语音学与音韵学简介英文版
英语声学和语音学英文版
Ph.D. thesis Rob van Son (1993) “Spectro-temporal features of vowel segments” see also Speech Comm. 13, 135-148 (Pols & vSon) 850-words text, read at normal and fast rate hand segmentation of 7 most freq. V + schwa formant tracks via 16 points per segm. or 5 Legendre polynomials influence of rate, V-dur., context, sent. acc. evidence for duration-controlled undershoot?
July 1st, 2002
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Contour modeling
allows modeling of specific phenomena pitch accentuation (vs. vowel onset) reduction, centralization, undershoot allows generation of stimuli for perc. expts. phoneme identification in extending context 2-alternatives forced choice identif. of continua discrimination, RT allows statistics on large speech corpora TIMIT, CGN, IFA-corpus, Switchboard
Overview
语音学介绍英文版
Speech Production Mechanism
VOCAL TRACT
Nasal cavity Oral cavity Pharynx
Vocal folds Glottis
(shapes sounds)
LARYNX (voicing)
LUNGS
Energy source
(see figure 10.1, Clark p.120)
Benefits of Phonetic Transcription
We can use IPA transcription across languages, there is one symbol for EVERY possible human sound There is a 1-1 correspondence of sound to symbol Brackets show the pronunciation of the word, which may change from time to time, even if it’s tription Vs. Spelling
We want, as much as possible, to create a system of one-to-one sound-symbol correspondence. This is not necessarily the case with spelling. Examples: ice vs.police; tine vs. machine. Also: catch, cough, phlegm, bought, trick, knight, leisure, queen, this, threw, Xerox, psychology, design.
(完整word版)Chapter-2-Phonology-音系学(现代语言学)
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Linguists are not interested in all sounds ；they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have a role to play in linguistic communication .These sounds are limited in number .This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language ;and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.语言学家也并不是对所有的声音感兴趣，他们只关注那些在语言交际中占有一席之地、由人类的发音器官所发出来的那些声音.这些声音在数量上是有限的。
这些范围有限,但对人类交际活动意义重大、对语言学研究价值不菲的声音就是语言的声音媒介，凡是在这个范围的每个单个的声音都叫做语音。
2.Phonetics 语音学2.1What is phonetics？什么是语音学？it is concerned with all the sound that occur in the world’s languages.它的主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音。
These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics， and acoustic phonetics respectively。
语言学名词解释
一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。
2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。
It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。
3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。
4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。
语音学与音韵学简介英文版
Phonetics and phonology - a brief introduction Raymond Hickey English Linguistics Campus Essen
Recommended literature on Phonetics
Ashby, Michael and John Maidment 2005. Introducing phonetic science. Cambridge: University Press. Catford, J. C. 2001. A practical introduction to phonetics. 2nd edition. Oxford: University Press. Clark, John, Colin Yallop and Janet Fletcher 2006. An introduction to phonetics and phonology. Third edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Cruttenden, Alan 2001. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. 6th edition. London: Arnold. Crystal, David 2002. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 5th edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Davenport, Mike and S. J. Hannahs 1998. Introducing phonetics and phonology. London: Arnold. Davis, John F. 2004. Phonetics and phonology. Stuttgart: Klett Verlag. Fry, Dennis B. 1979. The physics of speech. Cambridge: University Press. International Phonetic Assoc., 1999. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: University Press. Laver, John and William J. Hardcastle (eds) 1995. Handbook of phonetic sciences. Oxford: Blackwell. Ladefoged, Peter 2000. A course in phonetics. 4rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Ladefoged, Peter 2000. Vowels and consonants. An introduction to the sounds of languages. Oxford: Basel Blackwell. Wells, John C. 2006. English intonation. An introduction. Cambridge: University Press.
英语语音学和音位学
The Front Vowels
There are 4 front vowels in English: /i:/, /i/, /e/, /æ/ . /i:/ is a long, close front vowel. It is unrounded and tense.【sea leave】
Three main areas
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS(发音语言 学)is study of the production of speech sounds. ACOUSTIC PHONETICS(声学语言学)is the physical properties of the speech sounds. PERCEPTUAL or AUDITORY PHONETICS(感知，听觉语言学)is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
颤音（TRILL）【r】
触音（TAP）【t d n】city
塞擦音（AFFRICATE）【ts dz tr dr】 church【tʃ】
发音部位指辅音的发音位置，辅音可以产 生于唇与声带间的任何部位。 在国际音标中区分了11个发音部位。 ①双唇音（BILABIAL）【p b m】pet ，bet ②唇齿音（LABIODENTAL）如fire中【f】 ③齿音（DENTAL）【θð】 ④齿龈音（ALVEOLAR）【t d n s r l】 ⑤齿龈后音（POSTALVEOLAR）【ʃ ʒ】
The closing Diphthongs合口双元 音
There are five closing diphthongs in English. /ei/, /ai/ , /ɔi/, /əu/ , /au/ Байду номын сангаасei/ begins with /e/ and glides smoothly to /i/【stay say】 /ai/ glides from /a/ to /i/ . It is smooth and loudness becomes less as it progresses.【by shy】 /ɔi/ glides from a position between /ɔ/ and /ɔ:/ to /i/.【boy toy】 /əu/ starts with /ə:/ and then glides away to /u/ with the lips getting slightly rounded.【boat coat】 /au/ starts with /a/ and then glides away to /u/ with the lips getting slightly rounded.【house mouse 】
I.语音学与音系学
语音学和音系学Phonetics and Phonology一、自然属性--语音学✍发音生理：发音语音学1.发音器官：由动力（肺）、发音体（声带）、共鸣腔（口腔、鼻腔、咽腔）构成；包括主动或被动发音器官2.音素（Phone)：（1）定义：是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位。
（2）分类：✍元音（Vowels）：以共鸣腔的不同，主要口腔形状不同划分。
舌位高低（High\Mid\Low)舌位前后（Front\Central\Back)唇形圆展（Rounded\Unrounded)✍辅音（Consonants) ：都是气流在一定的部位受阻碍，通过某种方式冲破阻碍而发出的音。
发音部位（place of articulation)：唇齿鄂发音方法（manner of articulation)：清音（包括送气与不送气）和浊音；塞爆擦；鼻音口音；颤音、闪音（搭音）、边音、近音、半元音（3）符号：[字母]【PS:把音素、字母、音标三者合为一体来教学，才能使学生真正掌握字母和音标，才能学会独立地拼读单词，并由此过渡到记单词。
】✍传递物理：声学语音学→语音四要素：音质：发音体、共鸣器、发音方法不一样音高：人们对于声音高低的感知，主要取决于声带振动频率的快慢音强：人们对于声音强弱的感知，主要取决于声波的振幅大小音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续的时间长短✍感知心理：听觉语音学二、社会属性--音系学（语音在具体语言中的作用）→音位（Phoneme):（1）定义：是具体语言中有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位。
（2）符号：/字母/（3）音位变体（Allophone)：同一个音位有不同但相似的音素。
包括自由变体和条件变体。
音素对立和互补关系。
（4）最小对立体（minimal pair)：（5）分类：✍音质音位：由音素构成✍非音质音位（超音段音位Suprasegmental）：音高、音强、音长；包括调位（声调）、重位（重音）、时位（长短音）（6）音位聚合三、记音符号(1)音标(phonetic symbols)：记录音素的标写符号。
第二章 语音学与音位学
Chapter ⅡPhonetics&Phonology———the study of speech sounds●As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only someof these sounds have become units in the language system.●We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two majorareas of study are phonetics and phonology.2.1 The phonic medium of language●Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonicmedium of language2.2Phonetics● 2.2.1 Phonetics●Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned withall the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.●Phonetics studies how speech sounds●are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Three branches of phonetics●Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’point of view, “how speakersuses his speech organs to articulate / produce speech sounds”（发音语音学）●Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’point of view, “how sounds areperceived”（听觉语音学）●Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds aretransmitted from one to another，“how sounds are transmitted”（声学语音学）2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs(vocal organs)(言语器官)------those part of the human body involved in the production of speech.the lungs（肺），the trachea(气管),the throat（咽喉）, the nose andthe mouthThe vocal tract(声道):Pharyngeal cavityThroatArticulatory apparatusNasal cavitynoseThe oral cavitymouthThe diagram of speech organs●Lips●Teeth●Teeth ridge (alveolar)●Hard palate●Soft palate (velum)●Uvula●Tip of tongue●Blade of tongue●Back of tongue●Vocal cords●Pharyngeal cavity●Nasal cavityVocal cords●Vocal cords are located in the pharyngeal cavity●The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, or (c) totally closed.●Voiceless(清音): the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass easily [p,s,t]●Voiced(浊音): the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them tovibrate against each other [b,z,d]●Glottal stop(喉塞音): the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass betweenthem●Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voiced,which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.●When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through withoutcausing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless. Position of the vocal folds:Voiceless: the vocal folds are apart.Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)Position of the vocal folds:(glottal stop)The nasal cavity●The nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity.●The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum(the soft palate) , can be drawnback to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only gothrough the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized.●If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the soundsproduced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsThe IPAThe International Phonetic Association (IPA)(标音法) 1897The International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) 1888—first versionThe latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005.Broad transcription& Narrow transcription● A broad transcription is one that only takes account of the sound differencesthat are important to distinguish words from each other in a language. Abroad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. e.g. pit/pit/ spit/spit/● A narrow transcription attempts to represent more or less accurately the way inwhich a particular speaker pronounces his words. A narrow transcription is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics. e.g. pit[phit] (aspired) spit[spit](unaspired)By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (//), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]).In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “broad”transcription Diacritics------Symbols added to the letter-symbols to specify or bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do●The distinction between / ph / and /p/ does not make a difference betweenwords in English. If we substitute /p/ for /ph/ in /phin/ we produce a peculiar pronunciation of pin but not a new word;●But the substitution of /p/ for /t/does make a difference of word: pin/pin/ andtin/tin/ are different words in English.2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsThe sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.A vowel is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.●The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction ofairstream. In the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.The description of the consonants and vowels●The description of the consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to three dimensions:The manner of articulation (ways in which articulation can be accomplished)The place of articulation (the point where a consonant is made)Voicing(wether the vocal cords vibirate or not)●The description of the vowels------1) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)2) the openness of the mouth (close, semi-close,semi-open,open)3) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)consonants●In terms of manner of articulation:●1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved[p,b,t,d,k,g]●2)Fricative(磨擦音):●the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage inthe mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point [f,v, θ, ð ,s, z,∫, ʒ,h]●3)Affricates (破擦音): When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowlywith the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. [ʧ,ʤ]●4)Liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through thepassage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. [l,r]●5)Nasals: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at theback of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thusproduced are called nasals.[ m , n, ŋ]●6)Glides: sometimes called " semivowels," are a rather marginal category. TheEnglish glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [i], with a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the localobstruction.consonants●In terms of place of articulation:●1) Bilabial (双唇音): made with the two lips [p,b,m,w]2) Labiodental (唇齿音): made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth [f,v]3) Dental (齿音): made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth[θ, ð ]4)Alveolar (齿龈音): made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge[t,d,s,z,n,l,r]5) Palatal(腭音):made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate [∫, ʒ, ʧ,ʤ, j ]6)Velar(软腭音):made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate [k,g, ŋ]7) Glottal (喉音): : The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. [h]Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place manner LetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherJones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918)Vowels（monophthongs）closeSemi-closeSemi-openopenBlack: IPARed: English幻灯片29Vowels（diphthongs）●[ei, ai, au, əu, ɔi, iə, ɛə, uə]Underline the words that contain thesound as required:● A central vowel:●mad lot but boot word● A front vowel:●reed pad load fate bit bed cook● A rounded vowel:●who he bus her hit true boss bar walk● A back vowel:●paid reap fool top good fatherPhonology●Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.●It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds areorganized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’.●In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, sayEnglish, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which soundunits are used and how they are put together.●Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languagesin order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use ofsounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underliethe sound patterns of all languages.Phonetics & phonology●Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.But they differ in their approach and focus.●Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used inall human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.●Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone（音素）● A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear andproduce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do notnecessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].Phoneme（音位）● A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstractunit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophone(音位变体)●Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments.●[p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Suchvariants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.Free variants（自由变体）●Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phoneticresemblance.●Free variants and free variation:●Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes havefree variants.For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways. The difference may be caused by dialect, habit, or individual preference, instead of any distribution rule.●Free variation is also seen in regional differences. Either, directionPhonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pairPhonemic contrast（音位对立）●Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemiccontrast, e.g.●/b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt].Complementary distribution●Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are incomplementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts.Allophones are said to be in complementarydistribution because they never occur in the same context: e.g.●dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].●[p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.●/p/ [p] / [s] _____●[ph] elsewhere腭音化幻灯片41Minimal pair●Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every wayexcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. That is to say two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.●For example, the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they differin meaning and in their initial phoneme /b/and/p/. While other phoneme areidentical in the same place, e.g.●beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat●Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds causechanges in the meaning of a word.● e.g. [t] and [d]: tin/din, tie/die●[i:] and [i]: beat/bit, bead/bid●These important units are called phonemesSome rules of phonology●Sequential rules●Assimilation rule●Deletion ruleSequential rules●Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in aparticular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I”might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.●If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. Sequential rules●If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.●a) the first phoneme must be /s/,●b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,●c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.●* [ N ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but itdoes occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我，俄语……”Assimilation rule●Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:●indiscreet alveolar stop●inconceivable velar nasal●input bilabialNasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.●If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressiveassimilation.●The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing afollowing sound, is known as progressive assimilation.Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization●/v/ [f] /z/ [s] etc.●voiced fricative voiceless / ____ voiceless●Nasalization rule:●[-nasal] [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]●Dentalization rule:●[-dental] [+dental] / ____ [+dental]●Velarization rule:●[-velar] [+velar] / ____ [+velar]English Fricative DevoicingAssimilation in Mandarin●好啊hao wa●海啊hai ya●看啊kan na●跳啊tiao wa●……Deletion rule●Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it isorthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature,designation, paradigmatic.Suprasegmental features●Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level ofthe segments ( larger than phoneme):●stress●tone●intonationSyllable (what is syllable?)●Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel withone or more than one consonant.●Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonantacting as a vowel.●The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g.[mAn].●The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m]might also function as peaks as in “apple, hidden, communism”.The syllable structureσOnset Rhyme(Peak)Nucleus Codak r æk t●Open syllable: bar, tie●Closed syllable: bard, tied●English Syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)●Chinese syllable: (C)V(C)●Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)●When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into theonset rather than the coda.Stress●Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Intranscription, a raised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.● A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, theformer being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is arelative notion.Stress●At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables.●At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relativeto other words in the sentence.●Word stress●Sentence stressWord stress●The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress inEnglish may change the part of speech of a word:●●Noun●CONvict●INsult●PROduce●REbel●Verb●conVICT●inSULT●proDUCE●reBELCompound vs. Phrase●Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and aphrase consisting of the same elements:●Compound Phrase●BLACKboard●BLACKbird●black BOARD●black BIRDWord stress●The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in thecombinations of -ing forms and nouns:●modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingroom; 5sleepingbag…●doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5plane…●●BLACKboard●BLACKbirdPrimary vs. Secondary Stress●epiphenomenal●unsatisfactory●discrimination●standardization●communication●industrializationSentence stress●Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence.Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.●Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress anypart in the following sentences.●He is driving my car.●My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.●John bought a red car.●JOHN bought a red car.●John BOUGHT a red car.●John bought a RED car.●John bought a red CAR.Tone●Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.●English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.●ma 妈(level)●ma 麻(the second rise)●ma 马(the third rise)●ma 骂(the fourth fall)●TonePutonghua [pa]Chinese character Pinyin TonesymbolTonenumberTonedescriptionGloss八bā55 High level ‘eight’拔bá35 High rising ‘pull out’靶bă214 Low fallingrising‘target’坝bà51 High falling ‘dam’Intonation●When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to theword, they are collectively known as intonation.●English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:●falling tone (matter of fact statement)●rising tone (doubts or question)●the fall-rise tone (implied message)●For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.”●Grammatical functions of intonations----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”Grammatical functions of intonations●c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus onit, e.g.●Jack came yesterday by train.●d) Its attitudinal functions.●Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,●downright assertion, commands.●Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,●pleading.●Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaningof an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.。
音韵学
音韵学是我国一门传统的学问，它是研究汉语各个时期的语音系统和它们的历史演变规律的科学。
根据《中国大百科全书》的定义：音韵学也叫声韵学，在普通语言学里叫历史语音学，它是研究汉语史上的语音情况和它的发展的学科。
英文名为：Chinesehistoricalphonetics。
汉语语音的发展历史可以分为哪四个时期？汉语语音的发展历史可以分为四个时期：上古音指先秦两汉时期的语音，以《诗经》音系为代表。
研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为古音学。
中古音指六朝至唐宋时期的语音，以《切韵》音系为代表，研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为今音学。
近古音指元明清时期的语音，以《中原音韵》为代表。
研究《中原音韵》所反映的北方话音系，是北音学。
现代音指现代的语音，以现代普通话音系为代表。
什么是等韵学？音韵学家把宋元以来的等韵图作为研究对象的学科称为等韵学。
他们以“等”的观念来分析汉语发音原理和方法，以韵图的形式展示汉语语音系统和韵书中的反切。
研究内容包括韵图的编撰，等韵学的原理等。
音韵学主要研究哪些内容？传统的古音学，今音学，等韵学和北音学，是音韵学研究的内容。
什么是声母？又叫字母，声纽，纽，声，声类。
字母是声母的代表字，唐朝和尚守温制定了三十字母，宋代学者又增加了六个，补成了三十六个字母。
三十六字母是哪些？什么是五音、七音？音韵学上按照声母的发音部位把声母分唇，舌，齿，牙，喉五类，又加上半舌音，半齿音为七音。
（如上图）什么是反切？反切是一种传统的标音方法，较之譬况，读若，直音是较为科学的标音法。
反切的产生，北齐颜之推《颜氏家训·音辞篇》云：“孙叔言创尔雅音义，是汉末人独知反语，至于魏世，此事大行。
”（孙炎，字叔然，名炎）陆德明《经典释文》也说：“孙炎始为反语，魏朝以降渐繁。
”事实上，孙炎以前已有人使用反切了，如东汉服虔注《汉书》“惴，音章瑞反”。
孙炎对反切进行了整理，并编成了〖尔雅音义〗。
反切是两字配合起来切出一个汉字的读音，分反切上字，反切下字和被切字。
U2语音学与音系学01
Chapter 2 ExercisesI. Define the following terms.1. Phonetics: The study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.3. Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.4. Auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.5. V oiceless: When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.6. V oiced: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.7. Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.8. Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols and the diacritics.9. IPA: A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonic transcription, its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.10. V owels: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.11. Consonants: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12. Phonology: The study of sound system - the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.13. Phoneme: the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.14. Allophone: Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.15. Phone: A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. It is a speech sound we use when speaking a language.16. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.17. Suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level or the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.II. Indicate the following statements true or false.1. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.( T )2. The unlimited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ( F )3. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )4. Only highly trained phoneticians can produce the same speech sounds. ( F )5. The vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-open and unrounded. ( F )6. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )7. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in all human languages form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. ( F )8. Phoneticians found that a dark [l] often occurs at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant and a clear [l] often occurs after a consonant. ( F )9. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. (T)10. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )11. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal [ ] never occurs in initial position in English nor in Chinese. ( F )12. Nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, that is, it does not distinguish meaning. (T)III. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.The natural or primary medium of human language is ______ for some obvious reasons.(sound)2. ______ and _____ are the two media by natural languages as vehicles for communication.( speech; writing )3. Phonetics looks at sounds from _(three)_____ distinct, but related point of view.4. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established and until recently the most highly developed is _____ . (articulatory phonetics )5. ______ phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues.( Acoustic)6. _____ is made up of continuous bursts of sounds. (Speech)7. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities. They are ______________ ____________ and _____________. (the pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity)8. The first point where sound modification may occur is _____. (glottis)9. V owels may be distinguished as10. If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain in one position without moving to another, the result is a __________. If the organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and then immediately glide to the position of another, the result is a __________. (monophthong; diphthong)11. All English sound except [m], [n],[ ] are made with the palate _____. (raised)12. IPA indicates _____ ______ ______. (International Phonetic Alphabet)13. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: _____ and _____. (vowels, consonants)14. The basic unit in phonology is ______. (phoneme)15. Conventionally, a phoneme is put in _____ while phones are put in _____. (slashes, square brackets)16. An aspirated [p]; an unaspirated [p] and an unreleased [p] are ______ of the /p/ _____. (allophones; phoneme)17. The allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in _____ distribution. (complementary)18. In English, there are two kinds of stress. They are ______ and _______. (word stress; sentence stress)19. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as ________. (intonation)20. English has 4 basic types of intonations, they are _____, _____, _____, _____.(the falling tone; the rising tone; the fall – rise tone; the rise – fall tone)IV. In each of the following Questions, there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or best complete the sentence.1. The principal source of the modification of the air stream is _____.A. tongueB. palateC. teethD. velum2. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the _____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords3. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide part, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be _____.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel4. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ______.A. [t] and [d]B. [k] and [g]C. [p] and [b]D. [ ] and [ ]5. _____ are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.A. palatalsB. dentalsC. alveolarD. velars6. The sounds [ ], [j] are the results of raising the front of the tongue towards the _____.A. hard palateB. soft palateC. uvulaD. velar7. When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction, the sounds thus produced are _____.A. affricatesB. fricativesC. liquidsD. alveolar8. In the case of vowel sounds, the _____ and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the tongue and lips.A. noseB. larynxC. pharynxD. uvular9. The phoneme is an abstract _______.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical10. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate ______.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. allomorphs(1. A 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. D 6.A7.A8. C 9. B 10. B)V. Answer the following questions in English.1. What is the difference between a monophthong and a diphthong?A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in the position of one vowel and immediately moving in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] are monophthongs and [ai], [ei] are diphthongs.2. What is a consonant? How are they generally classified?A consonant is a speech sound where the air stream from the lungs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the openings is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction. Consonants can be classified with reference to the manner of articulation, the place ofarticulation and absence of the vocal cord vibration.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?Broad transcription – one letter symbol for one sound. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the [l] in words like deaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild] and health [hel ].Narrow transcription – diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the differences between sounds. For example, the sound [l] in the above mentioned words differ slightly. The [l] in leaf [li:f], occurring before a vowel is called a clear [l] and the [l] in feel [fi:l] and build [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant is called a dark [l] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~ ] is used to indicate that it is a dark [l]. Then in the sound combination [hel ] the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [ ], it is thus called a dental [l] and transcribed as [hel ] in narrow transcription.。
第二章 语音学与音位学
2.3.1 Consonants
Received pronunciation (RP), also called BBC English or Oxford English, is the most common model accent in the teaching of English as a foreign language, which is spoken by the upper-middle and upper classes throughout England. English consonants used by RP speakers can be divided into 6 types according to Manners of Articulation (how) , specifically, Stop (爆破音), Nasal (鼻音), Fricative (摩擦音), Approximant (无 摩擦 延续音), Lateral (边音), Affricate (塞擦音);
Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学): a branch of phonetics which studies how speech sounds are perceived and identified by the hearer’s ear and brain. Of these three branches the articulatory phonetics is by far the most highly developed and the most widely discussed and applied, which is also the focus of this chapter.
语音学概述
语音学语音学phonetics语音学是语言学的一个分支。
研究人类语言声音的学科。
主要研究语言的发音机制，语音特性和在言谈中的变化规律。
由于它的研究内容关系到发音动作(生理现象)，语声特性（物理现象）以及听感（心理作用），而人类的不同语言集体各有自己的语音特点，因此现代语音学的研究需同时具备自然科学和社会科学的知识作为基础。
语音学(phonetics)一词在西方来源于希腊文嗞ων嬜τ忕κσs,意为声音。
早期研究范围比较广泛, 除研究语音特性外还包括语言的读音或拼音学、语音系统学等。
在中国传统音韵学研究中有关语音的描写和分类, 也都属于语音学的范畴。
但自近代科学的语音学发展以后,分类越来越细，定义也趋于严密，语音学就专指语音本身特点的研究了。
研究范围和对象早期的语音学研究多只为了语言教学的需要以及语言研究的兴趣。
近年来由于医疗器械的完善，人们能观测发音器官的动作和功能，就发展了生理语音学。
由于声学仪器的发展，从前许多只能耳听的语言现象现在不但可以目测，而且可以用人工来合成，于是有了声学语音学。
由于心理测验方法的改善，思维和听觉神经生理的研究日趋进步，言语控制、听觉反馈中的语音规律分析得越来越深入，又产生了感知语音学(或心理语音学)，并发展为神经语音学。
这是从研究手段来看的3大分支。
最近，由于信息时代的前进和人机对话的需要，孤立研究语音已不能满足要求。
因为人类的语言不是一个个孤立的音的缀合，而是一系列相互依存制约而且多变的音的串连,同时语言又离不开社会环境和个人语言习惯,研究语音不能离开特定语言的规律（包括语法、修词、音变等），于是又提出了语言学的语音学。
语音学的研究对象，传统上一般只限于元音、辅音、声调、重音以及节奏、音变等,这些都属于定性研究。
近来由于分析手段的进步和语音信息处理的迫切需要，又加强了语音韵律特征的综合研究和定量研究。
语音学的应用方面，近年来除教学和语言学研究外，已遍及与人的语言有关的各个学科，主要如：言语矫治、通信工程、自动控制、以及人工智能等方面。
语音学概述英文版【精选】
(2) Can we make sense of phonetic categories in terms of their underlying acoustic properties; e.g., (a)What acoustic properties do all the [t] sounds have in common (or [d] or [k] or [r] or ...)?
T3 T4
MaxOP
Mm
Байду номын сангаас
T2 T1
Mi
UL LL
2 cm
Big questions: (a) What movements are involved in making specific speech sounds; i.e., how is a /t/ made, how is an /s/ made, etc. (b) How are speech movements planned and controlled?
What is Phonetics?
Short answer: The study of speech sounds in all their aspects. Phonetics is about describing speech. (Note:
phonetics phonics)
Phonetic transcription just one aspect of this description.
(a) when the tongue moves from a position high in the mouth to a position lower in the mouth, how does the sound pattern change (and why)?
语言学phonology音韵学
The oral cavity(口腔): the mouth It contains the lips, teeth, teeth (alveolar) ridge (齿 龈/槽) tip of tongue, blade of tongue, front of tongue, back of tongue, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, epiglottis (会厌软骨). The nasal cavity (鼻腔): the nose Nasal resonance(共鸣) can be produced due to the lowering the soft palate (velum), resulting the production of nasals. The pharyngeal cavity/ pharynx ( 咽腔 ): between the top of the larynx (喉) and the soft palate) The throat (larynx) contains vocal cords/folds, ventricular folds （膨胀带）and glottis (the opening between the vocal cords), the movement of which determines the quality of voicing (voiced & voiceless(浊/ 清音) and pitch(音高).
Phonetics and phonology Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language, the speech sounds. But they approach the subject from two different points of view. Phonetics studies the production and characteristics of all possible speech sounds, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. It is general, descriptive and classificatory. Phonology is the study of sound systems of languages, which is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. It studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.
声学（Phonics），语音学（phonetics）还是音韵学（phonology）？有什么不同？
声学（Phonics），语音学（phonetics）还是音韵学（phonology）？有什么不同？2018-01-25发音教学是对所有教师的挑战。
它包括技术知识的雷区，英语口音和变体的困惑。
当涉及到阅读时，又要与数百年来英语所经历的许多复杂的拼写规则做斗争。
为了在课堂上正确掌握英语的发音，重要的是对发音机制的不同方面进行定义。
如果能够在不同层面上了解英语的发音，再结合教学目的，我们将有更广泛的教学选择。
首先，语音学（phonetics）是对人类语言的声音做的研究。
这意味着对地球上每种语言所产生的所有声音进行分类。
语音学在语言教学中唯一的方面就是学习者由于母语的声音干扰而认为比较难的声音。
思考一下学习者母语的声音有助于我们与英语的声音进行比较，并努力寻找一系列可能导致跨语言问题的目标声音。
相比之下，音韵学（phonology）是某一种特定语言的声音研究。
每种语言都有自己的一套声音（或音素），它们可以组合起来对该语言的任何词汇发音。
通过考察不同语言的音韵学（如上所述），我们可以思索为什么我们的学生在发出特定的英语中的声音方面有问题。
一个好的起点是在维基百科上搜索（语言）音韵学，例如，粤语或西班牙语。
查看不同语言音韵学的相似和差异可以帮助我们发现诸如“母语转移”这样的问题。
在这种情况下，学习者的母语中的声音转移到英语中，给听者带来实际问题（例如著名的日语和韩语人士的英语l / r 混淆：日语音韵学包含一个介于英语/ l /和/ r /声音之间的音素，所以如果声音显示为/ l /或/ r /，则没有实际意义上的差别。
这个假设被转化到英语，这意味着“长（long）”和“错（wrong）”这两个词之间的差异可能不会在学习者的英语学习中自动产生。
对学习者而言，另一个音韵学问题可能是英语声音的物理复杂性，这在学习者的母语中是不存在的。
例如，很少有语言中包含“th”的声音，例如“there”和“think”。
这些声音的形成方式，迫使空气通过舌头和牙齿是很费力的，甚至在某些文化中可能会被视为粗鲁（伸出舌头）。
音韵学问答
1、什么是音韵学？音韵学是我国一门传统的学问，它是研究汉语各个时期的语音系统和它们的历史演变规律的科学。
根据《中国大百科全书》的定义：也叫声韵学，在普通语言学里叫历史语音学，它是研究汉语史上的语音情况和它的发展的学科。
英文名为：Chinese historical phonetics。
2、汉语语音的发展历史可以分为哪四个时期？汉语语音的发展历史可以分为四个时期：上古音指先秦两汉时期的语音，以《诗经》音系为代表。
研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为古音学。
中古音指六朝至唐宋时期的语音，以《切韵》音系为代表，研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为今音学。
近古音指元明清时期的语音，以《中原音韵》为代表。
研究《中原音韵》所反映的北方话音系，是北音学。
现代音指现代的语音，以现代普通话音系为代表。
3、什么是等韵学？音韵学家把宋元以来的等韵图作为研究对象的学科称为等韵学。
他们以“等”的观念来分析汉语发音原理和方法，以韵图的形式展示汉语语音系统和韵书中的反切。
研究内容包括韵图的编撰，等韵学的原理等。
4、音韵学主要研究哪些内容？传统的古音学，今音学，等韵学和北音学，是音韵学研究的内容。
5、什么叫声母？又叫字母，声纽，纽，声，声类。
字母是声母的代表字，唐朝和尚守温制定了三十字母，宋代学者又增加了六个，补成了三十六个字母。
6、三十六字母是哪些？7、什么是五音、七音？音韵学上按照声母的发音部位把声母分唇，舌，齿，牙，喉五类，又加上半舌音，半齿音为七音。
（如上图）8、什么是反切？反切是一种传统的标音方法，较之譬况，读若，直音是较为科学的标音法。
反切的产生，北齐颜之推《颜氏家训·音辞篇》云：“孙叔言创尔雅音义，是汉末人独知反语，至于魏世，此事大行。
”（孙炎，字叔然，名炎）陆德明《经典释文》也说：“孙炎始为反语，魏朝以降渐繁。
”事实上，孙炎以前已有人使用反切了，如东汉服虔注《汉书》“惴，音章瑞反”。
孙炎对反切进行了整理，并编成了〖尔雅音义〗。
语言学-第二章语音学和音系学
[p]: [+BILABIAL] [-VOICE] *[+CONSONANT] 在下面的语音矩阵中，[ 在下面的语音矩阵中，[-NASAL] 也是 一个冗余特征 [p]: [+BILABIAL] [-VOICE] *[*[-NASAL]
2.2 音系学的基本概念 音系学 (phonology) 研究的是语音的记忆状 态和语音使用和组合成语言单位的规律。语音学 的分析对象是具体的语音或音素，而音系学的分 析对象则主要是音位(phoneme)。音位音位，听 析对象则主要是音位(phoneme)。音位音位，听 起来就像是与其相对的语音在大脑里的位置，是 具体语音的抽象表征或语音在大脑里的储存状态。 音位的存在依据，是音位之间已经内在化了的或 已经存入语用者记忆中的发音特征差异以及这些 发音差异所具有的辨义功能。也就是说，音位是 抽象的基本音系单位，代表的是与其对应的具体 语音或一类语音 (在有变音的情况下)，在话语产 在有变音的情况下) 生的过程中，音位便兑现成具体的语音。
由于不同的语音是从肺中压出的气流 在通过口腔的不同形状和舌头的不同 位置时用送气的不同方法形成的，鉴 定语音的性质时，就必须考虑发音的 方式和发音的位置。由于英语的字母 数量有限，语音学便制定了一套专门 的标音符号来标定语音或音位，如 [θ] 音素、/θ/ 音素、/θ/ 音位、等等，然后用语音特 征 (phonetic feature) 来描述或刻画各 种语音。
一般说来，前缀改变词根的意义而不 改变词性，而后缀改变词根的词性而 不改变意义，如在英语动词 agree 前 面加上前缀dis面加上前缀dis- 后构成的 disagree 复 合词语，虽改变了词根的意义但未改 变其词性。而在动词work 后加上变其词性。而在动词work 后加上-er 后得到的 worker，虽未改变原词根的 worker，虽未改变原词根的 意义但却改变了词性，因为组合词语 worker 变成了名词。
汉语音韵学常识
汉语音韵学常识2008-08-17 15:09一，音韵学概述1，音韵学的基本内容是我国一门传统的学问，它是研究汉语各个时期的语音系统和它们的历史演变规律的科学。
根据[中国大百科全书]的定义：也叫声韵学，在普通语言学里叫历史语音学，它是研究汉语史上的语音情况和它的发展的学科。
英文名为：Chinese historical phonetics。
汉语语音的发展历史可以分为四个时期：上古音指先秦两汉时期的语音，以《诗经》音系为代表。
研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为古音学。
中古音指六朝至唐宋时期的语音，以《切韵》音系为代表，研究这一时期的语音状况的学科为今音学。
近古音指元明清时期的语音，以《中原音韵》为代表。
研究《中原音韵》所反映的北方话音系，是北音学。
现代音指现代的语音，以现代普通话音系为代表。
音韵学家把宋元以来的等韵图作为研究对象的学科称为等韵学。
他们以“等”的观念来分析汉语发音原理和方法，以韵图的形式展示汉语语音系统和韵书中的反切。
研究内容包括韵图的编撰，等韵学的原理等。
传统的古音学，今音学，等韵学和北音学，是音韵学研究的内容。
2，音韵学的基本概念（1）声母又叫字母，声纽，纽，声，声类。
字母是声母的代表字，唐朝和尚守温制定了三十字母，宋代学者又增加了六个，补成了三十六个字母。
（2）五音，七音音韵学上按照声母的发音部位把声母分唇，舌，齿，牙，喉五类，又加上半舌音，半齿音为七音。
（3）反切是一种传统的标音方法，较之譬况，读若，直音是较为科学的标音法。
反切的产生，北齐颜之推《颜氏家训·音辞篇》云：“孙叔言创尔雅音义，是汉末人独知反语，至于魏世，此事大行。
”（孙炎，字叔然，名炎）陆德明《经典释文》也说：“孙炎始为反语，魏朝以降渐繁。
”事实上，孙炎以前已有人使用反切了，如东汉服虔注《汉书》“惴，音章瑞反”。
孙炎对反切进行了整理，并编成了〖尔雅音义〗。
反切是两字配合起来切出一个汉字的读音，分反切上字，反切下字和被切字。
语音学的英文版
Variation in temporal alignment: effects of vowel length
A second context known to give rise to variation in N duration is length of a preceding V.
Vowel Short V + Long N
~ Phonology: The co-variation between V and N in production and perception is consistent with widely attested phonological patterns.
Variation in temporal alignment
Central hypothesis
For several years, cross-language research on coarticulatory variation in our lab has been motivated by the expectation that the nasal (lowered velum) gesture is more stable than might appear from the vowel nasalization literature.
Variation in temporal alignment: effects of voicing
IKALANGA
V oral
VNCV voiced
V nasal N
VNCV voiceless
-
C
0 100 200 300 400
Duration (ms)
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Recommended literature on Phonetics
Ashby, Michael and John Maidment 2005. Introducing phonetic science. Cambridge: University Press. Catford, J. C. 2001. A practical introduction to phonetics. 2nd edition. Oxford: University Press. Clark, John, Colin Yallop and Janet Fletcher 2006. An introduction to phonetics and phonology. Third edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Cruttenden, Alan 2001. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. 6th edition. London: Arnold. Crystal, David 2002. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 5th edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Davenport, Mike and S. J. Hannahs 1998. Introducing phonetics and phonologyபைடு நூலகம் London: Arnold. Davis, John F. 2004. Phonetics and phonology. Stuttgart: Klett Verlag. Fry, Dennis B. 1979. The physics of speech. Cambridge: University Press. International Phonetic Assoc., 1999. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: University Press. Laver, John and William J. Hardcastle (eds) 1995. Handbook of phonetic sciences. Oxford: Blackwell. Ladefoged, Peter 2000. A course in phonetics. 4rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Ladefoged, Peter 2000. Vowels and consonants. An introduction to the sounds of languages. Oxford: Basel Blackwell. Wells, John C. 2006. English intonation. An introduction. Cambridge: University Press.
Recommended literature on Phonology
Carr, Philip 1999. English phonetics and phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Carr, Philip 2004. Phonology, nature, and mind. Oxford: University Press. Goldsmith, John 1996. The handbook of phonological theory. Oxford: Blackwell. Goldsmith, John (ed.) 1999. Phonological theory: The essential readings. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Gussmann, Edmund 2002. Phonology. Analysis and theory. Cambridge: University Press. Lacy, Paul de (ed.) 2006. The Cambridge handbook of phonology. Cambridge: University Press. McMahon, April 2001. An introduction to English phonology. Edinburgh: University Press. Odden, David 2005. Introducing phonology. Cambridge: University Press. Poulisse, Nanda 2000. Slips of the tongue. Speech errors in first and second language production. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Smith, Norval 2003. Phonology. The basics. Oxford: Blackwell. Wells, John C. 1982 Accents of English. Cambridge: University Press.