英语语言学 lecture six
Lecture Six
Bound morphemes in detail
Bound morphemes cannot stand alone. In a word, they must be attached to the root. All bound morphemes are affixes and all affixes in English are bound morphemes.
Lexical morphemes can stand alone and are a set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs which carry the „content‟ of messages.
– E.g. boy, man, house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break
Circumfixes: affixes attached to the root or stem both initially and finally (do not appear in English either)
They appear in Chicksaw (a language spoken in Oklahoma)
Morpheme
A sentence is not the smallest linguistic form as it consists of other smaller linguistic forms called words. However, when we examine the English word „unfriendly‟, it is not difficult to find that the word consists of three even smaller word-like linguistic elements: un+friend+ly 3 separate morphemes
英语语言学课件Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Minimal Pairs and Sets
• Phonemic distinctions in a L can be tested via pairs and set of words
• Pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, minimal pair. More accurately described as minimal pair in the phonology of English
Phonemes
• Substitute one sound for another in a word and there is change of meaning, two sounds represent different phonemes
• Chart in Chpt 5 a mapping of English phonemes • /p/ -voice, +bilabial, +stop • /k/ -voice, +velar, +stop • Sounds have features in common would behave
• Feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot • Big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig
Phonotactics
• Constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes
语言学6PPT课件
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
英语语言学实用教程课件Unit4-6
➢ closed-class words -- open-class words
New members of word class: ➢ particles: pass by; make up; to do; not ➢ auxiliaries: I don't do it; is he coming? he has
Discuss
PP. 53-54 No. 3
4.2 English words
➢Presentation session
Word formation in English
➢ Practice: Point out the devices of word formation for
each of the following:
(1) a traditional festival (2) freezing cold (3) in the next century
4.3 English clauses and sentences
➢ A clause in English is one unit of organization that contains a subject-predication structure. A simple sentence is a clause. Alternatively:
➢ / :/: mid, central, tense, long, unrounded
Major contents
4.1 English morphemes 4.2 English words 4.3 English clauses and sentences 4.4 Collocations, idioms, and constructions in English
英语语言学完整版
Displacement
----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
语言学第六章chapter6课件
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
语言学(Lecture Three)解析
II. Morpheme: the minimal units of meaning
A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Example: a word over 5 morphemes
Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism (国教废除论)
the final word: head-strong, pickpocket 3. compounds have different stress patterns from the
noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house 4. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat (在美国独 立战争中服役的英国士兵), bigwig (有重大影响的人), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Hu, Z. L., Liu, R. Q. & Li, Y. F. (1988). Linguistics: a course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
英语语言学six
Semantic component
The task of the semantic component is to analyse the deep structure of a sentence into basic semantic features and then to derive its semantic interpretation from the deep structure.
2.How do modern linguists differ from traditional scholars in defining “sentence”?
Traditionaly scholars often depended on the use of punctuation or a semantic criterion--the expression of a complete thought---to define a sentence. They look at the sentence as the result of linking words together.
They were badly treated.
They were treated badly.
在现在完成体和过去完成体中，我们可以在 第一个助动词之后插入一个延续性时间状语， 但是方式状语一般紧跟在live之后，如：
He had for twenty years lived in poverty. *She had in poverty lived for twenty years. They live frugally. *They frugally live.
*They can’t probably finish the task in time.
语言学讲座6
Language and society
The scope of sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is one branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.
As society is reflected in language in this way, social change can produce a corresponding linguistic change.
This has happened in the case of Russian. During the period from 1860 to the present day the structure of the Russian kinship system has undergone a very radical change as a result of several important events:
英语语言学题库
How many syllables are there in the word “rhythmical”?A.ThreeB.FourC.FiveD.Ten答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.02．第2题Which of the following underlined parts is a bound morpheme?A.relationshipB.bedroomkmanD.childlike答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.03．第3题Which of the following is an aspirated consonant?A.[f]B.[s]C.[k]D.[r]答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.04．第4题Which of the following underlined parts is a derivational morpheme?rgerB.dataC.traineeD.Kat e’s答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0Which of the following sentences is an example of overgeneralization?A.Jane told me to give up smoking.B.Jane asked me to give up smoking.C.Jane advised me to give up smoking.D.Jane suggested me to give up smoking.答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.06．第6题Which side(s) of muscles of ours does our left brain control?A.both left and rightB.leftC.rightD.sometimes left, sometimes right答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.07．第108题Which of the following pairs of words are homophones?A.flour---flowerB.lead (to guide)---lead (a kind of metal)C.mouth (a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)D.animal---cow答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.08．第109题The relation between ‘furniture’ and ‘wardrobe’ is ___.A.homophonyB.homographyC.hyponymyD.polysemy答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0Which of the following is a representative?A.You’d better go to see a doctor.B.I promise to buy you something when I come back.C.I now declare the meeting close.D.I have never seen the man before.答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.010．第111题Which of the following is a directive?A.Your money or your life!B.You are fired!C.The earth is round.D.Thank you very much.答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.011．第119题Which of the following is a declaration?A.Open the door, please.B.I appoint you chairman of the committee.C.Would you like to go to the movie with us?D.I’ve never seen her before.答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.012．第120题The word "realization" consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A.five/fiveB.five/fourC.four/threeD.four/four答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0The words “subway” and “underground” are ______ synonyms.A.nearB.dialectalC.collocationally-restrictedD.stylistic答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.014．第122题Which of the following best describes the relations between “Alice is a vegetarian” and “Alice prefers eating steak”?A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.015．第123题‘It is 8 o’clock’ is a ___-place predication.A.noB.oneC.twoD.three答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.016．第124题‘She sings very well’ is a ___-place predication.A.noB.oneC.twoD.three答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.517．第125题‘Slim’ and ‘skinny’ are ___.A.dialectal synonymsB.collocational synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.018．第126题‘Handsome’ and ‘pretty’ are ___.A.dialectal synonymsB.collocational synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.019．第127题Which of the following pairs of words are homographs?A.sew---sowB.tear(a drop of liquid that flows from the eye)---tear (to pull apart)C.tec---techD.mouth (a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.020．第128题Which of the following words is NOT a coined word?A.dacronB.kodakC.xeroxD.gym答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.521．第129题“Up you go, chaps!” belongs to ____ language.A.intimateB.frozenC.consultativeD.casual答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.022．第130题Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his ____.A.first languageB.second languageC.foreign languageD.target language答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.023．第131题The first consonants the child can make are made with the lips and they are ____.A.[p,b,n]B.[p,b,m]C.[t,d,n]D.[t,d,m]答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.024．第132题If the child calls all men “Daddy”, then we may say the child has ____ the meaning of the word “Daddy”.A.overgeneralizedB.overextendedC.overusedD.overstressed答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：此题得分：0.025．第7题Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.026．第8题[i] is a semi-close vowel.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.027．第9题[h] is the glottal sound.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.028．第10题Phonetics deals with speech sounds in all human languages. 答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.029．第11题Tsled’ is a possibl e word in English.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.030．第12题English is a tone language.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.031．第13题‘Teach-in’ is a compound word.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.032．第14题The morpheme ‘–or’ in ‘actor’ is an inflectional morpheme.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.033．第15题The –s in ‘works’ of ‘He works hard.’ is a bound morpheme.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.034．第16题In XP, X refers to any such head as N, V, A or P.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.035．第17题The words ‘alive’ and ‘dead’ are relational opposites.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.036．第18题The words ‘lead’(领导) and ‘lead’(铅球) are homographs. 答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.037．第19题The words ‘flat’ and ‘apartment’ are stylistic synonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.038．第20题The words ‘politician’ and ‘statesman’ are collocational synonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.039．第21题The words ‘buy’ and ‘purchase’ are dialectal sy nonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.040．第22题‘His friend is coming.’ presupposes ‘He has a friend.’答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.041．第23题' I fire you!' is a commissive.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.042．第24题' Do not say what you believe to be false' is a maxim of relation.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.043．第25题B' s reply violates the maxim of quality in the dialogue below: A: Where do you live? B: In South China Normal University.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.044．第26题B probably means that he doesn' t want to make any comment on the lecture, in the dialogue below: A: What do you think of the lecture? (The speech maker is coming) B: Do we have classes this evening?答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.045．第27题B probably means that it is impolite to ask about her age, in the dialogue below: A: How old are you? B: I am 80.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.046．第28题B probably means that A should not laugh at him since they know each other, in the dialogue below: A: Are you a good student? B: Are you?答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.047．第29题The word ' mice' , which is pronounced as [mais], was pronounced as [mi:s] in Middle English.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.048．第30题In Chaucer' s the Canterbury Tales, we can find ' his' to replace ' it' in Modern English, as in ' Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooth' . This reflects the change in the ' agreement' rule.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.049．第31题' I love thee not.' before the 16th century, has now become ' I do not love you.' This means the change in negation rule.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.050．第32题The word ' walkman' is a blend.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.051．第33题Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.052．第34题General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.053．第35题Phonology studies how a sound is produced.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.054．第36题Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.055．第37题Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.056．第38题F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.057．第39题Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.058．第40题Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.059．第41题Duality of language means language is a two-level system.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.060．第42题Linguists are interested in all sounds.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.061．第43题Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.062．第44题Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.063．第45题Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.064．第46题Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.065．第47题The word ' videophone' is an acronym.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.066．第48题UNESCO is a blend.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.067．第49题The word ' tea' is a loan word from Chinese.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：此题得分：0.068．第50题The word ' dinner' comes from French.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.069．第51题Computer language is one of the sources that have influenced the English language.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.070．第52题Pidgins came from a blending of a few languages.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.071．第53题One of the most important features of bilingualism is the specialization of function of the two varieties.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.072．第54题Of ' reply' and ' answer' , the latter is more formal.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.073．第55题A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the deletion of the consonant at the end of a word, as in ' desk' [des].答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：此题得分：0.074．第56题The use of such sentences as ' I ain' t afraid of no ghosts' to mean ' I' m not afraid of ghosts' is one of the syntactic features of Black English.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.075．第57题Received Pronunciation in British English is a dialect of London that is representative of standard English.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.076．第58题The word ' dog' often conjures up different images in the US and Hong Kong.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.077．第59题Language plays a major role in socializing the people and perpetuating culture, especially in print form.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.078．第60题It is acceptable to translate ' Every dog has his day.' into ' 每条狗都有自己的日子。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
英语语言学 lecture six讲课教案
英语语言学l e c t u r es i xReview the chapter of syntaxthese are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon.Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one?How about the relation between morpheme and sememe?What are included in bound morpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。
这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。
线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。
句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。
改变顺序意思会发生变化。
这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation\ chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。
英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。
Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。
语言学笔记 Lecture4
语言学笔记陈银2014/3/28Lecture 4Pretest⏹ 1. What is phonetics?⏹ 2. Phonetics can be further divided into three main areas, what are they? What do theystudy respectively?⏹ 3. What do phonology study? What‟s similarity of and the difference between phoneticsand phonology?Answer⏹ 1. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.⏹ 2. They are articulatory, accoustic and auditory phonetics.⏹ARTICULATORY PHONETICS studies the production of speech sounds⏹ACOUSTIC PHNETICS studies physical properties of sounds produced in speech⏹AUDITORY PHONETIC studies perception of speech sounds⏹ 3. Phonology studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.⏹Similarity: concerned with the speech sounds.⏹Differences: Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to thefunction or meaning of a sound.⏹Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does themeaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?”⏹Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describesounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so each language has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).⏹(the detailed differences can be got in the e-handouts in QQ group.)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds⏹Generalization of this chapter:Articulatory（发声）Phonetics (Acoustic) （声学）（语音学）Speech (Auditory) （听觉）Sounds（音位学）（音位）（音位变体）Phonology phonemes (allophones)Generalization of this chapter:speechorgansArticulatory consonants broad（发声）speech phoneticsounds transcriptionsvowels narrow（音位学）Phonological processesPhonologyDistinctive featuresIntroduction⏹As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of thesesounds have become units in the language system.⏹We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas ofstudy are phonetics and phonology.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.⏹ A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds andprovides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p]bilabial, stop.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to represent meanings.A speech sound goes through a three-step process as shown below.Speaker A Speaker Bspeech speech speechproduction ---- transmission ---- perceptionArticulatory(acoustic) (auditory)the study of | the study of the physical | concerned withproduction of | properties of the sounds | the perceptionspeech sounds | produced in speech | of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.⏹It aims to …discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organizedin languages, and to explain the variations that occur‟ (Crystal, 1997:162).⏹In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, sayEnglish, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which soundunits are used and how they are put together.⏹Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages inorder to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the soundpatterns of all languages.2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech OrgansSPEECH ORGANS(or VOCAL ORGANS): parts of the human body involved in the production of speech⏹Lung⏹Trachea(or windpipe气管)⏹Throat: pharynx(咽),larynx(喉, including vocal folds/vocal cords)⏹Nose⏹Mouth: tongue, various parts of palate(腭)⏹VOCAL TRACT(声道): pharynx, mouth (oral cavity), nose (nasal cavity)⏹AIRSTREAM (气流): source of energy⏹MOUTHUpper lip, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvulaLower lip, lower teeth, tongue, mandible (lower jaw)Tongue☐tip(舌尖), blade (舌叶), front, back, root☐CORONAL(舌尖音, tip and blade); DORSAL(舌背音, front and back);RADICAL (舌根音,root)⏹PHARYNX (咽): the larynx opens into a muscular tube⏹LARYNX (喉)Adam‟s apple, V ocal folds (vocal cords, vocal bands)Positions of vocal folds1.Apart: the air can pass through easily — voiceless(清音) e.g., [p, s, t]2.Close together: the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other — voiced(浊音)e.g., [b, z, d]3.Totally together: no air can pass between them — glottal stop(声门塞音) [ʔ]V oiced and voicelessThe level of vibration振动of the vocal cords声带determines whether a sound is voiced or unvoiced.If the vocal cords---apart, the airstream is not obstructed at the glottis and passes through freely. -- voiceless sounds.If the vocal cords are together, the air stream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. -- voiced sounds.feel the distinction sounds.2.1.1 Speech organsWhat kinds of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are (a) tightly closed; (b) wide open;(c) loosely together and vibrating?(a) no sound or inaudible sound symbolized as /?/;(b) voiceless sound such as /h/;(c) voiced sounds such as /d/.2.1.2 The IPAIPA: the abbreviation（缩写）of International Phonetic AlphabetIt is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcriptionThe development of the IPA:The Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen (1860-1943)(叶斯柏生) first proposed the idea in 1886. The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.The basic principle: using a separate letter selected from major European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.•In the IPA chart, the sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.•The consonants are divided into pulmonic and non-pulmonic consonants.•Pulmonic sounds are produced by pushing air out of the lungs.•Non -pulmonic sounds are produced by either sucking air into the mouth , or closing the glottis and manipulating the air.The Definition of Diacritics•The diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.•DIACRITICS(附加符号): to transcribe the minute difference between variations of the same soundE.g.Nasalization:[a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is labeled as [ã]Aspiration: [ph] in “peak”, [p=] in “speak”2.2 Consonants and vowels⏹ConsonantConsonants are produced …by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction‟.⏹VowelA vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’so that …air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way thr ough the mouth or nose‟.⏹The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the _____________ ofairstream.2.2.1 ConsonantsCriterion for classification⏹Manner of articulation: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus theway in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.⏹Place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing orthe obstruction of air. (the point where a consonant is made. )⏹The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can beaccomplished:⏹the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively longperiod;⏹they may narrow the space considerably; or⏹they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.(1) STOP/PLOSIVE : complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouthE.g., [p, b, t, d, k, g]⏹Three phases:ClosingHold/compressionRelease (PLOSION)⏹ORAL STOP (or STOP)(2) NASAL STOP (or NASAL): the air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that it can go out through the nasal cavityE.g., [m, n, ŋ](3) FRICATIVE: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is producedE.g., [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h](4) (MEDIAN) APPROXIMANT ((中)通音): an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is producedE.g., [w, ɹ, j](5) LATERAL: obstruction of the airstream at a point along the center of the oral tract with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouthE.g. [l](6) TRILL (ROLL): produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstreamE.g., [r] in “red” (Scottish English), “rr” in “perro”(dog)(7) Tap and FlapTap: the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one vibration is produced, e.g., [ɾ], “city, letter” in American EnglishFlap: the tip of the tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture and then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth, e.g., [ɽ], “dirty, sorting” in American English(8) AFFRICATIVE: a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same position (more than one manner is involved)E.g., [tʃ, dʒ], “ch” in “church”, “j” in “jet”;[tsh] and [ts] in “错” and “做”Note: [ts, dz, tr, dr] are not affricatives.⏹The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.⏹Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips andthe vocal folds.⏹Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:⏹Bilabial⏹Labiodental⏹Dental⏹Alveolar⏹Postalveolar⏹Retroflex⏹Palatal⏹Velar⏹Uvular⏹Pharyngeal⏹GlottalPlaces of articulation(1) BILABIAL: made with the two lips, as [p, b, m] in “pet”, “bet” and “met”; [w](2) LABIODENTAL(唇齿音): made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth, as [f, v] in “fire” and “via”(3) DENTAL: made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, e.g., [θ, ð](4) ALVEOLAR: made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge, e.g., [t, d, n, s, z, ɹ ,l](5) POSTALVEOLAR (or palato-alveolar): made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge, e.g., [ʃ, ʒ](6) RETROFLEX (卷舌音) : made with the tongue tip or blade curled back (retroflexed) so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate, e.g., [ʂ] in “上海”(7) PALATAL: made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate, [j] in “yes”, and [ç] (for “h”) in “he”(8) VELAR: made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate, e.g., velar stop [k, g] in “cat” and “get”, velar nasal [ŋ] in “sing”, velar fricative [x] in Chinese “和”(9) UVULAR: made with the back of the tongue and the uvular, the short projection of soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum, e.g., [ʁ] in “Paris, votre”(10) PHARYNGEAL (咽音): made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx, e.g., “caadi” [ʕaːdi], “xood “ [ħoːd](11) GLOTTAL (声门音): made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other,e.g., [h] in “hat, hold”, [ʔ] in “pack, beaten”2.2.2 Vowels⏹Cardinal Vowels, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed andunchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.standard reference points; British phonetician Daniel Jones ; Outline of English Phonetics (1962); “cardinal vowel diagram”, or “cardinal vowel quadrilateral”; V owels produced in these areas constitute the eight cardinal vowels. The secondary cardinal vowels then fit between them.⏹Cardinal vowel diagram (基本元音图, or quadrilateral): a set of standard reference pointsbased on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgment, in which three positions of the tongue (front, center, back) as well as four levels of tongue height (close, close-mid, open-mid, open) are distinguished⏹Pure or monophthong vowels :vowels where the quality remains constantthroughout the articulation .⏹Vowel glides: those where there is an audible change of quality.⏹Diphthong：a single movement of the tongue .⏹way [wei] , tide [taid] , how [hau] ,toy [tɔi], toe [təu]⏹Triphthong：a double movement; …a glide from one vowel to another and thento a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption‟.⏹wire [ˈwaiə], tower [ˈtauə]Criteria of Vowel Description1.the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2.the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4.lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).2.SCHW A : the tongue position for the neutral vow el [ə] is neither high nor low and neitherfront nor back3.Primary vowels: CV1 [i], CV2 [e], CV3 [ε], CV4 [a], CV5[ɑ] (unrounded), CV6[ɔ] ,CV 7[o], CV 8 [u] (rounded)4.Secondary vowels: reversing the lip-rounding for a given positionDescription of MonophthongsSubdivisions:Vertically:High: [i:] [i] [u:] [u]; Mid: [e] [ə:] [ə] [ɔ:]; Low: [æ] [ʌ] [ɑ:] [ɔ] ; Horizontally: Front: [i:] [i] [e] [æ]; Central: [ə:] [ə] [ʌ] ; Back: [u:] [u] [ɔ:] [ɔ] [ɑ:];Shape of the lips:Rounded: [u] [u:] [ɔ] [ɔ:]; Unrounded: [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [ə:] [ə] [ʌ] [ɑ:]; Tenseness of muscles:Tense: [i:] [u:] [ə:] [ɔ:] [ɑ:];Lax: [i] [u] [e] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ] [æ].⏹NOTE 1: Abstractness of cardinal vowels: cardinal vowels represent extreme point of atheoretical vowel space, i.e. they are as remote as possible from the neutral position of schwa; approximation the articulators beyond this vowel space would involve frication or contact.⏹NOTE 2: All cardinal vowels are monophthongs and their quality does not change duringtheir production.⏹PURE VOWELS(纯元音or MONOPHTHONGS 单元音): Vowels where qualityremains constant throughout the articulation⏹VOWEL GLIDES (元音音渡): V owels where there is an audible change of qualityDiphthongs (双元音): a single movement of the tongue is involved, e.g. way [weI], tide [taId]Triphthongs (三重元音): twice movements of the tongues are involved, e.g. wire [waIə], tower [tauə]2.2.3 The Sound of English⏹Received pronunciation(RP 标准发音) (or BBC English, Oxford English,King‟s/Queen‟s English)RP originates in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middle and upper classes throughout England.⏹General American (GA)[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[h] glottal fricative[l] (alveolar) lateral⏹ 1. The sound /p/can be described with "_______, bilabial, stop". (北二外2007研)⏹ 2. The sound /b/can be described with "_______, bilabial, stop". (北二外2004研)⏹ 3. The sound /k/ can be described with "voiceless, _______, stop". (北二外2003研)⏹ 4. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are mostconveniently described in terms of _______and manner of articulation. (北二外2004,2008研)⏹ 5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _______.1. Of the consonants /p/ , /t/, /k/, /f/, /m/, /z/ and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar? （对外经贸2005研)A. /k/B. /p/C. /g/D. /t/2. The consonant /s/ in the word "smile" can be described as: (对外经贸2006研)A. voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB. voiceless nasal bilabial liquidC. voiced oral alveolar plosiveD. voiced oral bilabial fricative3. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A.voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop1. All of the followings are bilabials except __.A. [P]B. [b]C. [m]D.[t]2. Which one is an alveolar?A. [w]B. [t]C. [j]D.[k]3. The only glottal in English is __.A. [n]B. [m]C. [g]D. [h]4. Which one is a palatal?A. [j]B. [l]C. [r]D.[z]5. The voiceless labiodental is __.A. [f]B. [v]C. [w]D. [j]6. The voiceless alveolar fricative is __.A. [f]B. [s]C. [p]D. [k]7. The glottal fricative is __.A. [v]B. [j]C. [h]D. [θ]8. The sound of [m] is a __.A. bilabial nasalB. voiced bilabial nasalC. voiced alveolar nasalD. voiced velar nasal9. The lateral is __.A. [r]B. [l]C. [j]D. [w]10. The palatal glide is __A. [w]B. [r]C. [j]D. [l]11. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]12. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [æ]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]13. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant⏹ 1.Write down the phones according to the following phonetic descriptions.⏹ 1. voiceless unaspirated bilabial stop⏹ 2. lateral⏹ 3. velar nasal⏹ 4. voiced interdental fricative⏹ 5. voiceless affricate⏹ 6. palatal glide⏹7. voiceless aspirated alveolar stopFour basic requirements for the description of vowels1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)⏹We can now describe the English vowels in this way:⏹[:ι] high front tense unrounded vowel⏹[Y] high back lax rounded vowel⏹[≅] mid central lax unrounded vowel⏹[Θ] low back lax rounded vowelHomework⏹ 1. Define the following terms:⏹phonetics/ articulatory phonetics/ phonology/⏹speech organs/ voicing/ International Phonetic Alphabet/ consonant/ vowel/ manner ofarticulation/place of articulation/ Cardinal V owels/⏹vowel glide2. Discuss the following questions:1)What organs are involved in speech production?2)Why did George Bernald Shaw say he could spell the word fish as ghoti?3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Group Work⏹Group 4: 2.5 Suprasegmentals。
英语语言学lecturethree
英语语⾔学lecturethreeLecture three Speech Sound (Phonetics & Phonology)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.A speech sound goes through a three-step process.( speech production--------speech transmission----speech perception)( articulatory phonetics----acoustic phonetics------auditory phonetics)If we are investigating how individual sound segments are articulated, we can find answers in phonetics.But natural speech is a continuous process, the words streaming/ flowing from mouth. So sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languagesSound pattern: which sound units are used and how they are put together and aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patternse.g. the consonant clusters consist of a voiceless fricative摩擦⾳and a voiced plosive爆破⾳in English. In consonant clusters of plosives and fricatives, they usually share the same voice feature. The three variants of the plural form in English are applied in the following fashion:a.The [s] appears after voiceless sounds. [ t, k]b.The [z] appears after voiced sounds. [ l, n, b, d, g]c.The [iz] appears after sibilants.齿擦⾳[s, xi, qi]Sound pattern: the inventory of distinctive sounds that are phonemesHow speech sounds are made?1.Speech organs/ vocal organs发声器官Those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose and the mouth.V ocal tract: the pharynx咽, mouth, and nose (⿐腔nasal cavity, ⼝腔oral cavity) the resonating cavities.The manner of articulationthe actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract1.Stop (or plosive)爆发⾳: complete closure of the articulators is involves so that the airstreamcannot escape through the mouth. [ p, b, t, d, k, g]2.Nasal⿐⾳: if the air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that it can goout through the nasal cavity. [m. n. ]3.Fricative摩擦⾳: a fricative is produced when there is close approximation of two articulatorsso that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. [ f. v. . . s.z. . . h]4.Approximant近⾳: this is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another. The gapbetween the articulators is therefore larger than for a fricative and no turbulence (friction ) is generated. [w. r. j]As [j. w] can also be analyzed as vowels, it is an important point to note that this categoryoverlaps with that of vowel./doc/b718098838.htmlteral边⾳; the obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the certer of the oral tract, withincomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. [ l ]6.Affricate塞擦⾳: affricates involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that theyconsist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.[ , ]The place of articulationThe place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.1.Bilabial双唇⾳: bilabial consonants are made with the two lips. In English [ p. b. m]/doc/b718098838.htmlbiodental唇齿⾳: these are made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. [ f. v]3.Dental齿⾳: dental sounds are made by the tongue tip or blade( depending on the accent orlanguage) and the upper front teeth.[ , ]4.alveolar齿龈⾳: alveolars are made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar bridge. [ t. d. n.s. z. r. l ]5.Postalveolar齿龈后⾳: these are made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.[ , ]6.Palatal 硬腭⾳: palatal sounds are made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate. [j ]7.V elar软腭⾳: velars are made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. [k. g. ]Now the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricativeWhen the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. [ p, s t] When they are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. [b. z. d]vowelthe cardinal vowelsthe cardinal vowels diagram in IPA is a set of hypothetical position for vowels used as reference points. The system defines eight “primary”cardinal vowels, in relation to which a further set of “ secondary” cardinal vowels can be defined. By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: P33pure/ monophthong vowels & vowel glidespure vowels are those where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation.V owel glides are those where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthongs & triphthongsIf a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. [wei], [hau] [toi]A double movement produces triphthongs. [waie] [taue]RP (Received Pronunciation)标准发⾳& GA (General American)⼤众美语RP one form of English pronunciation is the most common model accent in the teaching of English as a foreign languge. Many people also call it BBC English, Oxford English, or King’s/ Queen’s English. It is also widely used in public schools and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers is often referred to as General American.The differences between RP and GA in consonants are much less noticeable than those of the vowels.P36 table and linesthe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:P 37PHONOLOGYIn phonetics we know how individual sound segments are articulated, but speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.。
lecture的词根词缀
lecture的词根词缀
摘要：
1.词根和词缀的定义
2.lecture 的词根和词缀分析
3.lecture 的词义和相关词汇
正文：
语言学家将语言中具有独立意义的最小单位称为词根，而词缀则是加在词根前面或者后面的字母或者字母组合，它们可以帮助我们理解单词的意义和词性。
例如，"lecture"这个单词，它的词根是"lect"，而词缀是"-ure"。
"lect"这个词根来源于拉丁语的"lectus"，意为"阅读"，是"legere"（意为"阅读"）的过去分词形式。
在英语中，"lect"这个词根通常用来表示与阅读、讲解或者演讲相关的概念，例如"lecture"（讲座）、"lecturer"（讲师）和"lecture hall"（演讲厅）。
而"-ure"这个词缀是名词后缀，用来表示动作、状态或者事物的名词。
在"lecture"中，"-ure"表示的是一种动作或者状态，即进行讲座或者演讲。
因此，"lecture"这个词的意思是讲座或者演讲，是由词根"lect"（阅读）和词缀"-ure"（名词后缀）组成的。
英语语言学 lecture eight
格赖斯会话含义理论的发展概述自从美国语言哲学家格赖斯( H. P. Grice) 于1967 年在哈佛大学所作的三次学术报告中提出了“为了保证会话的顺利进行,交际双方必须共同遵守一些基本原则”(后来形成格赖斯会话含义理论的核心内容, 见Cole and Morgan ,eds ,1975) 以来,西方语言学界对“会话含义”的研究一直表现出很大的兴趣,各种研究者蜂拥而起,各种研究成果不绝如缕,并经历了从“古典”到“新”格赖斯会话含义理论的发展过程。
这期间,许多西方学者如利奇(Leech) 、盖茨达( Gazdar) 、阿特拉斯(Atlas) 、荷恩(Horn) 、斯帕伯(Sperber) 、威尔逊(Wilson) 和列文森(Levinson) 在阐释、充实和发展格赖斯会话含义理论方面都有过独特的建树。
特别是列文森于1987 年发表了一篇有关“前指代”(anaphora) 的专论,提出了他的会话含义三原则,之后在1991 年,列文森又正式将自己的三原则定名为“新格赖斯语用学机制”( neo- Gricean pragmatic apparatus ,见Levinson ,1991 :108) 。
这样,就形成了“古典格赖斯会话含义理论”(Classic Gricean theory of conversational implicature)和“新格赖斯会话含义理论”( neo- Gricean theory of conversational implicature) 之说。
格赖斯认为,人们的言语交际总是互相合作的,谈话双方都怀着一个共同的愿望:双方话语都能互相理解、共同配合;因此,他们都遵守着某些合作的原则,以求实现这个愿望。
然而,既然人们在交际中一定要遵守合作原则,为什么常常又要故义违反合作原则呢? 换句话说,为什么人们在言语交际中常常不用直接的方式遣词达义,而总是用间接的方式声东击西? 为什么只让对方拐弯抹角地义会,而不愿向对方坦率地言传? 关于这些问题,格赖斯在他的“会话含义”理论中并未作出完满的解答。
英语语言学课件Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Minimal Pairs and Sets
• Phonemic distinctions in a L can be tested via pairs and set of words
• Pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, minimal pair. More accurately described as minimal pair in the phonology of English
of the voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ and then one of the approximants /r/, /l/, /w/ • Splash, spring, strong, scream, square • Exclaim? Onset is described, not the beginning of a word
Co-articulation Effects
• Speech is not very often pronounced carefully and deliberately, almost slow in motion
• Co-articulation: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next
phonologically in some similar way • /v/ +voice, +labiodental, +fricative • /pl-/ and /kl-/ common in Eng, /vl-/ not common
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Review the chapter of syntaxthese are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon.Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one?How about the relation between morpheme and sememe?What are included in bound morpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。
这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。
线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。
句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。
改变顺序意思会发生变化。
这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation\ chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。
英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。
Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。
句子按说话的不同目的可以分为陈述句declarative、疑问句interrogative、祈使句imperative 和感叹句exclamatory等不同类型。
句子里还可以包含句子。
包含在一个句子里的句子称为小句。
只包含一个小句的句子称为简单句simple；包含两个或两个以上小句的句子称为复合句。
复合句按句中小句之间的不同关系分为并列复合句compound和主从复合句complex。
几种基本的组合关系（离心结构exocentric construction，向心结构endocentric construction）在句子和短语中词与词之间的基本组合关系有以下几种：主谓关系，修饰关系，动宾关系，动补关系，并列关系在传统语法中区分了由词的语法形式表现出来的两种主从关系：一致关系concord\ agreement 和支配关系。
一致关系中，从属词的语法形式要随主导词的语法形式发生变化。
一致关系主要表现在主语和谓语之间、修饰语和被修饰语之间。
句子分析的方法句法分析是对句子和短语的结构进行的分析。
语法学中句法分析的方法主要有两种，一种是句子成分分析发，另一种是直接成分分析法。
句子成分分析法句子成分分析法是传统语法中通用的分析句子的方法。
这种方法以词为分析的基本单位，根据句子和短语中词与词之间的关系，逐个确定句中的各种成分，然后在根据句中包含的成分确定句子的结构类型（即句型）。
句子成分分析法从词开始“自下而上，从小到大”地对句子进行分析，因此英语里又称为“bottom-up‖分析法。
英语的句子成分通常分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语和状语。
其中宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语；补语又可以分为主语补语和宾语补语。
传统语法从句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。
主要成分是任何一个句子都不可缺少的。
分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出从属于它们的次要成分，这样一个句子的结构就一目了然了。
英语的简单肯定助动陈述句分为七种主要句型SV Prices rose。
SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.SVC Y our face seems familiar.SV Adv My sister lives next door.SVOO We wish you happy birthday.SVOC The president declared the meeting open.SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.除基准句型外，还有与之对应的各种变换句型，包括：疑问句、祈使句、感叹句、否定句、被动句、省略句、并列复合句、主从复合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。
直接成分分析法IC analysis另一种分析句子的方法是结构主义语言学（实际是其中的美国描写语言学派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。
这种分析方法从句子出发，自上而下，从大到小，分析到语素为止，故英语里称为“top-down‖分析法。
成分和直接成分语言中的任何表示一定意义的单位，如果它不只包含一个语素，就是可以分解的，这样的单位叫做结构体。
一个结构体内包含的较小的结构体和语素都是这个结构体的成分，而一个结构体一次可以直接分出的成分则是这个结构体的直接成分。
The old man has come to his son‘s house.直接成分分析法的一个优点是它可以区别某些歧义现象。
例如Chinese fur coat 的层次结构可能是Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的层次结构与意义直接有关。
汉语的“咬死了猎人的狗”也可以有两种不同的分析，咬死了/猎人的狗，或咬死猎人的/狗。
What is the criterion used in IC analysis?The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ran without changing the structure, but poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.Conjoining & embeddingHypotactic & paratactic relationsLecture five Meaning (Semantics & pragmatics)Outlines:What is semantics?What is meaning?Kinds of meaningThe traditional approachThe functional approachThe pragmatic approachSense relationshipsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyPolysemy and homonymySense relations between sentencesSemantic analysisComponential analysisPredication analysisRelational componentsLogical elements1. What is semantics?The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105语义可以分为词的意义word meaning 和句子意义sentence meaning. 本世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。