔腾I、奔腾II、奔腾III、和奔腾IV。
这些微处理器全是由英特尔公司制造的，而且全都是在8088设计的基础上改进得来的。
奔腾IV可以执行任何一段曾在8088上运行的代码，但运行速度要快约5000倍。
下表展示了多年来英特从上表可以看出：在时钟速度和MIPS之间一般都存在着某种联系。
最高时钟速度是由生产工艺和片内延迟（两个因素）决定的。
在（片内）晶体管数量和MIPS之间也存在着某种关系。
例如：时钟频率为5MHZ的8088的运行速度只有0.033MIPS（大约每15个时钟周期执行一条指令），现代处理器常见的运行速度为每个时钟周期运行2条指令。
运行速度的提高和片内的晶体管数量有直接的关系。
微处理器内部结构微处理器执行一组机器指令。
这些指令告诉微处理器去做什么。
根据这些指令，微处理器能够完成如下三项基本任务。
1.微处理器使用其ALU（算术/逻辑单元）可以完成如加、减、乘、除等数学运算。
现代微处理包含完整的浮点处理器。
（这些处理器）可以对大量的浮点数据进行极其复杂的运算。
2.微处理器可以将数据从存储器的一个位置搬移到另一个位置。
3.微处理器可以做出判断，并根据这些判断跳转到一组新的指令。
一个微处理器可以做非常复杂的工作，但上述三项是最基本的。
下图展示了一个能够完成上述三项工作的最简单的微处理器。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
模具外文资料翻译
附件1：外文资料翻译译文注塑模具设计系统中侧向分型特征的识别摘要在塑料模具的设计中，破坏特征的存在将会影响到模具的成本和结构。
简要说明侧向分型的定义、分类的特点及相关概念,以以比较容易识别的使用方法。
通过该侧向分型特征定义、分类侧向分型之间的关系,特点及其作用的简要论述，明确了侧向分型的定义特征参数及计算方法。
V-maps介绍了侧向分型的特点，范围，方向和侧向分型的特征。
由于侧向分型的特点可以部分的确认其识别方法。
考虑到混合表面,由于实际结构和虚拟结构有第一相邻表面,所以对实际和虚拟的边缘也提出了建议。
,对于破坏特征识别准则进行讨论后，破坏特征,可被持续不断地认识。
工业案例研究表明，在复杂的注射模部分，该方法的发展能有效的识别和提取侧向分型特征。
关键词:侧向分型;特征识别计算机辅助设计;注射模具的设计1 介绍模具制造是一个重要的支柱产业,因为他们在消费产品种超过70%的非标准部件的消费产品。
在模具的生产运行过程中,通常会有极小的尺寸和极大的品种。
保证较短的订货时间的需求，较高的设计和制造和综合素质以及可以快速改变设计上的瓶颈,已成为模具行业对模具公司保持竞争力的优势。
偶有迫切需要缩短交货的时间的设计，就需要生产设计过程中使用先进的自动化生产设备,先进的加工工艺,并且提高员工的技术水平。
目前,一些模具公司使用三维商业CAD软件工具设计模具,然而,许多公司仍然在设计当中,模具手动操作时,容易出错。
开发的一种计算机辅助注射模设计系统(CAIMDS)就成为了工业产业、学术界研究的焦点。
2. 侧向分型的定义与分类特征在模具的凹模,例如当凹穴、槽孔的口袋和漏洞是潜在的特征;而凸模,例如缸、锥和球体同样可以是侧向分型的特点。
如果腔和他们的插入不能塑造侧向分型特征,侧向凸板或侧向凹板或其他的工具必须与模具结构相适应。
在图1,有三种侧向分型,特点是乙、丙在塑造的部分。
如果那离别的方向图中选择,那么侧向分型可以被塑造特色的核心内容,但侧向分型特点B和C不能被塑造并且插入,前提为凸板和凹板均已成型。
外文翻译---资本结构,股利政策,跨国经营：理论与实证研究
中文3677字外文翻译原文：Capital structure, dividend policy, and multinational: Theory versusempirical evidence3.1.Factors influencing capital structure and dividend policyIt is important to examine the factors that impact capital structure and dividend policy so that appropriate control variables can be included in the examination of the impact of multinational on capital structure and dividend policy. The list of these control variables must be based on extant theories and empirical evidence related to capital structure and dividend policy. Theories in these areas generally start with the well known results presented in Modigliani and Miller (1958) note that in an efficient markets world with no taxes or bankruptcy costs, the value of a firm is invariant to its capital structure. This theory has since been modified and extended so that capital structure does matter to include not only the impact of taxes and bankruptcy costs, but also the real world costs related to agency problems, asymmetric information, moral hazard, and other frictions and deviations from perfect markets.3.1.1. Operating leverage and other influencesThe operating leverage of a firm reflects its business risk. Firms with higher operating leverage face higher bankruptcy probabilities and should have lower financial leverage. However, higher operating leverage is generally associated with higher levels of fixed tangible assets — indeed the proportion of such assets is widely used in the literature as a measure of operating leverage. A firm's level of fixed assets should be associated positively with leverage as high levels of such assets can be used as collateral for loans (Friend & Lang, 1988; Long & Malitz, 1985). Jensen, Solberg, and Zorn (1992) provide empirical support for the positive impact on leverage of assets available for collateral. The non-debt tax shield variable is also important as firms with high levels of non-debt tax shields are expected to have lower debt levels (Kim & Sorensen, 1986). Due to institutional practices, herding among managers,bankers, and financiers, and their influence of firm risk, capital structure and dividend policy can also be expected to vary with firm size and industry classification.3.1.2. Trade-off theoriesIn the trade-off theory, capital structure decisions of firms depend on benefits and costs of using more debt. Less debt is used if the cost of bankruptcy is higher than the tax shield or other benefits of using debt (Kim & Sorensen, 1986; Graham, 2000). Therefore, the trade-off theory suggests a negative relationship between leverage and bankruptcy costs and a positive relationship between leverage and firm's marginal tax rate(Lasfer, 1995; Cloyd, Limberg, & Robinson, 1997). According to Rozeff (1982), riskier firms pay out lower dividends indicating a negative relationship between dividends, bankruptcy costs, and the amount of debt used by a firm.3.1.3. Impact of agency costsAvailability of free cash flow creates an agency problem since managers can use some of the free cash available for their own benefit, thereby decreasing the value of the firm (Jensen & Meckling, 1976). To protect against this managerial sub-optimal behavior, firms with higher level of cash flow should use higher leverage. The asymmetric information model of Ross (1977) also notes that there should be a positive relationship between use debt and the firm's profitability. Agency theory also indicates that firms with higher growth opportunities will hold less debt controlling for profitability and Stulz (1990)notes that due to the under-investment problem, firms with high growth opportunities should hold less debt. Chang (1992) contends that firms with high profitability use more debt in its capital structure controlling for investment opportunities.The agency issue in dividend payout decisions is similar to capital structure decisions in the presence of agency costs. In agency model of Jensen and Meckling (1976) and Jensen (1986), dividends and debt help control the agency costs of overinvestment if there are conflicts of interests between managers and stockholders. Thus, agency costs predict a positive relation between firm's free cash flow and payment of dividends. According to the signaling hypothesis of Ross (1977),firms with high profitability will also pay out more dividends as costly credible signals.However, firms with higher growth opportunities will pay out less dividends especially when there is an available alternative (debt) as a monitoring technique (Easterbrook, 1984).3.1.4. Pecking order theoryThe pecking order model (Myers & Majluf, 1984) contends that because of transaction costs and information asymmetry, firms finance new investments first with retained earnings, then successively with safe debt, risky debt and finally with equity. According to this pecking order model, more profitable firms should have lower leverage and lower short-term, but not long-term, payout controlling for investment opportunities. In a simple version of the pecking order model, firms with high investment and growth opportunities are predicted to have high leverage (on the condition that investment is more than the internal capital). In a more complex version of pecking order model, firms with high investment and growth opportunity will carry low leverage taking into consideration current as well as future financing costs. In contrast with the agency theory of free cash flow, Myers and Majluf (1984) predict that leverage decreases with the higher level of free cash flow. Pecking order theory also predicts that firms with high future growth opportunities should pay out lower dividends. Shyam-Sunder and Myers (1999) introduce a funding deficit model to test the pecking order hypothesis of firm's capital structure. They argue that, except for firms at or near their debt capacity, pecking order predicts that the deficits will be filled entirely with new debt issues. Therefore, we can expect a positive relationship between funding deficit and leverage assuming that the firms are still below their debt capacity.3.2.Interdependence between capital structure and dividend policyMany of the factors discussed above have been shown to influence not only capital structure but also dividend policy. Easterbrook (1984)documents that dividends exists because they induce firms to float new securities suggesting that firm's dividend decisions linked to firm's financing decisions. Intuitively, it is clear that the firm's payout ratio determines its retention ratio and, thus, its capital structure. Further, given the empirical evidence in support of the pecking order theory, corporatedebt levels should be related to the cash flows retained by a firm and to its dividend policy. Indeed, because of the interdependence between dividend policy and capital structure, empirical studies of capital structure, including those that focus on the impact of firm multinational, are most likely miss-specified unless they include an assessment of dividend policy.There is considerable evidence of this interdependence between dividends and capital structure. For example, consistent with the pecking order hypothesis, Adedeji (1998) suggests that if firms respond to earnings shortages by borrowing to pay dividends because of reluctance to cut dividends, financial leverage may have a positive relationship with dividend payout ratio, and a positive or negative relationship with investments depending on whether firms borrow to finance investments or postpone/reduce the investments. This hypothesized positive relationship between debt and dividend payout is empirically confirmed in Baskin (1989). Thus, according to pecking order hypothesis, corporate capital structure is positively related to its dividend policy.On the other hand, Jensen (1986) hypothesizes that dividends and debt are substitute mechanisms for controlling agency costs of free cash flows. Empirical finding of Agrawal and Jayaraman (1994) supports Jensen's hypothesis. They find that dividend payout ratios of a sample of all equity firms are significantly higher than those of a control group of levered firms. Jensen et al. (1992) posits that firms with high dividend payouts might find debt financing less attractive than equity financing leading to a negative relation between debt and dividends. As noted in the comprehensive survey on payout policy by Allen and Michaely (2002), firms also might not want to pay high dividends when they are obligated to pay high levels of other fixed finance charges.Thus, while the direction of the debt ratio–dividend policy relationship is not clear, it is clear that corporate capital structure is determined simultaneously with its dividend policy. Consequently, any examination of the impact of multinational on capital structure must account for the impact of dividend policy. Recognizing the endogenous nature of some of the variables being tested, some studies do usesimultaneous equation models to study the interdependence between capital structure and dividend payout ratios of U.S. firms. Noronha, Shome, and Morgan (1996) apply three-stage least squares (3SLS) tests to investigate the simultaneity between dividend and capital structure decisions of the U.S. firms for the period of 1986–1988 and find that the debt–dividend simultaneity is observed empirically only for the sub sample in which the monitoring rationale for dividends is appropriate. However, they do not examine the capital structure-dividend policy interdependence for multinational firms.As this brief review shows, capital structure and dividend policy are likely to be determined simultaneously in practice. A study of the relationship between capital structure and firm multinational must therefore include variables that determine both debt ratios and dividend payout ratios. Based on the theoretical and empirical evidences on capital structure and dividend policy, we enumerate the specific variables used here in estimating the relationship between debt, dividends, and firm multinational.3.3.Variables influencing capital structure and dividend policyBus Risk used as a measure of business risk, is calculated as the standard deviation of the ratio of the first difference of EBIT and the average total asset over the past five-years (as in Jensen et al., 1992).Beta is used as an alternative measure of firm risk as a determinant of dividend payout (as in Rozeff, 1982). The degree of operating leverage (DOL) is also used as a measure of business risk and is calculated as the average of the annual percentage change in EBIT divided by the percentage change in sales. Tax Rate (Tax Rate) is used as measure of tax benefits from the interest payments.Agency and under-investment problems indicate that firms with higher growth opportunities (measured by the market-to-book ratio, MTB) will hold less debt controlling for profitability. In addition, Chang (1992) predicts that firms with high profitability (ROA) use more debt in its capital structure controlling for investment opportunities. Firm's uniqueness (UNQ) in term of R&D and advertising expenses ratio proxies also for agency cost because the external stakeholders faces larger costs of monitoring when the more of the investment is in intangibles as such investmentslead to under investment problems and agency costs (Long & Malitz, 1985). Funding deficit (FundDef) is a measure of agency costs. According to Shyam-Sunder and Myers (1999), the funding deficit is:FundDef t = DIV t + X t + ΔW t + R t−C t :Where,C t operating cash flow, after interest and taxesDIV t dividend paymentsX t capital expendituresΔW t net increase in working capitalR t current portion of long-term debtThe agency issue in dividend payout decisions is similar to capital structure decisions in the presence of agency costs. Agency costs predict a positive relation between firm's free cash flow(FreeCFLS) and payment of dividends. According to signaling hypothesis of Ross (1977), firms with high profitability (ROA) will pay out more dividends as costly credible signals. Firms with higher growth opportunities (SalesGR) will pay out lower dividends especially when there is an alternative for using dividend payout as monitoring technique as suggested by Easterbrook (1984). Firm's past five year's sales growth is used for the dividend payout regression (as in Rozeff, 1982).Return on Assets (ROA) is another important variable. Pecking order theory indicates more profitable firms (ROA) should have lower leverage and lower payout controlling for investment opportunities and firms with high future growth opportunity should pay out lower dividends. Highly profitable firms can also use high dividends and high debt levels as signals for the good performance of the company (Ross, 1977). A firm's level of fixed assets (COL) should be associated with higher leverage as high levels of such assets can be used as collateral for loans (Friend & Lang, 1988; Long & Malitz, 1985). Such a measure of assets available for collateral is also used in Jensen etal. (1992). The non-debt tax shield variable (NDTS) is also used in the regression of capital structure determinants as firms with high availability of non-debt tax shield are expected to have lower debt levels (Kim & Sorensen, 1986).Jensen etal. (1992), Noronha etal. (1996), Kwok and Reeb (2000), and Bathala, Moon, and Rao (1994) also take into account NDTS as a determinant of leverage. As Graham (2000) notes, firm size has a negative influence on debt ratios. The natural log of total asset (Lsize) is the measure of firm size. Industry dummies are also added to control for variations across industries.Thus, we have the following variables:(a) Dependent variables:Leverage [Leverage=LTD/(LTD+MVE)]DivPO [dividend payout ratio](b) Independent variables:Fsale (foreign sales ratio as a measure of degree of multinational)M (distinguishing MNCs from DCs and =1 if Fsale > 20% and =0,otherwise)BusRisk: business riskBeta: firm's market beta a measure of equity market riskDOL: degree of operating leverageROA, Return on Assets as a measure of ProfitabilityMTB, market-to-book ratio, as a measure of growth opportunitiesSalesGR, growth rate of the firm, geometric average past 5-yr sales growth rate FreeCFLS, free cash flow divided by total salesCOL, assets that can be used as collateral, measured as PP&E/Total assetsUNQ, uniqueness, measured as (R&D + Adver. Exp)/ total salesNDTS, non-debt tax shields, (Depreciation +Amortization)/Sales× Tax rateFundDef, funding deficitLsize, natural log of total sales as a measure of size.Source: Aggarwal, Raj Kyaw, NyoNyo Aung,2010.―Capital structure, dividend policy, and multinational: Theory versus empirical evidence‖.International Review of Financial Analysis. Vol.19, No.2, January,pp.140-150.译文：资本结构，股利政策，跨国经营：理论与实证研究3.1影响资本结构和股利政策的因素我们更应该注意资本结构,股利政策的影响因素,以便适当的控制变量减少跨国资本结构和股利政策的冲击。
机械制造及自动化专业外文翻译--一个高性能单元数控系统架构的设计
中文译文：一个高性能单元数控系统架构的设计摘要-我们回顾了开放架构的数控系统所能选择的不同设计方案。
运动控制软件目前的趋势与较传统的方法相比，使用一个单独的处理器。
而不同的方法相结合的实时活动，包括插补和位置的测量，以及FPGA则是文件的重点。
对于该系统的方法描述是基于在过去12年间状态线结构的一体化，由哥伦比亚省不列颠大学和忒修斯（一个由西泰克水疗发展的新的创新的工业电子公司）所发展而来。
关键词——开放式数控系统，基于FPGA的运动控制，动力系统重构，可扩展控制。
1.序言过去十年，在数控设计系统方面发生了变革。
绝大部分的商业数控系统不得不提供某种类型的接口，使额外任务及用户可以修改控制软件的高次层。
而各厂商都用完全不同的方案来解决这些问题，这在很大程度上，反映了他们的经验和能力。
作者将在本文讨论出现的问题，从纯技术的观点出发是因为过去在硬件和软件方面的投资都没有问题。
还应该指出，有相当多的进展标准基于发展的情况进行了协调，例如在美国，（OCAM），欧洲，（OSACA）和日本（OSEC）。
见[1]，[2]，[3]，[4]。
早期的开放式架构系统一般由一个电脑终端和一个单独的处理器实时处理所有活动，见[5]，[6]，[7]。
这些系统大部分是分层性质。
近来的系统主要是PC，但许多早期的系统都是使用摩托罗拉的硬件。
硬实时活动一般安置在一个或多个设备板，这样反过来信息接口板又可以读合适的位置。
通常，可编程逻辑控制器是作为一个单独的处理器，用来定制并且容纳所需要的来支持各种机器功能。
同时被作者采取的方法会有所不同[8]，[9]。
图（1），基本状态线架构图（1）所示的UBC状态限架构旨在允许如下条件：A）避免在主机上必须使用一个实时操作系统。
B）尽量减少主机与从处理器间所需的带宽。
C）在为轴和支配进程使用同步机制的时候，容许的可扩展性的存在。
D）允许支配进程间进行通信。
这里的想法是，通过促进落实先进的运动和过程控制算法来实行一个高度并行的规定。
机械设计制造及其自动化毕业设计外文翻译
英文原文名ADV ANCED WEIGHINGTECHNOLOGY中文译名现代称重技术现代称重技术第一章秤的功能与结构1.1 基本结构和称重原理两种不同类型的机械秤示于图1.1.那么，秤的基本结构和称重原理方面的共同特征是什么呢？对于图1。
1（a）所示的天平或杠杆秤，放在载荷盘上的被测物体的质量，与放在砝码盘上的砝码的质量是利用它们的自重对支点的力矩，通过计量杠杆进行比较的。
这也可以看作是对物体载荷产生的作用力与砝码自重产生的反作用力进行比较,而且两者同时作用在计量杠杆上。
对于图 1.1（b）所示弹簧秤，由弹簧伸长而产生的恢复力,应被视为反作用力或抗力。
综上所述，我们认识到通常可以把秤分解成三个功能部分，即载荷接受部分或受载器，力比较部分、反力部分。
载荷接受部分(例如载荷盘等)，它作为秤的一部分用于接受载荷，并将载荷产生的力施加到力比较部分上。
反力部分（例如，带砝码的砝码盘或弹簧等)，它作为秤的一部分产生反作用力，并将其施加到力比较部分上。
力比较部分（例如计量杠杆等）,它作为秤的一部分接受以上两种力。
（a)天平或者杠杆秤(b)弹簧秤图1.1 机械秤的两种类型当我们检查任何一种机械秤时，会注意到它们通常都具有以上结构。
所以，我们可以认为这种结构式秤的基本结构。
此外，测量是以物体质量产生的作用力与反力部分产生的反作用力之间的平衡为基础的。
所以,我们可以认为秤的称重原理是利用了力的平衡.现代科技的发展，使我们在质量测量方面不仅能够利用力的静平衡，而且还可以利用力的动平衡。
载荷传递杠杆应该包括在载荷接受部分之中。
对于料斗秤中称重传感器直接支撑料斗的情形，可以认为它属于力比较部分被省略的一种特例。
对于天平或杠杆秤,其测得值可以从反力部分上的砝码变化中获得。
对于弹簧秤,其测得值可以从反力部分的弹簧伸长变化中获得.一般来说，机械秤的测得值可以从反力部分产生的某些量值变化中获得.1。
2 电秤和电子称系统的构成机械秤是指包括显示功能在内的所有功能都能通过机械手段实现的一种秤，而电秤和电子称具有一个能将反力部分产生的变化转换成电量的传感器，还具有一个能处理电量信号以获得测量值的信号处理装置。
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附件1：外文资料翻译译文B/S结构B/S结构即Browser/Server（浏览器/服务器）结构，是伴随着互联网技术出现的一种对C/S结构的改变或者说是改进。
在这种结构中，用户界面通过WWW 来达到在前端充分实现部分逻辑的目的，但最主要的逻辑在服务器中实现，从而形成一个所谓的三层结构。
B/S结构主要被用于成熟的WWW技术，与多种浏览器脚本语言（VBScript, JavaScript）以及ActiveX技术相结合。
为了实现强大的功能和开发成本的节约，用一个标准的网页浏览器来与复杂的专用软件相结合，是一种全新的软件架构技术。
在今天的软件应用中，Windows98和Windows2000操作系统在浏览器技术上植入B/S结构已成为优先的架构。
很明显，B/S结构的应用相对于传统的C/S结构的应用程序会有巨大进步。
B/S结构使用星形配置或使用互联网虚拟专网（VPN）来建立内部的通讯系统网络。
前者具有安全、快速和准确的特性。
后者则是投入的节约，与利益相关联。
以公司规模和地理位置分布为前提，利用互联网接入，通过内部防火墙至整个网络。
C/S结构和B/S结构的区别:客户/服务器结构是建立在局域网的基础上的。
浏览器/服务器结构是建立在广域网基础上的。
不同的计算机硬件环境:C/S结构一般建立在专用网络上，在小范围的网络环境中，在经由的局域网服务器之间提供连接和数据交换的专业化服务。
B/S结构建立在广域网以上，不需要在电话网络和租用设备中安装专门的网络硬件环境。
其信息自主化管理，C/S结构比一般的操作系统和浏览器适用范围更广，只要能联网就行。
不同的安全性要求:C/S结构相对固定的一般用户团体，其信息安全控制能力是强大的。
高度机密的信息系统一般采用C/S结构比较合适，因为通过发布，公开了B/S结构的信息。
建立在广域网上的B/S结构面临未知的用户群体，在安全控制能力上显得薄弱一些。
不同的程序框架:C/S结构把更多的注意力放在过程上，对于多层次的访问权限的操作速度则会少做考虑。
基于对更大优化基础的需求，B/S结构需考虑访问安全和速度的多重因素。
B/S 结构、C/S结构比程序框架结构更需要的是系列BizTalk 2000 Exchange 2000这种全面支持网络组件安装系统的发展趋势。
Sun和IBM公司推出JavaBean组件技术来使B/S结构更加成熟。
不同的软件信任:C/S结构的操作可能不可避免要整体考虑，组件中的可信任成分在可信赖的B/S中要求更好。
B/S结构的多种结构，具有相对独立的功能的组件，都是为了更好的被信任。
在桌子上也可以通过习惯被接受，而不是只在桌子上做石墙。
不同的系统维护:系统软件维护就是生存周期，巨额开支以及重要性使得C/S结构由整体的重要性这个总体目标来解决问题和对系统进行升级，而升级是困难的，也可能是做一个新的系统。
用代替独立的部件和系统的B/S结构的组成元件来实现无缝升级，产生最小的系统维护成本，只要从互联网下载安装在用户自己系统中就能得到升级。
不同的处理方式:C/S结构来处理用户所面对的固定的、在同一区域的问题，其安全需求的高要求以及相关的操作系统在方式上应该是相同的。
B/S结构建立在广域网上，其用户群体的不同，地理位置上的分散，这是C/S 结构所不能实现的，与操作系统平台的关系最小。
不同的用户界面:C/S结构的软件是已建立的Windows平台软件，其在功能方面有限的方法，反映了在浏览器中建立B/S结构的更高要求、更丰富而生动的表现与用户的交流，是减少、降低开发成本中最困难的。
不同的信息流:C/S结构的程序一般是典型的集中机械加工，其范畴相对比较局限。
B/S结构的信息流可以改变B-B、B-C、B-G的信息，其流的转换更像是交易中心。
基于B/S结构的软件的好处:B/S结构只是一种安装服务器（Server）、用户使用的浏览器（就像Internet Explorer, MYIE）操作软件、浏览器/服务器结构。
和C/S结构相比来看，尽管C/S结构堪比早期的文件服务器，加上其巨大的发展，但是与B/S结构相比，其缺点和不足之处是显而易见的。
首先，B/S结构比C/S结构的维护工作量已经大大减少了。
比如C/S结构中所有要求用户安装和配置的软件。
如果一个拥有50家企业的客户端使用了一个C/S结构的软件，即使这个软件有了一些很小的变化（比如增加了一个新的功能），该系统必须保护工作者这样的维护；服务器将得到最新版本的更新；将用户过期的软件卸载，然后安装上新的版本，接着继续进行建立，最可怕的是客户外部维修工作必须进行50次。
如果一方是当地客户的另一个地方，系统维护人员也要再去那个地方进行卸载、安装等维护工作。
如果在一个客户端停止服务之后，忘记了这样的维护，那么客户将由于版本不一致的问题而停止，导致不能工作。
而B/S结构中，客户只需安装而不需维护。
如果我们想把企业软件加入到B/S结构和C/S结构中去，看看我们的软件升级、系统维护人员如何保护：系统的维护只要在网上将服务器升级到最新版本，其他客户端只需重新登录系统即可，所使用的最新版本软件便已经存在。
其次，为了降低整体所有权C/S结构和B/S结构的相对成本，C/S结构的软件通常使用双层结构。
双层结构中，客户端接受用户请求向客户服务端数据库发出要求，该数据库服务将会提交用户数据，用户数据将被计算处理（可能涉及计算机、集成、统计等等），结果将显示给用户。
在三层结构中，客户端接受用户向客户服务应用端发出的申请请求服务来从数据库服务端中获取数据，申请服务将被计算处理，结果会被提交给处理数据的客户端，客户端会给用户一个结果。
这两种结构是不同的，在客户端操作下的双层结构以及末端的三层结构都没有参与客户的处理，用户简单的接收请求，表明了最后的结果。
因为三层结构的客户端不需要参与计算，客户计算机配置的要求也相对较低。
此外，由于从客户端申请服务只会传输最终结果，其数据量少，使用电话线就能满足要求。
C/S结构使用双层结构，其使用电话线作为传输线路由于太慢可能会不能够被接受。
采用三层结构的翡翠中国软件配置可以提高服务器的配置，降低用户需要的配置。
这种增长是一种服务器（在同一台电脑上的应用服务和数据库服务）的价格，而较低分数的台湾正是客户机的价格标准，在降低综合成本的所有权上扮演了一个重要角色。
C/S结构的软件数据一致性比B/S结构要求更多:在C/S结构的软件问题解决方案中，为了让大型企业集团使用，被用于贯穿在整个区域服务器安装中以及数据同步模型中。
这些服务器必须在每天总部获得最终数据后被同步。
局域网故障作为个人数据库不能及时同步的结果，服务器不是数据中的一个点，而这些数据是不一致的，这不是为了决策，对于B/S结构的软件结构来说，其数据是存储在每个商业文件的客户端中，这些数据直接进入中央数据库，这样就不存在数据一致性的问题了。
C/S结构和B/S结构的软件数据实时比较:在集团技术应用程序中，C/S结构在当前商业下看不出任何的来龙去脉，它在数据之后才被看见，而B/S结构则不同，它可以立即看到所有的当前操作以便快速决策，从而有效避免公司的损失。
C/S结构的数据安全软件比B/S结构要求更多:由于C/S结构的软件数据分布特征，客户出现诸如火灾、凶杀、地震、病毒、黑客入侵等已经成为一种可怕的数据杀手。
此外，团队标准造成的软件应用的不同，C/S结构软件必须在多处安装多个服务器，而且需要各个服务器之间的大量数据同步。
这样，每个数据点，在整个应用程序中，其数据安全又有潜在的数据安全。
因此，在团体层面的大规模的应用中，C/S结构的软件安全是不能被接受的。
B/S结构构成的软件部分由于其专注于在数据库服务器总部的数据存储，而不是保存任何商业客户的数据库和数据库连接的信息以及同步的数据，很自然的会出现一些安全问题。
附件2：外文原文B/S structureB/S structure that Browser/Server (browser/server) structure, with the emergence of Internet technology, a change or improvement to C/S structure. In this structure, user interface through “WWW”fully realized part of the logic in the front end to achieve, but the main logic in the server to form a so called 3-tier structure. B/S structure, primarily used to mature “WWW” technology, the combination of multiple browsers Script Language (VBScript, JavaScript) and ActiveX technology, using a standard Web browser on the need to achieve the original complex proprietary software in order to achieve powerful functions, and the development of cost savings, is a brand new software system construction technology. 98/Windows with Windows-2000 operating system will be browser technology implanted within the structure of today's software applications have become the preferred architecture. Clearly B/S structural applications versus traditional C/S applications will be enormous progress.B/S structure using star shape configuration or build an internal communications network using Internet “Xunizhuanwang (VPN)”. The former is characterized by security, fast and accurate. The latter is a savings investment, cross advantages. Subject to firm size and geographic distribution determined. Internet access through an internal firewall, then the entire network.C/S with B/S distinction :Client/Server is built on the basis of the LAN. Browser/Server is built on the basis of the Wan.Hardware environment different :C/S generally built on dedicated network, the small scope of the network environment, between via LAN servers to provide connectivity and data exchange specialized services.B/S built on the Wan above, need not be specialized network hardware environment cases with the telephone network, leased equipment. Information own management. C/S stronger than the scope of general operating systems and browsersas long as there is on line.For different security requirements:C/S relatively fixed user group oriented general, the control of information security is strong. General highly confidential information systems used C/S structure appropriate, through the issuance of publicly B/S information.B/S built on the Wan, based on the ability to control security weak in the face of the user group is unknown.Procedural framework for the different:C/S procedures can focus more on processes; multi level access to the competence of the operating speed can be less consideration.B/S visit to the security and speed of multiple considerations, based on the need for greater optimization basis. B/S, C/S have higher requirements than the procedural framework is the development of the structural trend from Ms. Net series BizTalk 2000-Exchange-2000, comprehensive support network components erection system. Sun and IBM pushed the Java Bean component technology to enable B/S more mature.Different software trusted:C/S procedures could inevitable holistic considerations, the trusted components of the components is in the trusted B/S request of the good.B/S of multiple structures, components for relatively independent functions. To the relatively better trusted. On the table can be used to buy, instead of doing the stone wall in the tables.Maintaining different systems:System software maintenance is the survival cycle, big spending, important C/S procedures as a result of the overall importance of the overall mission to address the problems and the system upgrading. Upgrading is difficult, and maybe doing a new system.B/S components composition of the replacement of individual components and systems to achieve seamless escalation. Minimize system maintenance costs. Downloaded from the Internet installed on the users themselves can achievepromotion.Different treatment:C/S procedures to deal with users face fixed, and in the same region, the security requirements of high demand, and related operating systems. Is the same system should be.B/S built on the wide area network, the different user groups, geographical dispersion, and this is C/S unable to do so. Relations with the operating system platform smallest.Different user interface:C/S are established Windows platform, the performance of limited means, to reflect the general requirements established in the browser B/S higher, a more rich and vivid manifestations and users exchange. And the most difficult to reduce, reduce development costs.Different information flow:C/S procedures generally typical centralized mechanical processing, the world of relatively low.B/S information flow can change B-B, B-C, B-G information, and the flow changes, more like trading centres.B/S structure of the benefits software:What B/S structure is only the installation of a server (Server), and customer used browser (Browse, such as Internet Explorer, MYIE) operating software, browser/server architecture. Compared to C/S struct, despite C/S struct compared to the earlier document server, and great progress, but compared with B/S, shortcomings and deficiencies are obvious.First, B/S than C/S maintenance workload has been greatly reduced. C/S struct every customer must install and configure the software. A total of 50 enterprises if a client site using a C/S struct software, even when the software has been very minor changes (for example, increased a function), the system must protect workers such maintenance; Servers will be updated to the latest version; Will be customer old software unloading, and then install the new version, and then proceed to set up, is themost horrible customer out maintenance work must be carried out 50 times. If one side is in another part of the local customers, system maintenance workers must also went to that place again unloading installation, the installation work. If a client ends, forget such maintenance, the customer will end the problems encountered inconsistent version unable to work. And B/S structure, customer installation and maintenance no. If we would join the enterprise software into B/S, C/S structure, we look at software upgrades, system maintenance workers how to protect: the maintenance of the system as long as the server software upgrade to the latest version on the line. Other clients as long as the re entry system using the latest version of the software is already on.Secondly, to reduce overall ownership C/S, B/S relative cost C/S software typically used two-tier structure.Two-tier structure, customer accepted user request to the customer service database request, the database service will be submitted to the client data, customer data will be calculated (possibly involving computers, aggregation, statistics, etc.) and the results show to the user.In the three-tier structure, customer accepted user request to the customer service application to request application services to obtain data from the database services, application services will be calculated and the results submitted to the data customer, a customer results to users.These two structures is different, the two-tier structure in customer operation, and the three-tier structure of the ends are not involved in processing customers, users simply receiving the request, indicating that the final results. Since the three-tier structure of the client side does not need to be involved in the calculation, the client computer configuration requirements are relatively low.Furthermore, since the application services to clients only transmission of the final results, the data volume less, the use of telephone lines can trust. C/S used two-tier structure, the use of telephone lines as transmission lines may not be able to accept because too slow. Adopted a three-tier structure of the jade Chinese software configuration can be improved server configuration, reduce customer configuration. This increase is a servers (application services and database services on the samecomputer can) prices, and lower scores Taiwan is the customer machine prices, played a role in reducing the overall cost of ownership.C/S, software data consistency more B/S:In C/S struct software solutions, for use by large business groups are used throughout the regional level server installation, and then data synchronization model. These servers must be synchronized every day after the headquarters to get final data. LAN malfunctions as a result of individual databases that can not be simultaneously not even keep up, the server is not a point of data, the data never consistent, not for decision making. The structure of the software B/S speaking, the data is stored on the client side of each business documents directly into a central database that did not exist in the data consistency problem.C/S, B/S software data real time comparisons:In Group class applications, C/S struct not see any current business context, is seen after data; And B/S structure is different, it can immediately see all of the current operations and facilitate rapid decision making, effectively avoid corporate losses.C/S, data security software more B/S:As C/S struct software data distribution characteristics, customer occurring fires, murders, earthquakes, viruses, hackers have become a terrible data killer. In addition, different software applications for the group level, C/S struct software must install multiple servers everywhere, and in a number of data synchronization between servers. Thus, each data point data security implications of the data security of the entire application. Therefore, large scale applications as the group level, C/S struct software security is unacceptable. B/S structure for the software part, because of its focus on the data stored in the database server at headquarters, not the preservation of any business customer data and database connectivity information, as well as what data is synchronous, so naturally there are those security issues.。