框架结构外文翻译

南京工程学院毕业设计外文资料翻译学生姓名：顾建祥学号： 240095319班级名称： K建工ZB093所在院系：康尼学院Underground Space UtilizationThe rapid growth of world civilization will have a significant impact on the way humans live in the future. As the global population increases and more countries demand a higher standard of living, the difficulty of doing this is compounded by three broad trends: the conversion of agricultural land to development uses; the increasing urbanization of the world`s population; and growing concern for the maintenance and improvement of the environment, especially regarding global warming and the impact of population growth. Underground space utilization, as this chapter describes, offers opportunities for helping address these trends. By moving certain facilities and function underground, surface land in urban areas can be used more effectively , thus freeing space for agricultural and recreational purpose. Similarly, the use of terraced earth sheltered housing. Using underground space also enables humans to live more comfortably in densely populated areas while improving the quality of live.On an urban or local level, the use of underground facilities is rising to accommodate the complex demands of today`s society while improving the environment . For example, both urban and rural areas are requiring improved transportation, utility, and recreational services. The state of traffic congestion in many urban areas of the world is at a critical level for the support of basic human living, and it is difficult if not impossible to add new infrastructure at ground level without causing an unacceptable deterioration of the surface environment or an unacceptable relocation of existing land uses and neighborhoods.On a national level in countries around the world, global trends are causing the creation and extension of mining developments and oil or gas recovery at greater depths and in more inaccessible or sensitive locations. Three trends have also led to the developments of improved designs forenergy generation and storage systems as well as national facilities for dealing with hazardous waste (including chemical, biological, and radioactive waste ), and improved high-speed national transportation systems .All these developments involve use of the underground .Land Use PressuresPlacing facilities underground is a promising method for helping ease land use pressures caused by the growth and urbanization of the world`s population. Although the average population density in the world is not large, the distribution of population is very uneven. A map of population density in the world is not large ,areas of the world are essentially uninhabited . These areas are for the most part deserts ,mountainous regions, or regions of severe cold that do not easily support human habitation.If one examines China ,for example ,the average population density is approximately 100 persons per square kilometer, but the vat majority of the one billion-plus population lives on less than 20 percent of the land area. this is the fertile land that can support food production. However, due to population growth, urbanization, and economic growth, this same land must now support extensive transportation systems, industrial and commercial development, and increasing demands for housing, As the population and economy grow, the land available for agriculture shrinks, and the problems of transporting food and raw materials to an urban population increase. By the year 2000 it is estimated that 70 percent of the world`s population will inhabit urban areas.The same trend are evident in Japan, where approximately 80 percent of the land area is mountainous,90 percent of the population lives on the coastal plains, and economic development is concentrated in relatively few economic development is concentrated in relatively few economic centers .The flat-lying land is generally the most fertile and ishistorically the region of settlement . Other factors adding to population density include the traditional building style , which is low-rise , and Japanese law that contain strong provisions for maintenance of access to sunlight .Also ,to retain domestic food production capability , the Japanese government has protected agricultural land from development. The combination of these historical and political factors together with a strong migration of businesses and individuals to the economic centers has created enormous land use pressure. The result is an astronomically high cost of land in city centers (as high as US $500,00 per square meter) and difficulty in an providing housing, transportation, and utility services for the population. Typical business employees cannot afford to live near the city center where they work and may have to commute one to two hours each way from an affordable area. To service the expanding metropolitan area, public agencies must upgrade roads and build new transit lines and utilizes. Land costs for such work are so high that in central Tokyo, the cost of land may represent over 95 percent of the total cost of a project.The problem of land use pressures and related economic effects of high land prices are of great interest in the study of the potential uses of underground space. When surface space is fully utilized, underground space becomes one of the few development zones available. It offers the possibility of the adding needed facilities without further degrading the surface environment. Without high land prices, however, the generally higher cost of constructing facilities underground is a significant deterrent to their environmental, or social grounds-luxuries which many developing nation cannot afford at present and which developed nations are reluctant to undertake except in areas of special significance.Planning of Underground SpaceEffective planning for underground utilization should be an essentialprecursor to the development of major underground facilities. This planning must consider long-term needs while providing a frame work for reforming urban areas into desirable and effective environments in which to live and work. If underground development is to provide the most valuable long-term benefit possible , then effective zones beneath public rights-of-way in older cities around the world. The tangled wed of utilizes commonly found is due to a lack of coordination and the historical evolution in utility provision and transit system development.The underground has several characteristics that make good planning especially problematical:●Once underground excavations are made, the ground is permanentlyaltered. Underground structures are not as easily dismantled assurface buildings.●An underground excavation may effectively a large zone of thestability of the excavation.●The underground geologic structure greatly affects the type, size,and costs of facilities that can be constructed, but the knowledgeof a region`s can only be inferred from a limited number of siteinvestigation borings and previous records.●Large underground projects may require massive investments withrelatively high risks of construction problem, delay, and costoverruns.●Traditional planning techniques have focused on two-dimensionalrepresentations of regions and urban areas . This is generallyadequate for surface and aboveground construction but it is notadequate for the complex three-dimensional geology and builtstructures often found underground . Representation of thisthree-dimensional information in a form that can readily beinterpreted for planning and evaluation is very difficult.In Tokyo, for example, the first subway line (Ginza Line) was installed as a shallow line (10 meters deep) immediately beneath the existing layer of surface utilities. As more subway lines have been added, uncluttered zones can only be found at the deeper underground levels. The new Keiyo JR line in Tokyo is 40 meter deep.A new underground super highway from Marunouchi to Shinjuku hasbeen proposed at a 50-meter depth. For comparison, the deepest installations in London are at approximately a 70-meter depth although the main complex of works and sewers is at less than 25 neters. Compounding these issues of increasing demand is the fact newer transportation services (such as the Japanese Shinkansen bullet trains or the French TGV) ofen require larger cross-section tunnels, straighter alignments, and flatter grades. If space is not reserved for this type of use, very inefficient layouts of the beneath urban areas can occur.Environmental BenefitsAnother major trigger for under ground space usage is the growing international concern over the environment, which has led to attempts to rethink the future of urban and industrial development. The major concerns in balancing economic development versus environmental degradation and world natural resource limitations revolve around several key issues. These are:●The increasing consumption of energy compared to the limitedreserves of fossil fuels available to meet future demand.●The effect on the global climate of burning fossil fuels.●The pollution of the environment from the by-products ofindustrial development●The safe disposal of hazardous wastes generated by industrialand military activites.Preserving the environment from the by-products of industrial development economic growth and maintaining individual lifestyles will be complex if not impossible. However, a highstandard of living and high gross domestic product do not haveto be proportionately dependent on resource consumption andenvironmental degradation.Underground space utilization can help solve the environmental/resource dilemma in several ways . Underground facilities are typically energy conserving in their own right. More importantly, by using addition to the obvious benefit of preserving green space and agricultural land, there is strong evidence that higher urban density can lower fuel resource consumptionThe Future of Underground Space DevelopmentAlthough existing underground facilities throughout the world provide some models for future development, they are all limited in scale, in their lack of a comprehensive vision for the total city environment. As a complement to more detailed planning and research studies, it is useful to examine the visions of extensive underground complexes, even entire cities, that have been proposed by futuristic planners and designers.Geotech`90, a conference and exhibition held in Tokyo in April 1990, was a major forum for the underground industry in Japan. More than a dozen underground concepts were displayed, ranging from the typical transit and utility uses to underground corridors that are envisioned as places for a communication network protected during disasters. Such corridors could also effectively transport both waste and energy between substations in the city and central generation and disposal sites outside the city. This approach not only relieves congestion but also can provide more efficient energy generation and recycling of waste materials. These concepts areall intended to permit a major upgrade of the city infrastructure that will eventually enable the surface to be rebuilt with more open space and a more efficient, attractive overall environment.When completely new cities are envisioned for the future, the underground often is a major component, as illustrated by the work of the architect Paolo Soleri over the last 30 years. In science fiction future cities often are depicted as self-contained, climate-controlled units frequently located underground for protection from the elements and possibly from a hazardous or polluted environment. In this case, underground cities on earth differ little from bases created on the moon or other isolated environments.地下空间的利用全球城市化进程的加快将会对人类将来的生存方式产生重大影响。