《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章

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曼昆《经济学原理》(宏观经济学分册)英文原版课件——25production-growth

Production and Growth
• In the United States over the past century, average income as measured by real GDP per person has grown by about 2 percent per year.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Why Productivity Is So Important • Productivity refers to the amount of goods and
services that a worker can produce from each hour of work.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
How Productivity Is Determined • The inputs used to produce goods and services
are called the factors of production. • The factors of production directly determine
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
ECONOMIC GROWTH AROUND THE WORLD
• The poorest countries have average levels of income that have not been seen in the United States for many decades.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Production and Growth

曼昆经济学原理宏观第25章资料[文字可编辑]

世界各国的收入与经济增长
人均GDP: 2011
事实 2:
世界各国的经济增长率有很大差别
中国新加坡印度日本西班牙以色列哥伦比亚美国加拿大菲律宾卢旺达新西兰阿根廷沙特阿拉伯乍得
$8,442 $61,103 $3,650 $34,278 $32,701 $28,007 $10,103 $48,442 $40,541 $4,140 $1,251 $30,108 $17,674 $24,434 $1,531
N. 格里高利·曼昆
经济学原理
第六版
25
生产与增长
? 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
人均GDP:
$36,130
预期寿命:
80 years
成人识字率:
99%
4
一个墨西哥普通家庭及其所有财产，中等收入国家
人均GDP:
$14,270
预期寿命:
76 years
成人识字率 :
86%
5
一个马里普通家庭及其所有财产，发展中国家
人均GDP:
$1,090
预期寿命:
52 years
成人识字率:
46%
6
世界各国的收入与经济增长
人均GDP: 2011
事实1:
世界各国的生活水平有着巨大差别
中国新加坡印度日本西班牙以色列哥伦比亚美国加拿大菲律宾卢旺达新西兰阿根廷沙特阿拉伯乍得

《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第24章

参考资料：美国CPI篮子中有什么？
案例：北京的CPI的计算流程
严格按照国家统计局《流通和消费价格统计调查方案》的要求：
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
选择代表规格品。抽选价格调查点。计算居民消费价格指数的权数。价格调查及计算平均价格。计算居民消费价格指数。
24.1.2 衡量生活费用中的问题 Problems in Measuring The Cost of Living 消费物价指数的目的是衡量生活费用的变动。换句话说，消费物价指数要确定为了保持生活水平不变，收入应该增加多少。但是，消费物价指数并不是生活费用的完美衡量指标，这个指数有三个广泛承认但又难于解决的问题：
上半年 7.9%0日）国家统计局公布了2009年1月份我国居民消费价格指数和工业品出厂价格指数。统计显示，2009年1月份我国居民消费价格总水平同比上涨1.0%，1月份工业品出厂价格同比下降3.3％。
24.1.1 如何计算消费者物价指数 How The Consumer Price Index Is Calculated
2005年美元的薪水＝1931年美元的薪水×2005年物价/1931年物价＝80000×195/15.2＝1026316（美元）
案例：指数先生进入好莱坞
24.2.2 指数化 INDEXATION
正如我们刚刚说明的，当比较不同时期的美元数字时，要用物价指数来校正通货膨胀的影响。在经济中的许多地方都表现出这种校正。当某一美元量根据法律或合约自动地按通货膨胀校正时，这种美元量就称为通货膨胀的指数化。
24.1消费者物价指数 THE CONSUMER PRICE INDEX
消费者物价指数是普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费用的衡量指标。在这一部分我们讨论如何计算消费物价指数，以及在这种衡量中出现了什么问题；我们还要讨论如何比较消费物价指数与GDP平减指数。

曼昆宏观经济学第二十五章PPT课件

• In some African countries, average income has been stagnant for many years.
.
4
Production and Growth
• In the previous two chapters, we discussed how economists measure macroeconomics quantities and prices.
.
15
• Technological Knowledge
– society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.
– Technological knowledge takes many forms: common knowledge and proprietary.
• In China over the past century, average income as measured by real GDP per person has grown by about 2% per year.
• In some East Asia countries (regions), average income has risen about 7% per year in recent decades.
.
19
FYI: The Production Function
• Production functions with constant returns to scale have an interesting implication.

曼昆经济学原理目录

曼昆经济学原理目录曼昆经济学原理（Principles of Economics）是由美国经济学家尼古拉斯·格里高里·曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）所著的一本经济学教科书，旨在向大学学生介绍经济学基本原理和理论。

该教材分为三个部分，涵盖了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学三个领域。

下面将对每个部分的目录进行详细介绍。

第一部分：微观经济学第一章：经济学原理和经济思维- 经济学的基本原理和概念- 经济学家如何思考和分析经济问题第二章：在十大原则中思考- 十大原则介绍：如人们如何面对稀缺性和权衡取舍- 供求原则和市场机制- 政府干预经济的原则第三章：供需：一种模型的起点- 供给和需求的概念- 市场均衡和市场价格的形成- 自由市场与政府管制的比较第四章：市场效果：量与质的考虑- 市场效率和福利经济学- 市场失灵和外部性- 公共物品和共享资源第五章：务实的消费者和无穷的厂商- 消费者选择行为和效用最大化- 企业产量选择和生产成本- 供给曲线和市场调整第六章：市场均衡和资源配置- 市场均衡的概念和效率性- 供求关系和经济的资源配置- 政府政策和市场效率的影响第二部分：宏观经济学第七章：储蓄、投资和资本市场- 储蓄、投资和财务体系- 成本效益分析和资本市场的理论第八章：经济增长和生产函数- 国民收入和生产函数的概念- 技术进步和经济增长- 资本积累对经济增长的影响第九章：失业和通货膨胀- 失业和就业水平- 失业的成因和传统观点- 通货膨胀和货币政策第十章：货币和银行体系- 货币和货币供给- 银行体系和货币创造- 中央银行政策和货币政策工具第十一章：货币市场和货币政策- 资本市场和货币市场的联系- 货币市场利率和货币政策的影响- 货币供给和货币创造的影响第三部分：国际经济学第十二章：国际贸易的原理和比较优势- 国际贸易的原理和概念- 绝对优势和比较优势- 贸易制度和贸易政策第十三章：国际贸易的应用和政策- 暂定均衡和相对比较优势- 贸易政策和进出口管制- 贸易摩擦和贸易战争第十四章：国际金融与公共金融- 汇率和外汇市场- 货币政策和国际金融体系- 公共债务和国际金融危机曼昆经济学原理目录总共包括了14个章节，它们涵盖了经济学的基本原理和概念，并且深入探讨了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学的各个领域。

曼昆经济学原理宏观第25章资料

*
8
世界各国的收入与经济增长
问题： ? 为什么一些国家比另一些国家要富裕？ ? 为什么一些国家经济快速增长而另一些国家则处
于贫穷陷阱之中？ ? 怎样的政策能够帮助提高经济增长率和长期生活
水平？
? 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
*
11
人均物质资本
? 复习：用于生产物品和劳务的设备和建筑物存量
称为[物质 ]资本，用K 表示
?K/L = 人均资本 ? 如果普通工人有更多的资本（机器，设备等），
那么生产率会更高
?就是说：K/L的增加导致 Y/L的增加
? 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案25章.doc

209WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION: There is a new In the News box on “Does Food Aid Help or Hurt?”LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, students should understand:how much economic growth differs around the world.why productivity is the key determinant of a country’s standard of living.the factors that determine a country’s productivity.how a country’s policies influence its productivity growth.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: Chapter 12 is the first chapter in a four-chapter sequence on the production of output in the long run. Chapter 12 addresses the determinants of the level and growth rate of output. We find that capital and labor are among the primary determinants of output. In Chapter 13, we address how saving and investment in capital goods affect the production of output, and in Chapter 14, we learn about some of the tools people and firms use when choosing capital projects in which to invest. In Chapter 15, we address the market for labor.The purpose of Chapter 12 is to examine the long-run determinants of both the level and the growth rate of real GDP per person. Along the way, we will discover the factors that determine the productivity of workers and address what governments might do to improve the productivity of their citizens.KEY POINTS:Economic prosperity, as measured by GDP per person, varies substantially around the world. Theaverage income in the world’s richest countries is more than ten times that in the world’s poorest countries. Because growth rates of real GDP also vary substantially, the relative positions of countries can change dramatically over time.PRODUCTION AND GROWTH210 ❖Chapter 12/Production and Growth∙ The standard of living in an economy depends on the economy’s ability to produce goods and services. Productivity, in turn, depends on the amounts of physical capital, human capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge available to workers.∙ Government policies can try to influence the economy’s growth rate in many ways: by encouraging saving and investment, encouraging investment from abroad, fostering education, promoting good health, maintaining property rights and political stability, allowing free trade, and promoting the research and development of new technologies.∙ The accumulation of capital is subject to diminishing returns: The more capital an economy has, the less additional output the economy gets from an extra unit of capital. As a result, whilehigher saving leads to higher growth for a period of time, growth eventually slows down ascapital, productivity, and income rise. Also because of diminishing returns, the return to capital is especially high in poor countries. Other things equal, these countries can grow faster because of the catch-up effect.∙ Population growth has a variety of effects on economic growth. On the one hand, more rapid population growth may lower productivity by stretching the supply of natural resources and byreducing the amount of capital available for each worker. On the other hand, a larger population may enhance the rate of technological progress because there are more scientists and engineers.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Economic Growth around the WorldA. Table 1 shows data on real GDP per person for 13 countries during different periods of time.1. The data reveal the fact that living standards vary a great deal between these countries.2. Growth rates are also reported in the table. Japan has had the largest growth rate over time,2.65% per year (on average).3. Because of different growth rates, the ranking of countries by income per person changesover time.a. In the late 19th century, the United Kingdom was the richest country in the world.b. Today, income per person is lower in the United Kingdom than in the United States (aformer colony of the United Kingdom).Chapter 12/Production and Growth ❖211B. FYI: Are You Richer Than the Richest American?1. According to the magazine American Heritage, the richest American of all time is John B.Rockefeller, whose wealth today would be the equivalent of approximately $200 billion.2. Yet, because Rockefeller lived from 1839 to 1937, he did not get the chance to enjoy manyof the conveniences we take for granted today such as television, air conditioning, andmodern medicine.3. Thus, because of tech nological advances, the average American today may enjoy a “richer”life than the richest American who lived a century ago.C. FYI: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Statistics1. This box presents three photos showing a typical family in three countries – the UnitedKingdom, Mexico, and Mali. Each family was photographed outside their home, together withall of their material possessions.2. These photos demonstrate the vast difference in the standards of living in these countries. II. Productivity: Its Role and DeterminantsA. Why Productivity Is So Important1. Example: Robinson Crusoea. Because he is stranded alone, he must catch his own fish, grow his own vegetables, andmake his own clothes.b. His standard of living depends on his ability to produce goods and services.2. Definition of productivity: the quantity of goods and services produced from eachunit of labor input.3. Review of Principle #8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to ProduceGoods and Services.B. How Productivity Is Determined1. Physical Capital per Workera. Definition of physical capital: the stock of equipment and structures used toproduce goods and services.b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has more fishing poles.2. Human Capital per Workera. Definition of human capital: the knowledge and skills that workers acquirethrough education, training, and experience.b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has been trained in the best fishing techniquesor as he gains experience fishing.212 ❖ Chapter 12/Production and Growth3. Natural Resources per Workera. Definition of natural resources: the inputs into production that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits .b. Example: Crusoe will have better luck catching fish if there is a plentiful supply around his island.4. Technological Knowledgea. Definition of technological knowledge : society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services .b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has invented a better fishing lure.C. FYI: The Production Function1. A production function describes the relationship between the quantity of inputs used in production and the quantity of output from production.2. The production function generally is written like this:where Y = output, L = quantity of labor, K = quantity of physical capital, H = quantity of human capital, N = quantity of natural resources, A reflects the available production technology, and F () is a function that shows how inputs are combined to produce output.3. Many production functions have a property called constant returns to scale.a. This property implies that as all inputs are doubled, output will exactly double.b. This implies that the following must be true:where x= 2 if inputs are doubled.c. This also means that if we want to examine output per worker we could set x = 1/L and we would get the following:This shows that output per worker depends on the amount of physical capital per worker (K /L ), the amount of human capital per worker (H /L ), and the amount of naturalresources per worker (N /L ).4. Case Study: Are Natural Resources a Limit to Growth?a. This section points out that as the population has grown over time, we have discoveredways to lower our use of natural resources. Thus, most economists are not worried about shortages of natural resources.Chapter 12/Production and Growth ❖ 213III. Economic Growth and Public PolicyA. Saving and Investment1. Because capital is a produced factor of production, a society can change the amount of capital that it has.2. However, there is an opportunity cost of doing so; if resources are used to produce capital goods, fewer goods and services are produced for current consumption.B. Diminishing Returns and the Catch-Up Effect1. Definition of diminishing returns: the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases .a. As the capital stock rises, the extra output produced from an additional unit of capital willfall.b. This can be seen in Figure 1, which shows how the amount of capital per worker determines the amount of output per worker, holding constant all other determinants ofoutput.c. Thus, if workers already have a large amount of capital to work with, giving them anadditional unit of capital will not increase their productivity by much.d. In the long run, a higher saving rate leads to a higher level of productivity and income, but not to higher growth rates in these variables.2. An important implication of diminishing returns is the catch-up effect.a. Definition of catch-up effect: the property whereby countries that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich .b. When workers have very little capital to begin with, an additional unit of capital will increase their productivity by a great deal.C. Investment from Abroad1. Saving by domestic residents is not the only way for a country to invest in new capital.2. Investment in the country by foreigners can also occur.a. Foreign direct investment occurs when a capital investment is owned and operated by a foreign entity.214 ❖Chapter 12/Production and Growthb. Foreign portfolio investment occurs when a capital investment is financed with foreignmoney but operated by domestic residents.3. Some of the benefits of foreign investment flow back to foreign owners. But the economy stillexperiences an increase in the capital stock, which leads to higher productivity and higherwages.4. The World Bank is an organization that tries to encourage the flow of investment to poorcountries.a. The World Bank obtains funds from developed countries such as the United States andmakes loans to less-developed countries so that they can invest in roads, sewer systems,schools, and other types of capital.b. The World Bank also offers these countries advice on how best to use these funds.D. Education1. Investment in human capital also has an opportunity cost.a. When students are in class, they cannot be producing goods and services forconsumption.b. In less-developed countries, this opportunity cost is considered to be high; as a result,children often drop out of school at a young age.2. Because there are positive externalities in education, the effect of lower education on theeconomic growth rate of a country can be large.3. Many poor count ries also face a “brain drain”—the best educated often leave to go to othercountries where they can enjoy a higher standard of living.E. Health and Nutrition1. Human capital can also be used to describe another type of investment in people:expenditures that lead to a healthier population.2. Other things being equal, healthier workers are more productive.3. Making the right investments in the health of the population is one way for a nation toincrease productivity.F. Property Rights and Political Stability1. Protection of property rights and promotion of political stability are two other important waysthat policymakers can improve economic growth.2. There is little incentive to produce products if there is no guarantee that they cannot betaken. Contracts must also be enforced.3. Countries with questionable enforcement of property rights or an unstable political climatewill also have difficulty in attracting foreign (or even domestic) investment.Chapter 12/Production and Growth ❖2154. In the News: Does Food Aid Help or Hurt?a. Economic policies designed to improve productivity sometimes have adverse unintendedeffects.b. This article from The Wall Street Journal, Real Time Economics blog discusses economicresearch on the effects of food aid to poor countries on armed conflict in a recipientcountry.G. Free Trade1. Some countries have tried to achieve faster economic growth by avoiding transacting withthe rest of the world.2. However, trade allows a country to specialize in what it does best and thus consume beyondits production possibilities.3. When a country trades wheat for steel, it is as well off as it would be if it had developed anew technology for turning wheat into steel.4. The amount a nation trades is determined not only by government policy but also bygeography.a. Countries with good, natural seaports find trade easier than countries without thisresource.b. Countries with more than 80 percent of their population living within 100 kilometers of acoast have an average GDP per person that is four times as large as countries with lessthan 20 percent of their population living near a coast.H. Research and Development1. The primary reason why living standards have improved over time has been due to largeincreases in technological knowledge.2. Knowledge can be considered a public good.3. The U.S. government promotes the creation of new technological information by providingresearch grants and providing tax incentives for firms engaged in research.4. The patent system also encourages research by granting an inventor the exclusive right toproduce the product for a specified number of years.I. Population Growth1. Stretching Natural Resourcesa. Thomas Malthus (an English minister and early economic thinker) argued that an ever-increasing population meant that the world was doomed to live in poverty forever.b. However, he failed to understand that new ideas would be developed to increase theproduction of food and other goods, including pesticides, fertilizers, mechanizedequipment, and new crop varieties.216 ❖Chapter 12/Production and Growth2. Diluting the Capital Stocka. High population growth reduces GDP per worker because rapid growth in the number ofworkers forces the capital stock to be spread more thinly.b. Countries with a high population growth have large numbers of school-age children,placing a burden on the education system.3. Some countries have already instituted measures to reduce population growth rates.4. Policies that foster equal treatment for women should raise economic opportunities forwomen leading to lower rates of population.5. Promoting Technological Progressa. Some economists have suggested that population growth has driven technologicalprogress and economic prosperity.b. In a 1993 journal article, economist Michael Kremer provided evidence that increases inpopulation lead to technological progress.J. In the News: One Economist’s Answer1. Why do some nations thrive while others do not?2. This article by economist Daron Acemoglu provides his ideas on the answers to this question. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. The approximate growth rate of real GDP per person in the United States is 1.77 percent(based on Table 1) from 1870 to 2010. Countries that have had faster growth include Japan,Brazil, Mexico, China, Germany, and Canada; countries that have had slower growth includeArgentina, India, United Kingdom, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.2. The four determinants of a country’s productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stockof equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital,which is the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, andexperience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided bynature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits; and (4) technological knowledge, which issociety’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.3. Ways in which a government policymaker can try to raise the growth in living standards in asociety include: (1) investing more current resources in the production of capital, which hasChapter 12/Production and Growth ❖217 the drawback of reducing the resources used for producing current consumption; (2)encouraging investment from abroad, which has the drawback that some of the benefits ofinvestment flow to foreigners; (3) increasing education, which has an opportunity cost in thatstudents are not engaged in current production; (4) protecting property rights and promotingpolitical stability, which has the drawback of enforcement costs; (5) pursuing outward-oriented policies to encourage free trade, which may have the drawback of making a countrymore dependent on its trading partners; (6) reducing the rate of population growth, whichmay have the drawbacks of reducing individual freedom and lowering the rate oftechnological progress; and (7) encouraging research and development, which (likeinvestment) may have the drawback of reducing current consumption.Questions for Review1. The level of a nation’s GDP measure s both the total income earned in the economy and thetotal expenditure on the economy’s output of goods and services. The level of real GDP is agood gauge of economic prosperity, and the growth rate of real GDP is a good gauge ofeconomic progress. You would rather live in a nation with a high level of GDP, even though ithad a low growth rate, than in a nation with a low level of GDP and a high growth rate,because the level of GDP is a measure of prosperity.2. The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock ofequipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital,which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training,and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided bynature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society’s understanding of the best waysto produce goods and services.3. A college degree is a form of human capital. The skills learned in earning a college degreeincrease a worker's productivity.4. Higher saving means fewer resources are devoted to consumption and more to producingcapital goods. The rise in the capital stock leads to rising productivity and more rapid growthin GDP for a while. In the long run, the higher saving rate leads to a higher standard of living.A policymaker might be deterred from trying to raise the rate of saving because doing sorequires that people reduce their consumption today and it can take a long time to get to ahigher standard of living.5. A higher rate of saving leads to a higher growth rate temporarily, not permanently. In theshort run, increased saving leads to a larger capital stock and faster growth. But as growthcontinues, diminishing returns to capital mean growth slows down and eventually settlesdown to its initial rate, though this may take several decades.6. Removing a trade restriction, such as a tariff, would lead to more rapid economic growthbecause the removal of the trade restriction acts like an improvement in technology. Freetrade allows all countries to consume more goods and services.7. The higher the rate of population growth, the lower is the level of GDP per person becausethere's less capital per person, hence lower productivity.8. The U.S. government tries to encourage advances in technological knowledge by providingresearch grants through the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Health,218 ❖Chapter 12/Production and Growthwith tax breaks for firms engaging in research and development, and through the patentsystem.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. b2. c3. d4. c5. c6. aProblems and Applications1. The facts that countries import many goods and services yet must produce a large quantityof goods and services themselves to enjoy a high standard of living are reconciled by notingthat there are substantial gains from trade. To be able to afford to purchase goods fromother countries, an economy must generate income. By producing many goods and services,then trading them for goods and services produced in other countries, a nation maximizes itsstandard of living.2. a. More investment would lead to faster economic growth in the short run.b. The change would benefit many people in society who would have higher incomes as theresult of faster economic growth. However, there might be a transition period in whichworkers and owners in consumption-good industries would get lower incomes, andworkers and owners in investment-good industries would get higher incomes. In addition,some group would have to reduce their spending for some time so that investment couldrise.3. a. Private consumption spending includes buying food and buying clothes; privateinvestment spending includes people buying houses and firms buying computers. Manyother examples are possible. Education can be considered as both consumption andinvestment.b. Government consumption spending includes paying workers to administer governmentprograms; government investment spending includes buying military equipment andbuilding roads. Many other examples are possible.4. The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results fromredirecting resources toward investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because ofdiminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer tohave higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investingin human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources forinvestment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highlyeducated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy couldfind is managing a restaurant.5. a. The United States benefited from the Chinese and Japanese investment because it madeour capital stock larger, increasing our economic growth.Chapter 12/Production and Growth ❖ 219© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.b. It would have been better for Americans to make the investments because then they would have received all of the returns on the investments, instead of the returns going toChina and Japan.6. Greater educational opportunities for women could lead to faster economic growth in thesedeveloping countries because increased human capital would increase productivity and there would be external effects from greater knowledge in the country. Second, increasededucational opportunities for young women may lower the population growth rate because such opportunities raise the opportunity cost of having a child.7. a. Individuals with higher incomes have better access to clean water, medical care, and good nutrition.b. Healthier individuals are likely to be more productive.c. Understanding the direction of causation will help policymakers place proper emphasis on the programs that will achieve both greater health and higher incomes. 8. Peace would promote economic growth because it is an indication that property rights will berespected in the future. Armed conflict and the threat of a revolutionary government reduce domestic residents' incentive to save, invest, and start new businesses. Moreover, foreigners have less incentive to invest in the country.Easy taxes would promote economic growth because they result in citizens and businesses retaining a greater share of the income they earn and, thus, being able to save and invest a greater portion of that income.A tolerable administration of justice would promote economic growth because it would ensure the maintenance of property rights, which encourages domestic saving andinvestment from abroad.。

曼昆的经济学原理

曼昆的经济学原理第一部分：引言。

本章介绍了经济学的基本概念和研究方法，并提出了经济学面临的三个基本问题：什么能够生产？怎样生产？以及生产什么？第二部分：供给和需求。

本章讨论了市场的供给和需求，解释了价格在市场中起到的调节作用，并介绍了供给曲线和需求曲线的概念。

第三部分：市场机制。

本章介绍了市场机制以及市场的效率和公平性。

同时，还探讨了政府在市场中的作用，并介绍了外部性和公共物品的概念。

第四部分：个人行为。

本章介绍了个人的行为决策过程，包括理性人假设和边际效用理论。

同时，还讨论了行为经济学的概念。

第五部分：生产成本和产量。

本章讨论了企业的生产过程和成本结构。

同时，还介绍了不同市场结构下的企业行为和市场效率。

第六部分：供给的决定。

本章解释了企业如何决定生产的具体数量，包括使用生产要素的决策和规模的选择。

第七部分：市场结构。

本章讨论了市场的不同结构，如垄断、寡头垄断、垄断竞争和完全竞争。

同时，还介绍了价格歧视和投资创新的概念。

第八部分：不完全竞争市场。

本章进一步讨论了市场的不完全竞争，如垄断竞争市场和寡头垄断市场。

同时，还探讨了博弈论和战略行为的概念。

第九部分：劳动市场。

本章介绍了劳动力市场的特点和规律，并讨论了最低工资、工会和劳动力市场歧视等问题。

第十部分：经济增长和稳定。

本章讨论了经济增长和稳定的因素，包括技术进步、资本积累和经济周期等。

总而言之，曼昆的经济学原理是一本系统而全面的经济学教材，旨在帮助读者理解和运用经济学原理来分析和解决实际经济问题。

通过该书的学习，读者可以掌握经济学的基本概念，了解市场的运作机制，并能够运用经济学原理来解决现实生活中的经济问题。

无论是对经济学专业的学生，还是对普通读者来说，这本书都是一本很好的入门教材。

《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章课件

《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章
25.3.3 来自国外的投资 INVESTMENT FROM ABROAD
我们讨论了目的在于提高一国储蓄率的政策如何可以增加投资，从而提高长期增长率。但国内居民的储蓄并不是一国投资于新资本的惟一方法，另一种方法是外国人的投资。
《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章
Prologue
We proceed here in three steps. First, we examine international data on real GDP per person. These data will give you some sense of how much the level and growth of living standards vary around the world. Second, we examine the role of
《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章
25.3.2 收益递减和追赶效应 Diminishing Returns And The Catch-up Effect
追赶效应实例
（追赶效应有助于解释图中引起的某些难解之处）
在这31年的时期中，美国和韩国用于投资的GDP 份额相似，但美国只有2%左右的适度增长，而韩国是6%以上的惊人增长，解释就是追赶效应。
《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT
生产率 ——1个工人工作1小时生产的物品和劳务的数量
在克鲁索经济的情况下—— 生产率是生活水平的关键决定因素生产率的增长是生活水平提高的关键决定因素
《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第25章

曼昆《经济学原理第三版》宏观分册原版中英文双语Chap25省公开课一等奖全国示范课微课金奖PPT课件

70/ 7 = 10
15/76
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
70规则一个例子
每年利率为7％5000美元投资在后价值翻一番。
70/ 7 = 10
16/76
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
22/76
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
生产率是怎样决定
物质资本
是生产出来生产要素。
• 它是生产过程投入，也是过去生产过程产出。
是用于生产物品与劳务设备与建筑物存量。
• 用于生产或修理汽车工具。 • 用于生产家俱工具。 • 办公楼，学校等等…
Physical Capital
is a produced factor of production.
• It is an input into the production process that in the past was an output from the production process.
17/76
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Why Productivity Is So Important 为何生产率如此主要
Productivity refers to the quantity of goods and services that a worker can produce from each hour of work. 生产率是指一个工人一小时内所生产物品与劳务量。

CHAPTER 25曼昆经济学

CHAPTER 25 PRODUCTION AND GROWTH LEARNING OBJECTIVES:how much economic growth differs around the world.why productivity is the key determinant of a country’s standard of living.the factors that determine a country’s productivity.how a country’s po licies influence its productivity growth.KEY POINTS:1.Economic prosperity, as measured by GDP per person, varies substantially around the world.The average income in the world’s richest countries is more than ten times that in the world’s poorest countries. Because growth rates of real GDP also vary substantially, the relative positions of countries can change dramatically over time.2.The standard of living in an economy depends on the economy’s ability to produce goods andservices. Productivity, in turn, depends on the amounts of physical capital, human capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge available to workers.ernment policies can try to influence the economy’s growth rate in many ways:encouraging saving and investment, encouraging investment from abroad, fostering education, maintaining property rights and political stability, allowing free trade, controlling population growth, and promoting the research and development of new technologies.4.The accumulation of capital is subject to diminishing returns: The more capital an economyhas, the less additional output the economy gets from an extra unit of capital. Because of diminishing returns, higher saving leads to higher growth for a period of time, but growth eventually slows down as the economy approaches a higher level of capital, productivity, and income. Also because of diminishing returns, the return to capital is especially high in poor countries. Other things equal, these countries can grow faster because of the catch-up effect.OUTLINE:I. Economic Growth around the WorldA. Table 1 shows data on real GDP per person for 13 countries during differentperiods of time.1. The data reveal the fact that living standards vary a great deal betweenthese countries.2. Growth rates are also reported in the table. Japan has had the largestgrowth rate over time, 2.8 percent per year (on average).3. Because of different growth rates, the ranking of countries by incomeper person changes over time.a. In the late 19th century, the United Kingdom was the richestcountry in the world.b. Today, income per person is lower in the United Kingdom thanin the United States and Canada (two former colonies of theUnited Kingdom).II. Productivity: Its Role and DeterminantsA. Why Productivity Is So Important1. Example: Robinson Crusoea. Because he is stranded alone, he must catch his own fish, growhis own vegetables, and make his own clothes.b. His standard of living depends on his ability to produce goodsand services.2. Definition of productivity: the amount of goods and services producedfor each hour of a worker’s time.3. Review of Principle #8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on ItsAbility to Produce Goods and Services.B. How Productivity Is Determined1. Physical Capitala. Definition of physical capital: the stock of equipment andstructures that are used to produce goods and services.b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has more fishingpoles.2. Human Capitala. Definition of human capital: the knowledge and skills thatworkers acquire through education, training, and experience.b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has been trained inthe best fishing techniques.3. Natural Resourcesa. Definition of natural resources: the inputs into the productionof goods and services that are provided by nature, such asland, rivers, and mineral deposits.b. Example: Crusoe will have better luck catching fish if there is aplentiful supply around his island.4. Technological Knowledgea. Definition of technological knowledge: society’sunderstanding of the best ways to produce goods andservices.b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has invented a betterfishing lure.C. FYI: The Production Function1. A production function describes the relationship between the quantityof inputs used in production and the quantity of output fromproduction.2. The production function generally is written like this:where Y = output, L = quantity of labor, K = quantity of physical capital,H= quantity of human capital, N= quantity of natural resources, Areflects the available production technology, and F(·) is a function thatshows how inputs are combined to produce output.3. Many production functions have a property called constant returns toscale.a. This property implies that as all inputs are doubled, output willexactly double.b. This implies that the following must be true:where x =2 if inputs are doubled.c. This also means that if we want to examine output per workerwe could set x = 1/L and we would get the following:This shows that output per worker depends on the amount ofphysical capital per worker (K/L), the amount of human capitalper worker (H/L), and the amount of natural resources perworker (N/L).III. Economic Growth and Public PolicyA. The Importance of Saving and Investment1. Because capital is a produced factor of production, a society can changethe amount of capital that it has.2. However, there is an opportunity cost of doing so; if resources are usedto produce capital goods, fewer goods and services are produced forcurrent consumption.3. Figure 1 shows economic growth rates and investment amounts of 15countries for 1960 to 1991.a. Countries that devote a large share of GDP to investment tendto have high growth rates.b. However, from the data given it is difficult to determine causeand effect.B. Diminishing Returns and the Catch-Up Effect1. Definition of diminishing returns: the property whereby the benefitfrom an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the inputincreases.a. As the capital stock rises, the extra output produced from anadditional unit of capital will fall.b. Thus, if workers already have a large amount of capital to workwith, giving them an additional unit of capital will not increasetheir productivity by much.c. In the long run, a higher saving rate leads to a higher level ofproductivity and income, but not to higher growth rates inthese variables.2. An important implication of diminishing returns is the Catch-Up Effect.a. Definition of catch-up effect: the property whereby countriesthat start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countriesthat start off rich.b. When workers have very little capital to begin with, anadditional unit of capital will increase their productivity by agreat deal.c. This helps explain why (referring to Figure 1) South Korea had agrowth rate more than three times larger than the UnitedStates even though both countries devoted a similar share ofGDP to investment.C. Investment from Abroad1. Saving by domestic residents is not the only way for a country to investin new capital.2. Investment in the country by foreigners can also occur.a. Foreign direct investment occurs when a capital investment isowned and operated by a foreign entity.b. Foreign portfolio investment occurs when a capital investmentis financed with foreign money but operated by domesticresidents.3. Some of the benefits of foreign investment flow back to foreign owners.But the economy still experiences an increase in the capital stock, whichleads to higher productivity and higher wages.4. The World Bank is an organization that tries to encourage the flow ofinvestment to poor countries.a. The World Bank obtains funds from developed countries suchas the United States and makes loans to less-developedcountries so that they can invest in roads, sewer systems,schools, and other types of capital.b. The World Bank also offers these countries advice on how bestto use these funds.D. Education1. Investment in human capital also has an opportunity cost.a. When students are in class, they cannot be producing goodsand services for consumption.b. In less-developed countries, this opportunity cost is consideredto be high; as a result, children often drop out of school at ayoung age.2. Because there are positive externalities in education, the effect of lowereducation on the economic growth rate of a country can be large.3. Many poor countrie s also face a “brain drain”—the best educated oftenleave to go to other countries where they can enjoy a higher standard ofliving.E. Health and Nutrition1. Human capital can also be used to describe another type of investmentin people: expenditures that lead to a healthier population.2. Other things being equal, healthier workers are more productive.3. Making the right investments in the health of the population is one wayfor a nation to increase productivity.F. Property Rights and Political Stability1. Protection of property rights and promotion of political stability are twoother important ways that policymakers can improve economic growth.2. There is little incentive to produce products if there is no guarantee thatthey cannot be taken. Contracts must also be enforced.3. Countries with questionable enforcement of property rights or anunstable political climate will also have difficulty in attracting foreign (oreven domestic) investment.G. Free Trade1. Some countries have tried to achieve faster economic growth byavoiding transacting with the rest of the world.2. However, we know that trade allows a country to specialize in what itdoes best and thus consume beyond its production possibilities.3. When a country trades wheat for steel, it is as well off as it would be if ithad developed a new technology for turning wheat into steel.4. The amount a nation trades is determined not only by governmentpolicy but also by geography.a. Countries with good, natural seaports find trade easier thancountries without this resource.b. Many African countries, for example, are landlocked. This maybe one reason why the continent is so poor.H. Research and Development1. The primary reason why living standards have improved over time hasbeen due to large increases in technological knowledge.2. Knowledge can be considered to be a public good.3. The U.S. government promotes the creation of new technologicalinformation by providing research grants and providing tax incentivesfor firms engaged in research.4. The patent system also encourages research by granting an inventor theexclusive right to produce the product for a specified number of years.I. Population Growth1. Stretching Natural Resourcesa. Thomas Malthus (an English minister and early economicthinker) argued that an ever-increasing population meant thatthe world was doomed to live in poverty forever.b. However, he failed to understand that new ideas would bedeveloped to increase the production of food and other goods,including pesticides, fertilizers, mechanized equipment, andnew crop varieties.2. Diluting the Capital Stocka. High population growth reduces GDP per worker because rapidgrowth in the number of workers forces the capital stock to bespread more thinly.b. Countries with a high population growth have large numbers ofschool-age children, placing a burden on the education system.3. Some countries have already instituted measures to reduce populationgrowth rates.4. Policies that foster equal treatment for women should raise economicopportunities for women leading to lower rates of population.5. Promoting Technological Progressa. Some economists have suggested that population growth hasdriven technological progress and economic prosperity.b. In a 1993 journal article, economist Michael Kremer providedevidence that increases in population lead to technologicalprogress.。

经济学原理(第三版)课件：价格理论

元时，总收益的变化情况。
解：当P2=1800，Q2=1200（部）
TR1=2000×1000=2000000（元）
TR2=1800×1200=2160000（元）
TR2－TR1=2160000 － 2000000=160000（元）
➢
结论：需求富有弹性的商品价格下降，
P
总收益会增加，价格上涨，总收益减
网理念。
➢
基本概念：需求；需求定理；需求量的变动；需求的变动；供给；供给
定理；供给量的变动；供给的变动；供求定理；均衡价格；支持价格；限制
价格；需求的价格弹性；需求的收入弹性；需求的交叉弹性
➢
学习重点：相关商品的价格对需求的影响；需求定理；需求量的变动与
需求的变动；供给定理；供给量的变动与供给的变动；需求（供给）变动对
↓
？
（一）价格调节的缺陷
➢
1.从短期来看，均衡价格也许是合适的，但从长期来看，对生产不利，如农产品
（一）价格调节的缺陷
➢
2.均衡价格对社会产生不
利影响，如紧缺性商品
➢
（二）支持价格
是政府为了扶持某一行业的生产而
P
规定该行业产品的最低价格。
S
P1
E
P0
D
0
Qd
Q0
Qs
Q
➢
以农业为例，支持价格有利于农业的发展：
P
A
C
B
E
D
O
Q
F G
➢
进一步思考：为什么我国现在并
没有出现“谷贱伤农”问题？
➢
进一步思考：为什么我国现在并没有出现“谷贱伤农”问题？
S
P1
E
P0

《经济学原理曼昆》课件

的作用和合理分配的挑战。
3
政府干预
探讨政府在公共物品和市场失灵中的角色和干预措施。
市场与价格：供求关系、市场均衡和价格决定机制
1
供求关系
了解供求关系是理解市场机制的关键，它决定了商品的价格和数量。
2
市场均衡
市场均衡是供求关系达到稳定状态的情况，其中供给量等于需求量。
3
价格决定机制
价格是由供求关系决定的，市场均应用：消费者与生产者剩余、税收和补贴的影响
寡头垄断
对寡头垄断市场进行分析，以及寡头垄断对经济和消费者的影响。
垄断竞争
探讨在垄断竞争市场中，不同厂商如何竞争和影响价格和产量。
公共物品和公共选择：市场失灵、公共物品的特征和政府干预
1
市场失灵
了解市场失灵的原因和影响，并探讨政府
公共物品的特征
2
干预的必要性。
研究公共物品的特征，以及它们在经济中
交叉弹性
交叉弹性帮助我们了解商品之间的替代关系和供求关系的复杂性。
边际分析：边际收益和边际成本
1
边际收益
边际收益是指增加或减少一个单位产出所带来的额外效益。
2
边际成本
边际成本是指增加或减少一个单位产出所需的额外成本。
市场结构：垄断、寡头垄断、垄断竞争和纯竞争
垄断
深入了解垄断市场的特点、形成原因和对消费者和经济产生的影响。
《经济学原理曼昆》PPT课件
为大家带来《经济学原理曼昆》的PPT课件，帮助你更好地理解经济学的基本概念和逻辑，以及市场和价格的关系。让我们一起开始经济学的探索之旅吧！
导论：经济科学的基本概念和逻辑
通过本节课，我们将深入了解经济科学的基本概念和逻辑，为后续的学习打下坚实的基础。让我们一起探索经济学的精彩世界吧！

曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题详解(第25章--生产与增长)

第9篇长期中的真实经济第25章生产与增长25.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．生产率（1）定义生产率指用以衡量每单位投入要素的产出量的指标。

如一个工人单位小时工作所生产的物品与劳务的数量。

（2）生产率的决定因素①人均物质资本。

物质资本是指用于生产物品与劳务的设备与建筑物存量。

②人均人力资本。

人力资本是指通过对人的教育、培训、实践经验、迁移、保健等方面的投资而获得的知识和技能的积累。

③人均自然资源。

自然资源是指自然界提供的生产投入，如土地、河流和矿藏。

自然资源有两种形式：可再生的与不可再生的。

④技术知识。

技术知识指的是自适应的、可在公众间传递的信息与技巧。

2．经济增长和公共政策（1）经济增长的含义和源泉在宏观经济学中，经济增长通常被定义为产量的增加。

具体理解有两层含义：①经济增长指一个经济体所生产的物质产品和劳务在一个相当长时期内的持续增长，即经济总产量的增长；②经济增长是按人口平均计算的实际产出的持续增长，即人均产量的增长。

经济增长的源泉最主要的因素是：劳动数量增加和质量提高（即人力资本的增长）、资本存量的增加和技术进步（是广义概念，包括采用新技术、新产品、先进管理手段以及资源配置的高效率等）。

（2）储蓄和投资①储蓄是指个人可支配收入中用于消费支出后所剩余的部分。

储蓄是西方宏观经济学中的一个重要概念，也是凯恩斯收入与就业理论的重要概念之一。

但是，储蓄是一个不容易确定的概念，无论从它的来源还是作用方面看，均没有准确的数量限制。

储蓄可能是正数，也可能是负数。

当可支配收入大于最终的消费支出时，储蓄值为正数；反之，则为负数。

曼昆《经济学原理第三版》原版中英文双语PPT精品课程课件全册课件汇总

经济一词来源于希腊语，意思是 “管理家庭的人”。
A household and an economy face many decisions:
一个家庭和经济体面临很多决策：
Who
will work?
谁去工作？
What
goods and how many of them should be produced? 应该生产什么物品？应该生产多少？
1. People face tradeoffs.
To get one thing, we usually have to give up another thing.

Байду номын сангаас
Guns v. butter Food v. clothing Leisure time v. work Efficiency v. equity
人们如何作出决策
How The
people interact with each other.
人们如何与他人相互交易
forces and trends that affect the economy as a whole.
影响整体经济的力量和趋势
Ten Principles of Economics
A household and an economy face many decisions:
一个家庭和经济体面临很多决策：
What
resources should be used in production? 应该用什么资源生产？ At what price should the goods be sold? 物品的销售价格应该是多少？
. . . means that society has limited resources and therefore cannot produce all the goods and services people wish to have. …意思是说，社会拥有有限的资源，不能生产出人们想要的所有物品与劳务。

曼昆《经济学原理第三版》宏观分册原版中英文双语课件Chap

The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The two sides of the foreign-currency exchange market are represented by NCO and NX. NCO represents the imbalance between the purchases and sales of capital assets. NX represents the imbalance between exports and imports of goods and services.
实际汇率——使外汇市场供需平衡的价格。
The Market for Foreign-Currency Exchange
The demand curve for foreign currency is downward sloping because a higher exchange rate makes domestic goods more expensive. The supply curve is vertical because the quantity of dollars supplied for net capital outflow is unrelated to the real exchange rate.
2. At the equilibrium real exchange rate, the demand for dollars to buy net exports exactly balances the supply of dollars to be exchanged into foreign currency to buy assets abroad.

曼昆《经济学原理》(宏观经济学分册)英文原版课件 25

• The poorest countries have average levels of income that have not been seen in the United States for many decades.
• Annual growth rates that seem small become large when compounded for many years.
• Compounding refers to the accumulation of a growth rate over a period of time.
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
• Why Productivity Is So Important
• Tools used to build or repair automobiles. • Tools used to build furniture. • Office buildings, schools, etc.
• Physical capital is a produced factor of production.
How Productivity Is Determined
• Physical capital per worker is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.
• Physical capital includes:
• In the United States over the past century, average income as measured by real GDP per person has grown by about 2 percent per year.

曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记(第25章生产与增长)

曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）第9篇长期中的真实经济第25章生产与增长复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

一、生产率：作用及决定因素1．为什么生产率如此重要生产率（productivity）是指每单位劳动投入所生产的物品和劳务的数量。

生产率可以在一定程度上解释世界各国生活水平悬殊。

生产率的增长是生活水平提高的关键决定因素。

一个经济的国内生产总值（GDP）同时衡量两件事：经济中所有人赚到的总收入和经济中用于物品与劳务产出的总支出。

一个国家只有生产出大量物品与劳务，它才能享有更高的生活水平。

正如经济学十大原理之一是，一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力。

2．生产率的决定决定生产率的因素有：物质资本、人力资本、自然资源和技术知识。

这些用于生产物品与劳务的投入，劳动、资本等称为生产要素。

（1）物质资本物质资本（physical capital）是用于生产物品与劳务的设备和建筑物存量，简称资本。

资本的重要特征是，它是一种生产出来的生产要素。

也就是说，资本是生产过程的投入，也是过去生产过程的产出。

人均物质资本越多，生产率就会越高。

如，当木工制造家具时，所使用的工具越多，就越能迅速而精确地生产更多的产品：（2）人力资本人力资本（human capital）：工人通过教育、培训和经验而获得的知识与技能的一个术语。

人力资本包括在早期儿童教育、小学、中学、大学和成人劳动力在职培训中所积累的技能。

和物质资本一样，人力资本提高了一国生产物品与劳务的能力，人力资本也是一种生产出来的生产要素。

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一些经济学家认为，人力资本对经济增长特别重要，因为人力资本带来正外部性。一些穷国面临的一个问题是——人才的外流。

教育部、财政部联合印发通知，要求公派出国的留学研究生学成后需要回国服务两年，如果不遵守需要偿还所有的资助费用并支付30%的违约金。（2007年9月27日《京华时报》）中国教育部的统计数字显示，从1978年到2005年，中国各类出国留学人员是93,3400人。其中学成回国人数23,2900 人，仅占留学总人数的大约25%。那么为何中国的人才外流现象严重？为何中国的留学生多数人一去不回？这恐怕与中国自身环境有关。

技术知识是指社会对世界如何运行的理解

人力资本指把这种理解传递给劳动力的资源消耗
比喻——知识是高质量的社会教科书，人力资本是人们用于阅读这本教科书的时间量
25.3 经济增长和公共政策 ECONOMIC GROWTH AND PUBLIC POLICY
到现在为止，我们已经确定了社会的生活水平取
25.3.2 收益递减和追赶效应 Diminishing Returns And The Catch-up Effect

假设一个政府被上图的证据所说服，实施一种提高国民储蓄率的政策——提高用于储蓄而不是消费的GDP百分比生产过程的传统观点：资本要受到收益递减的制约——随着资本存量增加，从增加的一单位资本中生产的额外产量减少实施提高储蓄率政策储蓄增加
什么因素决定了克鲁索的生活水平?
——如果克鲁索在捕鱼、种菜和做衣服上是一个好手，他生活就好。如果他做这些事情不行，他生活就很糟。
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT
生产率
——1个工人工作1小时生产的物品和劳务的数量
在克鲁索经济的情况下—— 生产率是生活水平的关键决定因素生产率的增长是生活水平提高的关键决定因素
3.自然资源
生产率的第三种决定因素是自然资源。自然资源是自然界提供的生产投入，例如：土地、河流和矿藏。自然资源有两种形式:可再生的与不可再生的。
3.自然资源

自然资源的差别引起了世界各国生活水平的一些差别

美国历史上的成功，部分是由于有大量适于农业的土地供给中东某些国家的富有只是因为它们正好位于世界上最大油田的地方
第二十五章生产与增长
Chapter 25
Production and Growth
在本章中，你将

看到世界各国经济增长有多大不同

考虑为什么生产率是一国生活水平的关键决定因素分析决定一国生产率的因素
考察一国的政策如何影响其生产率增长

在实现这些目的后，你应该能

列出人均GDP最高和人均GDP增长最快的国家
25.3.3 来自国外的投资 INVESTMENT FROM ABROAD
我们讨论了目的在于提高一国储蓄率的政策如何可以增加投资，从而提高长期增长率。但国内居民的储蓄并不是一国投资于新资本的惟一方法，另一种方法是外国人的投资。来自国的投资采取了几种形式：外国直接投资和外国间接投资（外国有价证券投资）。

自然资源并不是一个经济生产物品与劳务中生产率术知识
生产率的第四个决定因素是技术知识— —懂得生产物品与劳务的最好方法。技术知识采取了多种形式，一些技术是普通技术，另一种技术是私人拥有的，
还有一些技术在短期内是私人拥有的。
4.技术知识
技术知识和人力资本的区别
来自外国的投资是一国增长的一种方法。即使来自这种投资的一部分收益要流回外国所有者手中，这种投资也增加了一国资本存量。此外，来自外国的投资也是穷国学习富国先进技术的一种方式。
25.3.4 教育 EDUCATION 教育（人力资本投资）对一个国家的长期经济成功至少和物质资本投资同样重要。在美国，每一年正规教育使人的平均收入增加10%左右。在人力资本特别稀缺的发展中国家，受过教育的工人与末受过教育的工人之间的工资差距甚至更大。因此，政府政策可以提高生活水平的一种方法是提供良好的学校，并鼓励人们利用这些学校。
为追赶效应。
25.3.2 收益递减和追赶效应 Diminishing Returns And The Catch-up Effect
追赶效应实例
（追赶效应有助于解释图中引起的某些难解之处）
在这31年的时期中，美国和韩国用于投资的GDP 份额相似，但美国只有2%左右的适度增长，而韩
国是6%以上的惊人增长，解释就是追赶效应。
会可以改变它所拥有的资本。如果今天经济生产
了大量新资本品，那么，明天它就将有大量资本
存量，并能生产更多各种物品与劳务。因此，提高未来生产率的一种方法是把更多现期资源投资于资本的生产。
25.3.1 储蓄和投资的重要性 THE IMPORTANCE OF SAVING AND INVESTMENT

解释为什么在长期中生产制约消费
列出并解释生产要素解释可以影响一国生产率和增长的8种政策行为
Prologue
In the previous two chapters we discussed how economists measure macroeconomic quantities and prices. In this chapter we start studying the forces that determine these variables. As we have seen, an economy’s gross domestic product (GDP) measures both the total income earned in the economy and the total expenditure on the economy’s output of goods and services. The level of real GDP is a good gauge of economic prosperity, and the growth of real GDP is a good gauge of economic progress. Here we focus on the long-run determinants of the level and growth of real GDP. Later in this book we study the short-run fluctuations of real GDP around its long-run trend.
这些问题对人类福利的影
响简直令人吃惊；一旦开
始考虑这些问题，就很难再考虑其他任何问题。
Robert E. Lucas 1937-
25.1 世界各国的经济增长 ECONOMIC GROWTH AROUND THE WORLD
资料：复利计算与70规则的魔力
一个被称为70规则的古老拇指规律有助于理解增长率和复
生产率在决定鲁滨逊· 克鲁索的生活水平中是极为重要的，但有许多因素决定克鲁索的生产率:
更多渔具物质资本人力资本自然资源技术知识掌握最佳捕鱼技术捕鱼方面做得更好丰富的鱼的供给
找到最佳捕鱼地点
1.物资资本
如果工人用工具进行工作，工人就更有生产率。用于生产物品与劳务的设备和建筑物存量被称为物质资本，或者就称为资本。
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT

一个国家只有能生产大量物品与劳务，它才能享有高生活水平

美国人生活比尼日利亚人好，是因为美国工人生产率比尼日利亚工人高日本人生活水平的提高比阿根廷人快，是因为日本人生产率的提高更迅速

经济学十大原理之一——一个国家的生活水平取决于其生产物品和劳务的能力
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT
我们对生产率和经济增长
的研究从《鲁滨逊漂流记》
（Robinson Crusoe）建立
的一个模型开始……
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT

高增长
资本积累增加
收益递减规律
增长放慢资本收益递减
25.3.2 收益递减和追赶效应 Diminishing Returns And The Catch-up Effect
资本的收益递减的另一种重要含义——
追赶效应
在其他条件相同的情况下，如果一国开
始时较穷。它要迅速增长是容易的，这
种初始状况对持续增长的影响有时被称
25.2.1为什么生产率如此重要 WHY PRODUCTIVITY IS SO IMPORTANT

为了理解各国或各个时期的生活水平的巨大差别，我们
必须集中于物品和劳务的生产上

说明生活水平和生产率之间的联系只是第一步进一步思考：为什么一些经济在生产物品与劳务方面比
另一些经济强得多？
25.2.2 生产率是如何决定的 HOW PRODUCTIVITY IS DETERMINED
决于它生产物品与劳务的能力，以及其生产率取
决于物质资本、人力资本、自然资源和技术知识。
现在我们转向全世界各国决策者面临的问题：哪
些政府政策可以提高生产率和生活水平？
25.3.1 储蓄和投资的重要性 THE IMPORTANCE OF SAVING AND INVESTMENT
由于资本是生产出来的生产要素，因此，一个社
Prologue
We proceed here in three steps. First, we examine international data on real GDP per person. These data will give you some sense of how much the level and growth of living standards vary around the world. Second, we examine the role of productivity—the amount of goods and services produced for each hour of a worker’s time. In particular, we see that a nation’s standard of living is determined by the productivity of its workers, and we consider the factors that determine a nation’s productivity. Third, we consider the link between productivity and the economic policies that a nation pursues.